%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%88%A3%E2%86%80%E2%88%A3%F0%92%BE%A8%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%92%BE%A8%E2%88%A3%E2%86%80%E2%88%A3%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E1%B4%A5%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E1%B4%A5%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%E1%95%AD%E1%95%AE%E2%88%A3%E1%95%BC%E1%97%A9%F0%92%BE%A8%E1%97%A9%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%E2%88%A3%DF%A6%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%DF%A6%E2%88%A3%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%E1%97%A9%F0%92%BE%A8%E1%97%A9%E1%95%BC%E2%88%A3%E1%95%AD%E1%95%AE%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%EA%95%A2%E2%88%A3%E1%95%BC%E2%9C%BB%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%BB%E1%95%BC%E2%88%A3%EA%95%A2%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A2%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%DF%A6%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%A7%B2%D0%97%D4%90%E2%8A%99%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E1%91%8F%E2%88%A3%E1%A8%9F%E2%9C%A4%E1%95%BC%E2%88%A3%F0%96%A3%93%C8%8A%CC%AE%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%F0%92%BE%A8%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9C%A4%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%A7%BB%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%E2%A7%BB%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9C%A4%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%F0%92%BE%A8%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%C8%8A%CC%AE%F0%96%A3%93%E2%88%A3%E1%95%BC%E2%9C%A4%E1%A8%9F%E2%88%A3%E1%91%8F%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%8A%99%D0%97%D4%90%E2%A7%B2%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%DF%A6%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%EA%95%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/%F0%96%A3%A0%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%EA%95%A4%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%F0%9F%9E%8B%E2%9A%AA%F0%94%97%A2%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%EA%95%A4%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%F0%96%A3%A0/TXT.%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E1%99%818%EA%96%B48%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%EA%97%B3%E2%93%84%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E1%94%93%E1%94%95%E2%9C%A4%D0%98N%E1%97%A9%E1%99%81%DF%A6%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E1%99%81%E1%97%A9%D0%98N%EA%96%B4%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%EA%96%B4%E1%97%9D%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E1%99%8F%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%EA%97%B3%E2%93%84%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%9C%BB%E2%93%848%E1%97%9D%D0%98N%E1%97%A9%EC%98%B7%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%97%AF%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%97%AF%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%EC%98%B7%E1%97%A9%D0%98N%E1%97%9D8%E2%93%84%E2%9C%BB%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%93%84%EA%97%B3%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E1%99%8F%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E1%97%9D%EA%96%B4%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%EA%96%B4%D0%98N%E1%97%A9%E1%99%81%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%DF%A6%E1%99%81%E1%97%A9%D0%98N%E2%9C%A4%E1%94%93%E1%94%95%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%93%84%EA%97%B3%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%808%EA%96%B48%E1%99%81%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80.TXT


DUKE’S
HANDBOOK OF
Medicinal
Plants
OF THE
Bible
James A. Duke
with
Peggy-Ann K. Duke
Judith L. duCellie
Boca Raton   London   New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
8202_C000.indd   1 11/13/07   10:21:39 AM
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 334872- 742
© 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acidf- ree paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number1- 3: 978-0-8493-8202-4 (Hardcover)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted 
with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to 
publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of 
all materials or for the consequences of their use. 
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for 
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Library of Congress Catalogingi- nP- ublication Data
Duke, James A., 1929-
Duke’s handbook of medicinal plants of the Bible / James A. Duke.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8493-8202-4 (alk. paper)
1. Herbs in the Bible 2. Plants in the Bible. 3. HerbsT-- herapeutic use. I. Title. II. Title: Handbook of 
medicinal herbs of the Bible. 
BS665.D85 2007
220.8’58163--dc22 2007020177
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
8202_C000.indd   2 11/13/07   10:21:40 AM
Contents
Acknowledgments...........................................................................................................................vii
Introduction......................................................................................................................................ix
Author...............................................................................................................................................xi
Bibliographic.Abbreviations........................................................................................................ xiii
Chemical.and.Medical.Abbreviations.........................................................................................xvii
Hushpuppy......................................................................................................................................xix
Format.of.This.Book......................................................................................................................xxi
Catalog.of.“Faith-Based”.Farmaceuticals......................................................................................1
Cilician Fir (Abies cilicica (Antoine & Kotschy) Carrière) ++ Abietaceae .......................................1
Indian Gum Arabic Tree (Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile) ++ Fabaceae .................................2
Talh (Acacia seyal Delile.) ++ Fabaceae ...........................................................................................6
Biblical Acacia (Acacia tortilis ssp. raddiana (Savi) Brenan) ++ Fabaceae .....................................7
Corn Cockle (Agrostemma githago L.) + Caryophyllaceae ..............................................................8
Hollyhock (Alcea rosea L.) + Malvaceae ........................................................................................ 11
Camel’s Thorn (Alhagi maurorum Medik.) ++ Fabaceae ............................................................... 13
Onion (Allium cepa L.) +++ Liliaceae ............................................................................................. 16
Leek (Allium porrum L.) +++ Liliaceae .......................................................................................... 21
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) +++ Liliaceae .......................................................................................23
Aloe (Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f.) (Gel) ++ Aloeaceae (Liliaceae).......................................................30
Jointed Anabasis (Anabasis articulata (Forssk.) Moq.) + Chenopodiaceae ................................... 35
Rose-of-Jericho (Anastatica hierochuntica L.) ++ Brassicaceae ....................................................36
Windofl wer (Anemone coronaria L.) + Ranunculaceae ..................................................................37
Dill (Anethum graveolens L.) ++ Apiaceae .....................................................................................39
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula L.) + Asteraceae ................................................................................. 43
Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.) + Thymelaeaceae ..........................................................44
Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana P. Gaertn. et al.)++ Brassicaceae ............................................. 47
White Wormwood (Artemisia herba-alba Asso) ++ Asteraceae ....................................................50
Giant Reed (Arundo donax L.) + Poaceae ....................................................................................... 52
Tragacanth Milkvetch (Astragalus gummifer Labill.) +++ Fabaceae ............................................. 55
Sea Orache (Atriplex halimus L.) + Chenopodiaceae ..................................................................... 57
Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiacus (L.) Delile.) ++ Balanitaceae .................................................58
Frankincense (Boswellia sacra Birdw.) ++ Burseraceae ................................................................. 62
Black Mustard (Brassica nigra (L.) W. D. J. Koch ++ Brassicaceae ...............................................65
Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) + Buxaceae ..............................................................................69
Giant Milkweed (Calotropis procera (Willd.) Ait. X Asclepiadaceae............................................72
Caper Bush (Capparis spinosa L.) +++ Capparaceae ..................................................................... 76
Safofl wer (Carthamus tinctorius L.) +++ Asteraceae .....................................................................80
Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani A. Rich.) ++ Pinaceae................................................................84
Purple Star Thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa L.) + + Asteraceae .......................................................86
Spanish Thistle (Centaurea iberica Spreng.) ++ Asteraceae ..........................................................88
Syrian Scabious (Cephalaria syriaca (L.) Roem. & Schult.) + Dipsacaceae ..................................89
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) +++ Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) .......................................................90
Judas Tree (Cercis siliquastrum L.) ++ Fabaceae............................................................................93
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) +++ Fabaceae .................................................................................94
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Endive (Cichorium endivia L.) +++ Asteraceae ..............................................................................97
Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) +++ Asteraceae ..........................................................................100
Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum Nees) +++ Lauraceae ............................................................ 104
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) +++ Lauraceae ........................................................... 108
Ladanum (Cistus creticus L.) + Cistaceae ..................................................................................... 113
Colocynth (Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.) X Cucurbitaceae .................................................. 115
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai.) +++ Cucurbitaceae........................ 118
Citron (Citrus medica L.) ++ Rutaceae ......................................................................................... 121
African Myrrh (Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. ++ Burseraceae .....................................126
Balm of Gilead (Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr.) + Burseraceae .......................................128
Abyssinian Myrrh (Commiphora habessinica (O. Berg) Engl.) + Burseraceae ............................ 130
Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. and other spp.) ++ Burseraceae ................................. 131
Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) X Apiaceae .................................................................. 135
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) ++ Apiaceae ........................................................................ 138
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) ++ Iridaceae ...................................................................................... 143
Melon (Cucumis melo L.) +++ Cucurbitaceae ............................................................................... 148
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) ++ Cucurbitaceae ....................................................................... 151
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) +++ Apiaceae ............................................................................. 155
Italian Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) ++ Cupressaceae .................................................... 160
Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) +++ Zingiberaceae ........................................................................ 162
Palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) J.F. Watson) ++ Poaceae ............................................. 168
Maltese Mushroom (Cynomorium coccineum L.) ++ Balanophoraceae ....................................... 171
Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus L.) ++ Cyperaceae .............................................................................. 172
Ceylon Ebony (Diospyros ebenum Koenig.) + Ebenaceae ............................................................ 174
Coromandel (Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.) + Ebenaceae .......................................................... 176
Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia L.) ++ Elaeagnaceae........................................................ 178
Rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.) ++ Brassicaceae ................................................................................ 181
Galbanum (Ferula gummosa Boiss.) + Apiaceae .......................................................................... 185
Fig (Ficus carica L.) ++ Moraceae ................................................................................................ 187
Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus L.) + Moraceae .......................................................................... 191
Manna (from Fraxinus ornus L.) ++ Oleaceae .............................................................................. 194
Levant Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) + Malvaceae .............................................................. 197
Gundelia (Gundelia tournefortii L.) + Asteraceae ........................................................................ 201
English Ivy (Hedera helix L.) + Araliaceae ...................................................................................202
Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) ++ Poaceae .....................................................................................205
Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis name L.) + Liliaceae ................................................................. 210
Golden Henbane (Hyoscyamus aureus L.) X Solanaceae ............................................................. 212
Egyptian Henbane (Hyoscyamus muticus L.) X Solanaceae ......................................................... 213
Yellow Flag (Iris Pseudacorus L.) + Iridaceae .............................................................................. 214
English Walnut (Juglans regia L.) ++ Juglandaceae ..................................................................... 216
Soft Rush (Juncus effusus L.) ++ Cyperaceae ............................................................................... 221
Grecian Juniper (Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb) + Cupressaceae ......................................................224
Cade Juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus L.) + Cupressaceae ...............................................................226
Phoenician Juniper (Juniperus phoenicia L.) + Cupressaceae ......................................................228
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) ++ Asteraceae ...................................................................................229
Calabash Gourd (Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.) ++ Cucurbitaceae ................................. 233
Bay (Laurus nobilis L.) ++ Lauraceae ...........................................................................................237
Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) ++ Lythraceae ................................................................................ 241
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) +++ Fabaceae ................................................................................245
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White Lily (Lilium candidum L.) + Liliaceae ...............................................................................247
Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) +++ Linaceae ...............................................................................250
Storax (Liquidambar orientalis Mill and L. styraciflua L.) + + Hamamelidaceae ......................256
Darnel (Lolium temulentum L.) X Poaceae ...................................................................................259
Boxthorn (Lycium europaeum L.) + Solanaceae ...........................................................................260
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) +++ Rosaceae ........................................................................... 261
High Mallow (Malva sylvestris L.) +++ Malvaceae ......................................................................266
Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum L.) X Solanaceae ................................................................269
Wild Mint (Biblical Mint) (Mentha longifolia (L.) L.) +++ Lamiaceae ....................................... 273
Black Mulberry (Morus nigra L.) +++ Moraceae ......................................................................... 276
Myrtle (Myrtus communis L.) ++ Myrtaceae ................................................................................ 279
Daffodil (Narcissus tazetta L.) X Amaryllidaceae ........................................................................283
Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora DC.) ++ Valerianaceae ......................................................285
Watercress (Nasturtium officinal e R. Brown) ++ Brassicaceae ....................................................289
Oleander (Nerium oleander L.) X Apocynaceae ...........................................................................294
Black Cumin (Nigella sativa L.) ++ Ranunculaceae .....................................................................298
White Waterlily (Nymphaea alba L.) +++ Nymphaeaceae ...........................................................303
Olive (Olea europea L.) ++ Oleaceae ............................................................................................306
Olive Oil (Olea europea L.) +++ ...................................................................................................309
Lebanese Oregano (Origanum syriacum L.) +++ Lamiaceae ....................................................... 311
Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogallum umbellatum L.) + Liliaceae ................................................... 312
Christ’s Thorn (Paliuris spina-christi Mill.) + Rhamnaceae ........................................................ 315
Sea Daffodil (Pancratium maritimum L.) + Amaryllidaceae ....................................................... 316
Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) ++ Poaceae .................................................................................. 317
Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) (+++ Seeds) (XXX Opium) Papaveraceae ....................320
Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) +++ Arecaceae ..................................................................... 325
Common Reed (Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Stead.) ++ Poaceae .................................... 329
Calabrian Pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) +++ Pinaceae ......................................................................... 332
Aleppo Pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) ++ Abietaceae ................................................................... 334
Stone Pine (Pinus pinea L.) + Abietaceae ..................................................................................... 335
Mount Atlas Mastic (Pistacia atlantica Desf.) ++ Anacardiaceae................................................ 337
Mastic (Pistacia lentiscus L.) ++ Anacardiaceae .......................................................................... 339
Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus L.) ++ Anacardiaceae .................................................................. 341
Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) +++ Anacardiaceae ........................................................................... 343
Oriental Plane Tree (Platanus orientalis L.) ++ Platanaceae ........................................................345
White Poplar (Populus alba L.) ++ Salicaceae .............................................................................348
Euphrates Poplar (Populus euphratica Oliv.) ++ Salicaceae ......................................................... 350
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) ++ Rosaceae ................................................................................ 352
Almond (Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb) ++ Rosaceae ............................................................. 355
Red Sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus L. F.) ++ Fabaceae .....................................................360
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) +++ Punicaceae ................................................................... 362
Tabor Oak (Quercus ithaburensis Decne) ++ Fagaceae ................................................................ 367
Asian Buttercup (Ranunculus asiaticus Auth.) + Ranunculaceae .................................................369
White Broom (Retama raetam Forssk.) Webb & Berthel.) + Fabaceae ........................................ 371
Palestine Buckthorn (Rhamnus palaestinas Boiss.) + Rhamnaceae ............................................. 373
Castor (Ricinus communis L.) + Euphorbiaceae............................................................................ 374
Dog Rose (Rosa canina L.) +++ Rosaceae ....................................................................................380
Madder (Rubia tinctorium L.) X Rubiaceae ..................................................................................384
Biblical Bramble (Rubus sanctus Schreb.) +++ Rosaceae.............................................................386
Sheep Sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.) ++ Polygonaceae ..................................................................388
Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus aculeatus L.) ++ Ruscaceae ................................................................. 391
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Fringed Rue (Ruta chalepensis L.) + Rutaceae .............................................................................394
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) +++ Poaceae ...................................................................397
Glasswort (Salicornia europea L.) ++ Chenopodiaceae ...............................................................402
Willow (Salix acmophylla Boiss.) ++ Salicaceae ..........................................................................404
Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica L.) + Salicaceae ....................................................................409
Brittle Willow (Salix fragilis L.) + Salicaceae ............................................................................... 411
Common Saltwort (Salsola kali L.) ++ Chenopodiaceae .............................................................. 413
Peelu (Salvadora persica L.) ++ Salvadoraceae ............................................................................ 415
Thorny Burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum (L.) Spach ++ Rosaceae .............................................. 418
Costus (Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch) ++ Asteraceae .............................................................. 419
Lake Rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris (L.) Palla.) + Cyperaceae .................................................. 422
Golden Thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.) ++ Asteraceae .............................................................. 423
Alexandrian Senna (Senna alexandrina Mill.) + Fabaceae (Caesalpiniaceae) ............................424
Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.) +++ Asteraceae .................................................. 428
Charlock (Sinapis arvensis L.) + Brassicaceae .............................................................................. 433
Vine of Sodom (Solanum anguivi Lam.) + Solanaceae ................................................................. 436
Bitter-apple (Solanum incanum L.) ++ Solanaceae ....................................................................... 438
Broomcorn (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.) ++ Poaceae .............................................................440
Benzoin (Styrax benzoin Dryander.) ++ Styracaceae ....................................................................444
Storax (Styrax officinalis L.) ++ Styracaceae ................................................................................447
Sea Blite (Suaeda spp.) ++ Chenopodiaceae. ................................................................................449
Salt Cedar (Tamarix aphylla (L.) H. Karst.) ++ Tamaricaceae ..................................................... 451
Dandelion (Taraxacum offi cinale G.H. Weber ex Wigger f.) +++ Asteraceae ............................. 453
Sandarac (Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl) Mast.) + Cupressaceae.................................................... 459
Bean Caper (Tetraena dumosa (Boiss.) Beier & Thulin) + Zygophyllaceae ................................. 461
Shaggy Sparrowwort (Thymelaea hirsuta (L.) Endl.) X Thymelaeaceae .....................................462
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) +++ Fabaceae ..........................................................463
Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) +++ Poaceae ..................................................................................468
Tulip (Tulipa spp.) + Liliaceae ....................................................................................................... 472
Cattail (Typha spp.) +++ Typhaceae .............................................................................................. 474
Hairy Elm (Ulmus canescens Melv.) ++ Ulmaceae ...................................................................... 478
Nettle (Urtica dioica L.) +++ Urticaceae ......................................................................................480
Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash ex Small) +++ Poaceae ..................................................485
Laurestinus (Viburnum tinus L.) + Caprifoliaceae ........................................................................490
Faba Bean (Vicia faba L.) ++ Fabaceae ......................................................................................... 491
Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) +++ Vitaceae ..........................................................................................496
Spiny Cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum L.) + Asteraceae...............................................................502
Spiny Zilla (Zilla spinosa (L.) Prantl.) ++ Brassicaceae ...............................................................505
Syrian Christthorn (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Willd. ++ Rhamnaceae ......................................506
Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) + Zosteraceae .................................................................................508
Ref.erences. ..................................................................................................................................... 511
Common.Name.Index .................................................................................................................. 521
Scientific.Name.Index .................................................................................................................. 523
8202_C000.indd   6 11/13/07   10:21:44 AM
Acknowledgments
For mysterious reasons, this third of my biblical undertakings has required the patience of Job. And 
for their patience, I am indeed grateful to Barbara Norwitz, my publisher, Jill Jurgensen, senior 
project coordinator, and Karen Simon, project editor, for tolerating some idiosyncrasies I introduced 
in 2007, 30 years after my first publication with CRC Press. But Jobian patience has been required 
by Judi duCellier, my associate for those same 30 years; Peggy Duke, my wife and illustrator, as we 
creep and creak to our 50th wedding anniversary; and Mary Jo Bogenshutz-Godwin, another long-
time associate and frequent co-author. Mary Jo has patiently helped in many ways, especially in 
getting occasional updates to my USDA phytochemical database, and moving us closer to a Duke’s 
Handbook of Medicinal Herbs of Latin America.
8202_C000.indd   7 11/13/07   10:21:44 AM
8202_C000.indd   8 11/13/07   10:21:44 AM
Faith-Based Farmaceuticals: 
Introduction
With the accelerating decline of my long-enjoyed good health, I lose faith more and more each year 
in the pharmaceutical firms of America. It is clear that they wield incredible and potentially cor -
rupting power. I have little faith in the pharmaceutical firms’ desire to see a healthy America. I see 
them promoting multiple-pills-a-day regimens, to be taken for life, and not necessarily promoting 
health. Their side effects sometimes outweigh any health advantages they offer. But I gain faith each 
year in the natural farmaceuticals in the Green Farmacy Garden. While I consider myself both a 
naturalist and a spiritualist, I have strayed from the Southern Baptists who introduced me to religion 
before I was old enough to have a questioning mind. Mine is still a questioning mind! Turning 78 
on April 4, 2007, I still envy those who believe, without doubt. I wish I did! Surely I so wish, if 
they are right! Maybe even if they are wrong! They are less likely to worry themselves to death. I am 
also impressed with gfi ures suggesting that 90 to 95% of Americans resort to prayer in illness. If 
they believe, they are much more liable to be helped. If they believe more in the healing power 
of their acupuncturist, chiropractor, herbalist, homeopath, naturopath, orthopedist, or even their 
minister or shaman, than they do in their allopathic physician, there is a good chance that, with the 
power of mind/body synergy, those non-allopathic modalities are more likely to succeed than the 
allopathic modality. Yes, I am saying that with many people, believing is more liable to cure than 
is allopathy. And those same people, reading that our many Biblical foods are menus of medicinal 
phytochemicals, from which their bodies can selectively mine those needed by the ailing body, are 
more liable to be helped by using the biblical food farmacy.
Many of us have come to believe my earlier published statistics that pharmaceuticals kill a thou-
sand times more Americans than herbs. The famous Gary Null and a few others even say that phar-
maceuticals are bigger killers than cancer, cardiopathy, diabetes, or stroke. And, it is easy to see that 
the newest, most expensive, and most advertised pharmaceuticals are among the most dangerous. 
Yes, shortly after Phase 3 clinical trials and final FDA approval, the pharmaceutical firms get their 
marketing efforts into gear with the permeating message, “Ask your physicians if New Drugs A, B, 
C and W, X, Y are right for you,” simultaneously giving free samples to the allopaths to encourage 
you to take the new drug. And off go their drug reps to reward the allopaths with more than free 
samples — training seminars in romantic places, where they will learn most of the positives about 
the new drug and few of the negatives. Before you know it, you are taking Drug Z for the side 
effects of Drug A. You, the American Public, are induced into what I call Phase 4 “Cynical Trials,” 
in which half of the new pharmaceuticals will be relabeled, with stronger warnings, or partially or 
completely recalled within a decade. Meanwhile, more expensive pharmaceuticals will continue 
to cause many more deaths than are caused by the safe herbs we are led to believe are dangerous. 
They are not! Check the Bextra, Celebrex, and Vioxx stories, and soon-to-be-heard statin stories 
(three close friends of mine, too old to be worried about cholesterol, have been hospitalized because 
of using statins), and head counts of iatrogenic fatalities. The Null numbers: The total number of 
annual iatrogenic deaths in America is 783,936.(Null et al., 2003).
Remember that pharmaceuticals have been with us less than 150 years. If our ancestors left 
Africa via the Holy Land 2000 years ago (for faith-based literalists), maybe a million years ago 
(for the less literal), then our genes, tracing back to our African/Holy Land ancestors, have had at 
least ten times more temporal experience with biblical herbs (e.g., cinnamon, coriander, cumin, 
dill, garlic, grape, mint, milk thistle, myrrh, olive, onion, pomegranate, saffron, turmeric, and 
8202_C000.indd   9 11/13/07   10:21:45 AM
the like). Pharmaceuticals and synthetic food additives are relatively new to our genes. Our bod-
ies have had thousands, perhaps millions, of years of evolutionary experience with the thousands 
of phytochemicals in these edible species. Our bodies may even require many of them. In many 
cases, I will wager but cannot prove, the body has evolved homeostatic mechanisms for maintain-
ing homeostatic balances for these phytochemicals. Our body can sequester them from our dietary 
milieus if we need them, excreting them if we do not. We can prove this for simple elemental 
chemicals such as selenium and zinc. I will also wager that homeostatic balancing activities exist 
for hundreds of many, long-familiar dietary components. We just assigned an RDA for choline in 
the past decade. The further we get from our paleolithic diet and, more importantly, the more syn-
thetic pharmaceuticals and food additives we ingest, the more liable we are to suffer imbalances. It 
is not only food additives that hurt us; it is the subtractives as well. The subtractive phytochemicals 
are those important nutrients reduced or lost in food processing. Most of the value in whole grains 
is lost in the processing (e.g., some of the minerals such as copper, iron, manganese, selenium, and 
zinc, and vitamins such as B , B , B , B , B , E, and folic acid).
1 2 3 5 6
Restoring chemical balance may require getting back to basics, those primitive paleolithic foods 
rich in phytonutrients. At the same time, we should reduce our consumption of over-processed, 
nutrient-poor junk foods, avoiding additives and even pharmaceuticals where possible and plausible. 
I am not saying that there is no place for pharmaceuticals, but I will say that in many cases there 
are balanced Biblical foods that are pharmacologically competitive with unbalancing pharmaceu-
ticals, and these food farmaceuticals should be drugs of first resort, the pharmaceutical of last 
resort. And if you believe more in me and my Biblical food farmaceutical shotgun than you believe 
in your allopath and her/his expensive pharmaceutical silver bullets, then there is a better chance 
that my natural approach will help you. Believing is half the cure. Can you believe in a company 
whose 2-billion-dollar-a-year drug was shown in the Journal of the American Medical Association 
(JAMA) back in 2002 to be no better than a placebo for major depression. Can you believe that, now 
4 years later, that company still has the premier lead-off ad page for JAMA touting the $2-billion-
a-year drug as so trusted, so reliable, so efcafi cious? I suspect you would be better off with Biblical 
walnut oil and Biblical saffron, nourishing and medicating your body, attenuating the depression 
with few, or no, consequential side effects. Ask your congress person to insist on a new third-arm 
trial comparing Zoloft with walnut oil/hypericum/saffron, a triple-whammy food-farmaceutical 
antidepressant. If you count all the possible side effects reported in the fine print of that ad for the 
$2-billion-a-year pharmaceutical, you will count more than a hundred. When that study was pub-
lished back in 2002 showing the pharmaceutical as no better than placebo, almost nobody heard 
that the drug failed, too. The news was instead blaring out that “St. John’s wort no better than pla-
cebo.” True St. John’s wort (SJW) fared no better than placebo in this clinical comparison of SJW, 
Zoloft, and the placebo. But that is the half of the story that Joan Q. Public heard a thousand times, 
maybe once or twice hearing that the pharmaceutical also failed. Do I think there is a pharmaceuti-
cal/FDA/press conspiracy? I will say that they are all singing the same song, and the song is wrong, 
thus hurting Americans. Their monotonous song drives American consumers from the safer food, 
herb, and spice farmaceuticals to the more expensive, more dangerous synthetic pharmaceuticals 
— all this at the expense of our health and the health of our planet. Even our rivers and lakes — and 
consequently our water supply— are now cocktails of pharmaceutical residues.
That bit of antidepressant news was so depressing that I resorted to song writing as alternative 
therapy. I like to remind people of the failure of the press to report the real news back in 2002.
8202_C000.indd   10 11/13/07   10:21:45 AM
About The Author
James.A..“Jim”.Duke,.Ph.D., economic botanist and ethnobotanist, retired after a full career with 
the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, Beltsville, MD) in 1995. After “retiring,” 
he served 5 years as senior science adviser with Nature’s Herbs. Although he has been retired for 
more than a decade, the USDA still maintains his Phytochemical Database online at http://www.
ars-grin.gov/duke. He has published more than 30 books dealing with herbs, economic botany, and 
ethnobotany. For the past 5 years, he has taught medical botany as distinguished lecturer with the 
master of sciences program in herbal medicine at the Tai Sophia Institute, Laurel, Maryland. With 
an aggregate of 6 years in Latin America, he still leads ethnobotanical trips. In 2007, for example, 
he took one group to the Amazonian rain forest, accompanied by his Amazonian Ethnobotanical 
Dictionary (Duke, J.A. and Vasquez Martinez, R., 1994. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 215 pp.). He 
also led a group to Costa Rica in 2007, accompanied by his Tico Ethnobotanical Dictionary (online 
at the USDA Phytochemical Database and an updated version of his Isthmian Ethnobotanical Dic-
tionary, first published, 1971). For the 16th year, he led a week-long efi ld course in ethnobotany in 
coastal Maine. He often hosts tours of his own Green Farmacy Garden in suburban Maryland, with 
some 300 medicinal herbs.
A Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the University of North Carolina (Chapel Hill), where he also 
attained his Ph.D., Duke was elected as distinguished alumnus 50 years later. He was appointed 
honorary president of the Herb Society of America for 2007.
8202_C000.indd   11 11/13/07   10:21:45 AM
8202_C000.indd   12 11/13/07   10:21:46 AM
Bibliographic Abbreviations
The following is a listing of the books and journals frequently consulted for this book.
AAB = Arvigo and Balick (1993)
AAH = Allen and Hatefi ld (2004)
ABS = Abstract
ACT = Alternative & Complementary Therapies
AEH = De Smet et al. (1997)
AH2 = McGuffin et al. (2000)
AHL = Liogier (1974)
AHP = McGuffin et al. (1997)
AKT = Tillotson et al. (2001)
APA = Peirce (1999)
AUS = Austin (2004)
AVP = Arsene (1971)
BAT = Batanouny (1981)
BEJ = Bejar (2001)
BGB = Blumenthal et al. (2000)
BI2 = Duke (1999)
BIB = Duke (1983)
BIS = Bisset (1994)
BMD = Montague-Drake (1997)
BNA = Balick et al. (2000)
BO2 = Boik (2001)
BOI = B oik (1995); and for fuller citation, Cancer & Natural Medicine, Oregon Medical 
Press, Princeton, MN, 315 pp. (= BOI)
BOU = Boulos (1983)
BOW = Bown (2001)
BRU = Bruneton (1999)
BUR = Jacobs and Burlage (1958)
CAN = Newall et al. (1996)
CEB = Erichsen-Brown (1989)
CJE = Earle (http://www.botanik.uni-bonn.de/conifers/)
COX = Newmark and Schulick (2000)
CR2 = Duke et al. (2002[[a)
CRC = Duke (1985)
CRH = Consumer Reports on Health
CWW = Wright (2002)
DAA = Duke and Ayensu (1985)
DAD = Duke and duCellier (1993)
DAS = Davies and Stewart (1990)
DAV = Duke and Vasquez (1994)
DAW = Duke and Wain (1991)
DEM = Moerman (1998)
DEP = Watt (1889–1892)
DLZ = De Lucca and Zalles (1992)
EAS = Eastman (1992, 1995, 2003)
8202_C000.indd   13 11/13/07   10:21:46 AM
EB = Economic Botany
EFS = Steinmetz (circa 1957)
EGG = Egg (1999)
EMP = Economic and Medicinal Plant Research
FAC = Facciola (1998)
FAD = Foster and Duke (1990)
FAH = Foster and Hobbs (2002)
FAY = Foster and Yue (1992)
FEL = Felter and Lloyd (1898)
FFJ = Flavor and Fragrance Journal
FNF = Father Nature’s Farmacy online database: http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
FP1 = Zohary (1966)
FP2 = Zohary (1972)
FP3 = Feinbrun-Dothan (1978)
FT = Fitoterapia
GAZ = Skenderi (2003)
GHA = Ghazanfar (1994)
GMH = Grieve (1931)
GMJ = Grenand et al. (1987)
GOO = Google search
HC = Herb Clips (American Botanical Council)
HDN = Neuwinger (1996)
HEG = Hegnauer (1962–1997)
HG = HerbalGram
HH2 = Hansel et al. (1992, 1993, 1994)
HH3 = Blaschek et al. (1998, 1998)
HHB = List and Hohammer (1969–1979)
HJP = Philips (1958)
HOC = Tyler (1994)
HOE = Duke (1983)
HOO = Tyler (1985)
HOS = Duke et al. (2002[[b)
IED = Duke (1986)
IHB = Burkill (1966)
JAC = The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine
JAD = James A. Duke, personal communication
JAF = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
JAH = Journal of the American Herbalists Guild
JAR = The International Journal of Aromatherapy
JBH = Harborne and Baxter (1983)
JEB = Journal of Ethnobotany
JFM = Morton (1977, 1981)
JLH = Hartwell (1982)
JMF = Journal of Medicinal Food
JN = Journal of Nutrition
JNP = Journal of Natural Products
JNU = Joseph et al. (2001)
KAB = Kirtikar and Basu (Reprint 1975)
KAL = Koch and Lawson (1996)
KAP = Kapoor (1990)
KC2 = Huang (1999)
8202_C000.indd   14 11/13/07   10:21:46 AM
KJV = King James Version of the Bible
KOM = Blumenthal et al. (1998)
LAF = Leung and Foster (1995)
LAW = Lawson (1996)
LEG = Duke (1981)
LIB = Libster (2002)
LMP = Perry (1980)
LRNP = Lawrence Review of Natural Products, looseleaf; periodically updated
LWW = Little et al. (1974)
M29 =  Martindale; The Extra Pharmacopoeia (29th edition). The Pharmaceutical Press, 
London  (1989), 1930 pp.
MAB = Mills and Bone (1999)
MAM = Miller and Murray (1998)
MAX = Martinez (1969)
MKK = Kaul (1997)
MPB = Mors et al. (2000)
MPG = Gupta (1995)
MPI = ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) (1976, 1987)
MZN = Martin et al. (1961)
NAD = Nadkarni (1976)
NH = Barbara Grant or Grace Lyn Rich, Nature’s Herbs; personal communication
NMH = Humphrey (2003)
NP = Natural Products
NPM = Manandhar (2002)
NR = Nutrition Reviews
NUT = Duke (1989)
NWT = New World Translation of the Bible
ORAFTI = Newsletter Number 9 of ORAFTI
PAM = Pizzorno and Murray (1985)
PAY = Palevitch and Yaniv (2000)
PCS = Standley (1920–1926)
PDB = Phytochemical Database, http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/
PED = Pedersen (1998)
PER = Mark Dafforn, personal communication
PH2 = Gruenwald et al. (2000)
PHM = Phytomedicine
PHR = Fleming et al. (1998)
PIP = Schilcher (1997)
PJB = Protocol Journal of Botanical Medicine
PM = Planta Medica
PNC = Williamson and Evans (1989)
POR =  Porcher’s Australian Nomenclature Database, http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au
PR = Phytotherapy Research
PST = Press et al. (1994)
RAR = Rutter (1990)
RCP = Revista Cubana de Plantas Medicinales
RIN = Rinzler (1990)
RIZ = Rizk (1986)
ROE = Roersch (1994)
RSV = Revised Standard Version of the Bible
RyM = Roig y Mesa (1928)
8202_C000.indd   15 11/13/07   10:21:46 AM
SAR = Schultes and Raffauf (1990)
SAY = Stamets (and Yao) (2002)
SF = Foster (1996)
SHT = Schulz et al. (1998)
SKJ = Jain and deFilipps (1991)
SKY = Lininger et al. (1998)
SOU = Soukup (1970)
SPI = Charalambous (1994)
SUW = Suwal (1976)
TAD = Tucker and Debaggio (2000)
TAN = Tanaka (1976)
TGP = Duke (1997)
TIB = Kletter and Kriechbaum (2001)
TMA = Time-Life, Editors (1996)
TOM = Tommy Bass; in Crellin and Philpott (1990)
TRA = Germosén-Robineau (TRAMIL) (1997)
ULW = Coe and Anderson (1999)
UPH = Uphof (1968)
UPW = Burkill (1985–1995)
USN = USDA Nomenclature Database, http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/tax/taxgenform.html.
VAD = García et al. (1998) (Vadmecum)
VOD = Beauvoir et al. (2001)
VVG = Van Wyk et al. (1997)
WAF = White and Foster et al. (2000)
WAM = White and Mavor (1998)
WBB = Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962)
WHO = World Health Organization (1999)
WI3 = Wichtl (2004)
WIC = Wichtl (1984)
WIN = Kindscher and Hurlburt (1998)
WOI = CSIR (1948–1976)
WO2 = CSIR (1985)
WO3 = CSIR (2000)
X as prefix followed by several numbers = PubMed reference citation (e.g., X123456)
YAB = Yaniv and Bachrach (2005)
ZOH = Zohary (1982)
ZUL = Hutchings et al. (1996)
8202_C000.indd   16 11/13/07   10:21:47 AM
Chemical and Medical Abbreviations
Most of the miscellaneous abbreviations relate to chemistry, medicines, and dosages, but there are 
some other abbreviations used in a similar table in Duke et al. (2002a).
ADD = Attention decfi it disorder
AHPA = American Herbal Products Association
ALA = Alpha-linolenic acid
APA = American Pharmaceutical Association
BO = Body odor
BPC = British Pharmacopoeia
BPH = Benign prostatic hypertrophy
CDC = Centers for Disease Control
cf.  = Compare with
CNS = Central nervous system
COPD = Chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder
COX = Cyclooxygenase
COX-I = C yclooxygenase-inhibitor (sometimes, more specicfi ally COX -1 or COX-2-inhibitor)
cv  = Cultivar
CVI = Chronic venous insufcfi iency
ED = Erectile dysfunction
ED50 =  Effective dose at which 50% of subjects are “cured,” “effected,” “affected,” or 
“altered”
e.g. = For example
EO = Essential oil
ERT = Estrogen replacement therapy
etc. = Et cetera
f  =  Folklore, not yet substantiated (following parentheses in “Activities” and 
“Indications”  sections)
g  = Gram
GI  = Gastrointestinal
GLA = Gamma-linolenic acid
GMO = Genetically modiefi d organism
GRAS = Generally recognized as safe
h (as an abandoned score for an activity or indication) = Homeopathic
H2O2 = Hydrogen peroxide
HCN = Hydrocyanic acid
hmn = Human
HPS = Hepatopulmonary syndrome
IBD = Inafl mmatory bowel disease
IBS = Irritable bowel syndrome
IC  = Inhibitory concentration
IKKbeta = IkappaB-kinase-beta
iNOS = Inducible nitric oxide synthase
ipr  = Intraperitoneal
ivn = Intravenous
l  = Liter
8202_C000.indd   17 11/13/07   10:21:47 AM
LD50 = Lethal dose at which 50% of experimental population is killed
LDlo = Lowest reported lethal dose
MAOI = Monoamine oxidase inhibitor
MBC = Minimum bactericidal concentration
MDR = Multi drug resistant
mg = Milligram
MIC =  Has been used by different sources differently = Minimum Inhibiting Concentration 
or Mean Inhibiting Concentration
ml  = Milliliter
MLD = Minimum lethal dose; mean lethal dose
mM = Millimolar
MRSA = Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus
mus = Mouse
NCI = National Cancer Institute
NO = Nitric oxide
ODC = Ornithine-decarboxylase
OPC = Oligomeric procyanidins
ORAC = Oxygen radical absorbance capacity
orl  = Oral
oz  = Ounce
PMS = Premenstrual syndrome
ppm = Parts per million
PSA = Prostate-specic afi ntigen
rbt  = Rabbit
scu = Subcutaneous
SF  = Stephen Foster
SHBG = Sexual hormone binding globulin
SLE = Systemic lupus erythematosus
SOD = Superoxide dismutase
Tbsp = Tablespoon
TCM = Traditional Chinese medicine
tsp  = Teaspoon
µl  = Microliter
µM = Micromolar
UTI = Urinary tract infection
viz. = Videlicet
Vol = Volume
X  = S olitary X in the title line of the herb following the scientic fi name means “don’t 
take it without advice from an expert.” Think of it as a skull-and-crossbones; X 
followed by serial number = PMID (PubMed ID number)
ZMB = Zero moisture basis
8202_C000.indd   18 11/13/07   10:21:47 AM
Hushpuppy
The Sad Saga of ST. John
—.Jim.Duke
(Performed at Tai Graduation, June 2004; AHG, October 9, 2004)
I remember that sad day
In the year 2002
When I heard the TV say
St. John ain’t good for you
I reckon they forgot
What you really oughta know
Two billion bucks of Zoloft
Placed second to placebo
And they also forgot
The good Doctor Cott
The first one to outline
The study design
But after Cott was gone
The design it was redrawn
With no redeeming graces
They took on basket cases.
They forgot the good St. John
Was the German’s number one
With better Deutsche direction
They take John for their depression
What’s the story we were fed
By our US Institute
They misled us instead
Saying herbs they ain’t “sehr gut”
Our NInstitutes of Health
Misleads us local yuppies
They rob health to pay off wealth
Their studies are “hushpuppies”
And the press in all its wisdom
Missed one important score
St. John reduced orgasm
But Zoloft reduced it more
Hushpuppy
A most depressing tune
Hushpuppy
8202_C000.indd   19 11/13/07   10:21:48 AM
Keep howling at the Moon
St. John
Ain’t you groaning in your grave
Pray John
Make the NIH behave
They muted the real news
The placebo beat the pill
But the news gave me the blues
Like liars always will
They forgot to tip us off
What I think we all should know
Two-billion-dollar Zoloft
Was poorer than placebo
That’s what really was the news
Hope that everybody knows
Zoloft did really lose
Outdone by mere placebos
So I’m plowing up my herbs
They’re much too hard to grow
Gonna move out to the suburbs
And grow me some placebo
Hushpuppy
A most depressing tune
Hushpuppy
Keep howling at the Moon
Hushpuppy
Did you want the herb to lose?
Your study
Was really just a ruse 
St. John
Ain’t you groaning in your grave
Pray John
Make the NIH behave
—.Anonymous,.2002
8202_C000.indd   20 11/13/07   10:21:48 AM
Format of This Book
It is only natural that a believer in evolution would have an evolving format. The current format 
has evolved from my CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs, 2nd edition, which had evolved from my 
public domain Father Nature’s Farmacy, online at the USDA. There are some new features here.
Lead.Line: The lead line for each species remains pretty much the same. Common name 
— (Scientific name Author) followed by an X, a +, ++, or +++ representing the rather 
subjective safety scores, as in the past (X = don’t take it, + = OK but probably not as safe 
as coffee, ++ = OK and probably as safe as coffee, and +++ = OK and probably safer than 
coffee); then the taxonomic family to which the species belongs. Family names are always 
in capital letters and end in “ACEAE.” Like allopaths, health announcers, and reporters, 
I reserve the right to change my mind as new information comes in, positive or negative. 
I assembled this information, based on the published literature — no prescription implied 
or intended.
Synonyms: The next line may list some outdated synonyms, scientic fi names that at some 
time in the past also have been applied to this species.
Notes: The NOTES paragraph almost always begins with biblical quotes from various trans-
lations of the Bible (KJV = King James Version; RSV = Revised Standard Version, NWT 
= New World Translation). It is amazing how many uncopyrighted versions of the Bible in 
many languages are available on the Internet. And it is amazing how often the plant names 
(usually underlined in the quotation) are differently translated in the various versions. 
After these quotes follows a concise paragraph or two commenting on points of interest.
Common.Names: Here I have compiled many, but by no means all, common names, often 
aggfl ed as to language or country of origin. First comes a name in alphabetical order 
with a parenthetical citation of the country and/or language name or abbreviation. The 
country/language names/abbreviations always have the initial letter capitalized and sub-
sequent letters in lowercase. These are followed by three-letter abbreviations (all capital 
letters) of the source(s), sometimes supplemented by journal citations or PubMed abstracts 
preceded by an X, to tell readers where I found these names. Sometimes one of the refer-
ences, most frequently KAB, will list more than a hundred common names, from various 
parts of India and elsewhere, including dozens of Sanskrit names. In some such cases, I 
took at least one name from that source from each country or language. Few users will 
want to study all these common names unless it is a country they plan to visit. With an 
electronic version of the database, they could generate the names pertinent to the country 
they plan to visit. Often, the name itself will tell something about the plant or its medicinal 
uses. I have elected to use the standardized common names (Scn.) endorsed by the Ameri-
can Herbal Products Association (AH2) as the pivotal common name in the lead line for 
the entry. Occasionally, AH2 would offer an optional alternative common name, which I 
have abbreviated Ocn. (= other common name). Where there was no standardized com-
mon name, I often use the abbreviation Nscn. (= no standardized common name). In such 
cases, not uncommon in this biblical edition, I have consulted the USDA nomenclaturists 
and their database, trying to ensure that they and I will agree, and this might later inufl -
ence the American Herbal Products Association should they decide to add some of these 
to a revised edition of their standardized common name book. With these common names 
8202_C000.indd   21 11/13/07   10:21:48 AM
aggfl ed with geographic and linguistic handles, skillful database managers can readily 
print out mini-medicinal floras for many countries.
Activities: Following the common name paragraph are the activities reported for the herb, 
followed by a parenthetical scoring of the level of the efcafi cy of that activity. I have a sub -
jective four-score evaluation of the efcafi cy of the activities f = strictly folklore; 1 = some 
animal, epidemiological, in vitro, or phytochemical studies support the efcafi cy (I actually 
feel that in many cases f may be better than 1); 2 = extracts of plant approved by Com-
mission E, by the TRAMIL Commission, or demonstrated by human clinical trials; and 
a very rare 3 = herb itself clinically proven in human trials. If there is folkloric data (f), 
and animal or phytochemical support (1), and clinical proof for extracts or the rare clini-
cal proof for the herb itself (3), as occasionally happens, e.g. with garlic, the efcafi cy score 
would read f123. Our computer programs can then print out the best scoring herbs for a 
given activity or indication. These efcafi cy scores are referenced like the common name, 
by three-letter abbreviations of my major sources in capital letters, and/or PubMed citation 
numbers preceded by X, and/or occasional shorthand journal citations.
Indications: Following the ACTIVITIES are the INDICATIONS reported for the herb, fol-
lowed by a parenthetical scoring of the level of the efcafi cy of that indication. I have the 
same subjective efcafi cy scores f = folklore; 1 = some supporting animal, epidemiological, 
in vitro, or phytochemical studies; 2 = approved by Commission E, or the TRAMIL Com-
mission, or proved in human clinical trials for simple herbal extracts; and a very rare 3 = 
herb itself clinically proven in human trials. Combinations of these four scores can appear, 
especially when many sources have been consulted. Not all sources consulted are cited but 
I attempt to cite my new source succinctly when the score goes up or down. These scores 
are referenced by three-letter abbreviations of my major sources, and/or PubMed serial 
citation numbers preceded by X, and/or an occasional shorthand journal citation. Occa-
sionally, trying to reference every activity and indication, I have to resort to bibliographic 
shorthand; hence, there will be a cryptic journal citation (especially of journals not cov-
ered by PubMed), with an abbreviation for the journal, followed by the volume number and 
the page number, as in my CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. Some examples are:
EB12:368 = Economic Botany, Vol. 12, p. 368.
FT67:215 = Fitoterapia. Vol. 67, p. 215.
ACT9:251 = Journal Alternative & Complementary Medicine, Vol. 9, p. 251.
Dosages: This entry has evolved signicafi ntly since CR2, the CRC Handbook of Medicinal 
Herbs (2nd edition, 2002). First, I have added a third scoring element for the food farmacy 
potential of the plant. FNFF stands for Father Nature’s Food Farmacy. Here is the FNFF 
scoring pattern:
FNFF = X = I found nothing credible suggesting the plant as food.
FNFF = ? = Very questionable survival food.
FNFF = ! = Survival food or little known but locally important; not in United States 
supermarkets.
FNFF = !! = Important food in some parts of world; not in major supermarkets.
FNFF = !!! = Important enough in the world to be in many United States supermarkets.
Following the food farmacy score, there will be dosages from various sources using the same 
reference citations. Then there will be folkloric bullets suggesting how various countries and ethnic 
groups report using the plant. With this new FNFF scoring, my computer can rank the herbs for 
safety, efcafi cy, and food farmacy potential. In these litigious days, I feel safer recommending food 
farmacy to friends and family. I think food farmacy should be the first line of attack when a simple 
new medical problem arises.
8202_C000.indd   22 11/13/07   10:21:48 AM
Downsides: Under this heading I often report contraindications, interactions, and side effects, 
just as in the CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs (Edition 2, 2002).
Natural.History: Because of my increasing interest in zoopharmacognosy and natural his-
tory, I added this cubbyhole to permit inclusion of pertinent facts on the natural history. 
Which animals are using it besides us?
Extracts: Here I try to include news on chemicals or extracts of the plant that have 
proven effects.
8202_C000.indd   23 11/13/07   10:21:49 AM
8202_C000.indd   24 11/13/07   10:21:49 AM
Catalog of “Faith-Based” 
Farmaceuticals
CILICIAN FIR (Abies cilicic A (ANto INe & Kots Chy) 
CARRIèRe) ++ ABIet ACeAe
Notes (Cili Cia N Fir ):
The beams of our house are cedar, and our rafters of fir .
Song of Solomon 1:17 (KJV)
The beams of our house are cedar, our rafters are pine.
Song of Solomon 1:17 (RSV)
The beams of our grand house are cedars, our rafters juniper trees.
Song of Solomon 1:17 (NWT)
Off to a taxonomic bad start. What do you think? What timber was used in the rafters, fir as in 
KJV, pine as in RSV, or juniper as in the NWT? In this exceptional case, each version has its own 
rendering for the plant name underlined. No one can say for sure which version is correct. There are 
no voucher specimens. You will hear me lament that fact many times. And even today, the names 
fir, juniper, and pine mean different things to different people. If I include them all, I will have 
more tentative species in my faith-based herbal here. Zohary (1982) lists Abies cilicica, Cupressus 
sempervirens, and Juniperus excelsa as candidates for the word berosh, found more than 30 times 
in the scriptures, and interpreted to mean coniferous trees with small scale-like or short linear 
leaves rather than pine-like needles. Amazingly, he concludes by considering berosh a collective 
name for all three. Perhaps not so amazing; we have popular scrub oak and scrub pine concepts that 
are suprageneric here in the United States, and our English word conifer embraces more kinds of 
gymnosperms than Zohary’s berosh. When Zohary encountered berosh associated with the word 
for Lebanon or erez, he thinks they mean Abies cilicica, which grows in Lebanon mixed with cedar. 
“The great timber negotiations between King Solomon and Hiram of Tyre undoubtedly included 
this outstanding species of Lebanese tree, whose southernmost limit of distribution is today the vi-l
lage of Slenfe (at a latitude of about 3°4 North)”. Jane Philips (1958) noted that the tree still occurred 
near Beirut and Tripoli. Private growers of the trees said they were used for medicine, the resin used 
for cough medicines and salves. Twigs or dried leaves were boiled up in cough syrups. To prepare 
the salve, leaves were ground up in a mortar to apply to wounds. Algerians are said to sprinkle 
powdered leaves in butter as a vulnerary (Philips, 1958).
Commo N Names (Cili Cia N Fir ):
Berosh (Eng.; BIB); Cilician Fir (Eng.; USN); Cilicische Tanne (Ger.; USN); Nscn.

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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
a Ctivities (Cili Cia N Fir ):
Antiseptic (1; X11962214); Bactericide (1; X10548751); Vulnerary (f1; BIB; X10548751).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cili Cia N Fir ):
Bacillus (1; X10548751); Bacteria (1; X10548751); Cough (f1; BIB; X10548751); Enterobacter (1; 
X10548751); Escherichia (1; X10548751); Infection (1; X11962214); Klebsiella (1; X10548751); 
Listeria (1; X10548751); Mycobacterium (1; X10548751); Proteus (1; X10548751); Pseudomonas (1; 
X10548751); Staphylococcus (1; X10548751); Wound (f1; BIB; X10548751).
d osages (Cili Cia N Fir ):
FNFF = ?
• Algerians are said to sprinkle powdered leaves in butter as a vulnerary (BIB).
• Lebanese use the resin or leaf/twig decoction in cough syrups and wound salves (BIB).
INDIAN GUM ARABIC t Ree (Ac Aci A nilotic A 
(L.) WILLD. ex DeLILe) ++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd.; Acacia vera Willd.; Mimosa arabica Lam.; Mimosa nilotica L.
Notes (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he 
looked, and behold, the bush burned with fire, yet it was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (KJV)
And the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he 
looked, and lo, the bush was burning, yet it was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (RSV)
Then Jehovah’s angel appeared to him in a flame of fire in the midst of a thornbush. As he kept look-
ing; why, here the thornbush was burning with the fire, and the thornbush was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (NWT)
In my first Bible book, I side with the Moldenkes, who concluded that the burning bush was an 
Acacia. But the NWT renders it thornbush. Zohary (1982) argues convincingly that the plant called 
sneh should be translated Senna, not Acacia nilotica as Moldenke and Tristam concluded, oRr ubus 
as other scholars had concluded. Why? BecausAe cacia nilotica and Rubus do not occur on the 
Sinai. He concludes that “the most plausible explanation for sneh is Cassia senna named sene in 
all Arabic-speaking countries.” The taxonomic name has changed tSo enna alexandrina, but sene 
persists in most Arabic quarters. However, I still include the Acacia. If the burning bush was thorny, 
as inferred only in the NWT above, then it cannot be Cassia senna.
At the crossroads of the African, Asian, and European continents, the Holy Land serves as 
the bridge from Africa through Egypt, to Asia and Europe. Thus, the medicinal wisdom of the 
early Arabs, Copts, Hebrews, and Moslems assume great importance because of their empirical 
8202_C001.indd   2 11/12/07   2:19:42 PM
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
antiquity. The scriptures tell us that Abraham’s grandson Jacob immigrated into Egypt when he 
learned that his long-lost son Joseph was prospering there. And that led to what I will call the 
Jacobian exchange (introduction of middle-eastern species to Egypt), almost two millennia before 
the Colombian exchange (mixing the ofl ra of the old and new worlds). Jacob’s stay was said to be a 
400-year odyssey, so he took with him saplings of certain Acacias not native to Egypt. The upright 
frames of the tabernacles were to be built of Acacias (BI2). Which Acacia can be argued for eons. 
Thus, man has been moving species around for millennia, sometimes obscuring their true nativity. 
Some scholars equate this Acacia with the thornbush of Exodus, equating the fire with the parasite 
Loranthus acaciae. Roasted seed kernels provide a dye for black strings worn by Nankani women.
Commo N Names (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
Abadonui (Dahomey; KAB); Acacia (Eng.; CR2); Acacia d’Egypte (Fr.; BOU); Ajabaksha (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Akakia (Arab.; Iran; NAD); Ammughilam (Arab.; NAD); Amraya (Mauritania; UPW); Amur 
(Mauritania; Sahara; KAB); Amura (Mali; UPW); Australian Wattle (Eng.; NPM); Babal (Guj.; 
NAD); Babbar (Sin.; KAB); Bablia (Guj.; KAB); Babboola (Sanskrit; MPI); Babbuli (Kan.; KAB); 
Babhul (Mar.; KAB); Babhula (Bom.; Mar.; Sin.; KAB; NAD); Babla (Beng.; Hindi; Pun.; KAB; MPI; 
NAD); Babli (Mun.; KAB); Babola (Mal.; KAB; NAD); Babul (Eng.; Mah.; Nepal; Kum.; Kon.; Urdu; 
CR2; KAB; NAD; SUW); Abadanui (Dahomey; UPW); Babul Acacia (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Babulla 
(Ayu.; AH2); Babulo (Oriya; KAB); Babur (Nasirabad; Sibi; KAB); Bagana (Bambara; Ivo.; Malinki; 
KAB; UPW); Bagaruwa (Hausa; Kano; Sokoto; KAB); Bambolero (Lambadi; KAB); Bamura 
(Jubbulpore; KAB); Bani (Baraba; Surai; KAB); Bara Na (Fulah; KAB); Barbara (Sanskrit; NAD); 
Barbaramu (Tel.; KAB; NAD); Bauni (Kan.; NAD); Baval (Porebunder; KAB); Bebned (Wolof; 
KAB); Black Babul (Eng.; KAB; WO2); Boina (Wassula; KAB); Bois d’Arariba Rosa (Fr.; KAB); 
Diabbe (Sarakolet; KAB); Egyptian Acacia (Eng.; BOU); Egyptian Thorn (Eng.; BOU; UPW); Espi-n
heira Preta (Port; Guinea-Bissau; UPW); Gabaruwa (Zaria; KAB); Gabur (San.; KAB); Gambia Pods 
(Eng.; UPW); Gaodi (Peuhl; Tuculor; KAB); Garad (Niger; Nig.; UPW); Gaudi (Gambia; UPW); 
Gobli; (Mysore; KAB); Gomma da India (Por.; KAB); Gommier d’Egypte (Fr.; BOU); Gommier 
Rouge (Fr.; BOU; UPW); Gorzia (Ghana; UPW); Gum Arabic (Eng.; SUW); Gurti (Arab.; BOU); 
Huanlongkyain (Burma; KAB); Indian Gum Arabic Tree (Eng.; Scn.; AH2); Iramangandam (Tam.; 
KAB); Jali (Kan.; NAD); Kala Babli (Mah.; NAD); Kalikikar (Dec.; NAD); Kaloababal (Guj.; MPI; 
NAD); Kambani (Bobo; Uper Volta; UPW); Kara (Togo; UPW); Karat (Arab.; GHA); Karemugilan 
(Iran; NAD); Karijali (Kan.; MPI; NAD); Karuvael (Tam.; NAD); Karuvelakam (Mal.; KAB); Ka-ru
velum (Mal.; Tam.; NAD); Kharemughilam (Iran; KAB); Kikar (Beng.; Hindi; Pun.; Rendli; KAB; 
NAD); KôBè (Guinea; UPW); Kommi (Greek; KAB); Kusatregon (Gurma; KAB); Nallatumma (Tel.; 
MPI; NAD); Qarad (Arab.; BOU); Qarat (Arab.; GHA); Red Thorn (Eng.; UPW); Sak (Kas.; Pun.; 
NAD); Sake (Marke; KAB); Sant (Arab.; BOU); Scorpion Mimosa (Eng.; UPW); Shameeruku (Kon.; 
MPI; NAD); Shittim (Heb.; KAB); Shoka Masrya (Arab.; BOU); Shoka Qibttya (Arab.; BOU); Siludi 
(Fulah; KAB); Tamak (Tuareg; KAB); Tulh (Arab.; Dho.; Oman; GHA); Tuma (Tel.; NAD); Unmugh-
ilam (Arab.; KAB; NAD); Vabboola (Sanskrit; NAD); Vabbula (Sanskrit; NAD).
a Ctivities (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Algicide (1; ZUL); Amebicide (1; ZUL); Analgesic (1; X8982438); Anthelmintic 
(f; KAB); Antiaggregant (1; X9251908); Anticarcinogenic (1; WO3; X12616620); Antiedemic (1; 
X8982438); Antihepatitic (1; PR14:510); Antihistaminic (1; ZUL); AntiHIV (1; X10189947); Anti-
hypertensive (1; X10594935); Anti-inafl mmatory (f1; X8982438); Antimalarial (1; X10479756); 
Antimutagenic (1; WO3; X12616620; X11850969); Antiplasmodial (1; X10479756); Antiplatelet 
(1; X9251908); Antioxidant (1; X11837686); Antiseptic (1; WO3); Antispasmodic (1; X10594935); 
Antitussive (f; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; KAB; MPI; ZUL); Astringent (f; GMH; PH2; SUW); Bacter-i
cide (1; ZUL; X15476301); Calcium-Antagonist (1; X9251908); Chemopreventive (1; X11850969); 
Decongestant (f; BIB; EB22:173); Demulcent (f; BIB; DEP; SUW); Expectorant (f; KAB; MPI; 
8202_C001.indd   3 11/12/07   2:19:42 PM
 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Indian Gum Arabic Tree (Acacia nilotica).
NAD); Fungicide (1; WO3); HCV-Protease Inhibitor (1; PR14:510); Hemostat (f; DEP; NAD); Hepa-
totonic (f; KAB); Hypertensive (1; X10594939); Hypoglycemic (1; ZUL); Hypotensive (f1; BOU; 
ZUL; X10594935); Lactagogue (f1; BIB; UPW; 15283686); Mastogenic (1; X15283686); Mollu-s
cicide (1; ZUL); Neurostimulant (f; BIB; UPW); p-Glycoprotein Inhibitor (1; X12748979); Plas-
modicide (1; X10479756); Protease Inhibitor (1; X11054840); Protisticide (1; ZUL); Spasmogenic 
(1; X10594939); Stimulant (f; BIB); Taenicide (1; ZUL); Teratologic (f; ZUL); Tonic (f; DEP; SUW); 
Vasoconstrictor (1; X10594939).
iNdi Catio Ns (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
Alopecia (f; WO3); Ameba (f1; BOU; ZUL); Aphtha (f; NAD); Ascites (f; KAB); Asthma (f; WO3); 
Bacteria (1; X15476301); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; BIB; NAD); Boil (f; GHA); Bronchosis 
8202_C001.indd   4 11/12/07   2:19:46 PM
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
(f; KAB; WO3); Burn (f; SKJ; WO3); Cancer (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); Cancer, eye (f; JLH); 
Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, testes (f; JLH); Cataract (f; GHA); Catarrh 
(f; GHA; HH2); Childbirth (f; DEP); Chill (f; ZUL); Cholecystosis (f; BIB; EB22:173); Cholera (f; SKJ; 
WO3); Cold (f; GHA); Colic (f; KAB); Condyloma (f; BIB); Congestion (f; BIB); Conjunctivosis (f; 
DEP; NAD); Cough (f; DEP; KAB; NAD); Cramp (f; BOU); Cystosis (f; DEP); Dermatosis (f; BOU; 
WO3); Diabetes (f1; BOU; DEP; GHA; SUW; WO3; ZUL); Diarrhea (f; GHA; GMH; PH2; SUW); 
Dysentery (f; BIB; DEP; SUW); Dyslactea (1; X15283686); Dyspepsia (f; ZUL); Dysuria (f; KAB); 
Edema (1; X8982438); Enterosis (f1; DEP; X15476301); Fever (f; BIB; BOU; UPW); Flu (1; FNF); 
Fracture (f; KAB); Fungus (1; WO3); Gastrosis (f; DEP); Gingivosis (f; BOU; DEP; PH2); Gono-r
rhea (f1; DEP; KAB; ZUL); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB; KAB; PH2); Hepatosis (f1; BIB; WO3; PR14:510; 
X11054840); High Blood Pressure (f1; BOU; ZUL); HIV (1; X10189947); Hypersalivation (f; DEP); 
Impotence (f; NAD; UPW); Induration (f; BIB; JLH); Infection (1; WO3; ZUL; X15476301); Inflam -
mation (1; PH2; X8982438); Insanity (f; KAB); Leprosy (f; KAB); Leukoderma (f; KAB); Leukorrhea 
(f; DEP; NAD); Menorrhagia (f; DEP); Micromastia (1; X15283686); Mucososis (f; PH2); Mycosis 
(1; WO3); Odontosis (f; PNC); Ophthalmia (f; BIB; JLH; KAB); Orchosis (f; BIB); Otosis (f; BIB; JLH); 
Pain (1; X8982438); Pharyngosis (f; KAB; PH2); Pneumonia (f; ZUL); Prolapse (f; NAD); Proctosis (f; 
DEP; UPW); Puerperium (f; DEP); Pulmonosis (f; ZUL); Salmonella (1; X15476301); Sclerosis (f; BIB; 
JLH); Smallpox (f; BIB); Snakebite (f; DEP); Sore (f; DEP; UPW); Sore Throat (f; DEP; SUW; WO2); 
Spermatorrhea (f; KAB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (f; ZUL); Stomachache (f; UPW); Sto-
matosis (f; DEP; PH2; UPW); Strangury (f; KAB); Swelling (f1; GHA; X8982438); Syphilis (f; BIB; 
WO3); Toothache (f; GHA; UPW; ZUL); Tuberculosis (f; BIB; UPW); Typhoid (f; BIB); Urethrosis 
(f; KAB); Urogenitosis (f; NAD); Uterosis (f; DEP; KAB); Vaginosis (f; KAB; PH2); Venereal Disease 
(f1; DEP; NAD; X11483371); Virus (1; X11054840); Worm (1; ZUL); Wound (f; UPW).
d osages (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
FNFF = !!
Tender young pods eaten as vegetable; ripe seed kernels roasted and eaten, made into wine (TAN); gum 
used in confectionary (TAN). Tender pods and shoots used as vegetable, and to stimulate milk pr-o
duction. Roasted seed kernels sometimes used for afl voring; the raw seed is good animal feed. (BIB). 
Konkani make candy by drying the gum with butter, spices, and balling up with sugar (KAB).
• Arabs inhale smoke from burning pods for cold (GHA).
• Arabs soak crushed seeds overnight in water or fresh milk and drink for diabetes (GHA).
• Asian Indians use bark juice in mother’s milk as eyedrops for conjunctivosis (NAD).
• Asian Indians fry gum in ghee for impotence (NAD).
• Asian Indians consume the gum (not converted to sugar) for diabetes (NAD).
• Asian Indians gargle the leaf decoction for gingivosis, sore throat (NAD).
• Asian Indians take pulped leaves for diarrhea and dysentery, anally or orally (NAD).
• Ayurvedics consider the bark alexipharmic, anthelmintic, astringent, and use it for as-ci
tes, biliousness, bronchosis, burning sensations, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dysuria, 
leukoderma, and piles (KAB).
• Egyptian Nubians believe diabetics can take high carbohydrate foods as long as they 
regularly take powdered pods (BOU).
• Guinea natives take gum/resin for chest and throat ailments, dysentery, and eye problems 
(KAB).
• Konkani take one tola of leaves with four mashas cumin, two tolas sugar, eaten or drunk 
with milk for bloody spermatorrhea (KAB).
• Masai use bark as aphrodisiac and neurotonic (UPW).
• Nigerians suck the gum for oral ulcers (UPW).
• Omani mix resin with egg white as collyrium for cataracts (GHA).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Rajputanans bruise the leaves to apply to sore eyes in children (KAB).
• Senegalese chew antiscorbutic bark and take bark tea for diarrhea, dysentery, and to-oth
ache (UPW).
• Unani consider the leaves astringent, cerebrotonic, febrifuge, hepatotonic, and useful for 
gonorrhea, leukoderma, and strangury (KAB).
• Unani consider all parts of the plant aphrodisiac (KAB).
d ow Nsides (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
None covered (AHP, KOM). Large internal doses may lead to constipation and dyspepsia (PH2).
Natural History (iNdia N g um a rabi C t ree):
Older shrubs are very important in diet of impala and kudu (X15278425). Lac insects often occur 
on the tree, with resultant production of lac resin and shellac (BIB).
t ALh (Ac Aci A sey Al DeLILe.) ++ FABACeAe
Notes (t al H):
I will plant in the wilderness… the Shittah tree.
Isaiah 41:19 (KJV)
I tend to side with Zohary, who identiefi d the shittah as Acacia tortilis (q.v.). Still, according to Walker 
(1957), the Shittah tree is mentioned in the Bible only once but its wood is referred to many times as 
shittim, which is the plural of shittah in Hebrew. It was natural for Moses to turn to shittim to build 
the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle. No one is sure which species oAf cacia was meant.
Commo N Names (t al H):
‘Alk (Arab.; BOU); Abre à Gomme (Fr.; BOU); Buffalo Thorn (Eng.; UPW); Bulkia (Gambia; 
UPW); Daci (Niger; UPW); Dedera èl Beida (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Goga (Ghana; UPW); Gomme F-ri
able (Fr.; UPW); Gum Talha (Eng.; Trade.; AH2); Mimosa Epineux (Fr.; UPW); Sadra Bed (Arab.; 
Mauritania; UPW); Sasé (Upper Volta; UPW); Seyal (Arab.; BOU); Seyal Acacia (Eng.; FAC); S-hit
tah Tree (Eng.; BOU); Shittim Tree (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BOU); Sittim Wood (Eng.; FAC); Suakim 
(Trade; UPW); Talca (Ocn.; AH2); Talakh (Ber.; BOU); Talh (Scn.; AH2); Tamat (Ber.; BOU); Te fi
(Ber.; BOU); Teleh (Arab.; Mali; UPW); Thala (Ber.; BOU); Thirsty Thorn (Eng.; BOU; UPW); 
Thirty Thorn (Eng.; USN); Tutampolel (Nig.; UPW); Whistling Tree (Ocn.; AH2); Whistling Wood 
(Eng.; USN); White Galled Acacia (Eng.; UPW); White Whistling Thorn (Eng.; UPW).
a Ctivities (t al H):
Analgesic (f; BOU); Aphrodisiac (f; UPW); Astringent (f; UPW); Diuretic (f; UPW); Emollient 
(f; UPW); Febrifuge (f; UPW); Hemostat (f; UPW); Insectifuge (f; UPW); Pediculifuge (f; UPW); 
Stimulant (f; UPW).
iNdi Catio Ns (t al H): 
Biliousness (f; UPW); Aphrodisiac (f; UPW); Bleeding (f; UPW); Burn (f; UPW); Cancer (f1; UPW); 
Cold (f; BOU); Conjunctivosis (f; UPW); Diarrhea (f; UPW); Dysentery (f; UPW); Enterosis (f; 
DAW); Fever (f; BOU; UPW); Gastrosis (f; BOU); Gonorrhea (f; UPW); Headache (f; UPW); Impo-
tence (f; UPW); Inafl mmation (f; BOU); Jaundice (f; UPW); Leprosy (f; UPW); Lice (f; UPW); Oph -
thalmia (f; UPW); Pain (f; BOU; UPW); Puerperium (f; BOU); Respirosis (f; BOU); Rheumatism (f; 
BOU; UPW); Snakebite (f; UPW); Syphilis (f; UPW); Ulcer (f; BOU); Venereal Disease (f; UPW).
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d osages (t al H):
FNFF = !!
The tree yields a good quality gum (but inferior to that of A. senegal); said to be edible (BIB; BOU; 
FAC; UPW).
• Ivory Coastals mix with Acacia sieberana for intestinal ailment (BIB).
• Masai consider the bark a stimulant, giving bark infusion to feverish children (UPW).
• Nigerians use the wood smoke against insects, lice, etc. (UPW).
• North Africans use wood smoke as a fumigant for rheumatic pain, and to protect mothers 
against colds and fever 2 weeks after parturition (BOU).
• North Africans use the edible gum for respiratory inafl mmations and rheumatism, the 
bark and leaves for gastric ulcers (BOU).
• Senegalese mix powdered root with hedgehogs’ ventral parts as an aphrodisiac (UPW).
• South Africans mention the gum’s use as an emollient and astringent for colds, diarrhea, 
hemorrhage, and ophthalmia (WBB).
• Sudanese direct smoke from the heartwood toward rheumatic pain; the women appreciat-
ing the aroma and reddish color it imparts to their skin (UPW).
• Sudanese mix concentrated bark decoction with butter for conjunctivitis and headache 
(UPW).
• Tanganyikans use the bark as a stimulant (BIB), taking the root for gonorrhea (UPW).
Natural History (t al H):
Phlebotomus orientalis, the vector of visceral leishmania in the Sudan, is typically associated 
with Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca vegetation (X11370250). As with many Acacias, the 
sweet-scented ofl wers attract bees (UPW). Swellings at the base of the thorns are called ant-galls, 
and, when hollow, are invaded by ants; the hollowed growths sometimes whistle in the wind (UPW). 
Like many Acacia species, seeds of this one are subject to predation by bruchid beetles (X8169432). 
Birth seasons of some monkeys appear to be timed to availability of surplus energy and protein. 
Patas monkeys’ high locomotive ability may enable them to obtain more energy from seeds of 
Acacia seyal and gums of A. sieberiana, and more protein from grasshoppers and seeds of A. seyal 
in the mid-dry season than the tantalus monkeys. Availability of seeds during the dry season may 
exert the dominant inufl ence on timing of birth not only in patas, but also in savanna monkeys (Cer-
copithecus aethiops), which include the tantalus monkeys (X11132111).
extra Cts (t al H):
Ethanolic extract reduces tumors (UPW).
BIBLICAL ACACIA (Ac Aci A tortilis ssp. rA ddi An A 
(sAv I) BReNAN) ++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Acacia raddiana Savi
Notes (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
And you shall make upright frames for the tabernacle of acacia wood.
Exodus 26:15 (RSV)
Zohary is convinced that the “common acacia” is the most correct identicatfi ion of the shittah whose 
wood was used in constructing the Tabernacle. He argues that the other native species — A. albida, 
A. laeta, A. negevensis, and A. tortilis — neither conform as well to the scriptural text, nor are they 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
so suitable for construction. According to Zohary, A. albida and A. laeta are absent in the Sinai, 
where the Israelites wandered. A. negevensis and A. tortilis are either unsuitable for construction 
or are rare in the Sinai. Of 24 biblical references to shittim, 19 are to the acacia tree and 5 to places 
associated with the tree. The Arabic word sunt designates acacia in Arabia, Egypt, and southern 
Israel. Zohary argues that sunt is the linguistic equivalent of the Hebrew shittah (ZOH).
Commo N Names (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
Abser (Ber.; BOU); Abzac (Ber.; BOU); Aluki (Mali; UPW); Cilluki (Upper Volta; UPW); Faux 
Gommier (Fr.; UPW); Gommier de Tunisie (Fr.; BOU); Hares (Arab.; BOU); Samr (Nig.; UPW); 
Sayal (Arab.; BOU); Seyal (Niger; UPW); Shittah (Heb.; ZOH); Somer (Arab.; Yemen; X15890471); 
Sunt (Arab.; Egypt; ZOH); Tadjdjart (Ber.; BOU); Tahi (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Talh (Arab.; BOU); 
Talha (Arab.; Mauritania; UPW); Tamat (Ber.; BOU); Tihi (Ber.; BOU).
a Ctivities (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
Antidote (f; UPW); Antiedemic (f; UPW); Antiseptic (f; BOU); Aphrodisiac (f; UPW); Astringent 
(f; BOU); Febrifuge (f; UPW); Vulnerary (f; BOU; UPW).
iNdi Catio Ns (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
Allergy (f; UPW); Avitaminosis (f; UPW); Convulsion (f; UPW); Dermatosis (f; UPW); Diarrhea 
(f; BOU); Edema (f; UPW); Enterosis (f; X15890471); Fever (f; UPW); Gastrosis (f; X15890471); 
Hepatosis (f; BOU); Impotence (f; UPW); Infection (f; BOU); Jaundice (f; BOU); Ophthalmia (f; 
BOU); Pulmonosis (f; BOU); Wound (f; BOU).
d osages (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
FNFF = !
In times of scarcity, pods and seeds may be eaten by humans (UPW).
• Bambara in Mali make a draught from young plants with Piliostigma for convulsions 
(UPW).
• Guinea and Senegal natives use powdered bark to dust on dermatosis and as vermifuge 
(UPW).
• North Africans dissolve the gum in water for jaundice, ophthalmia, and pulmonosis (BOU).
• Senegalese take bark infusion for fever (UPW).
• Senegalese poultice the leaves with cowpea leaves onto allergic skin conditions and 
edema (UPW).
Natural History (bibli Cal a CaCia ):
All the PubMed abstracts relate not to medicine, but to the symbiotic rhizobial bacteria associated 
with the roots. In Israel, the tree is host to a bruchid beetle Caryodon gonagra, which is a pest of 
stored groundnuts in Africa (UPW).
Co RN Co CKLe (Agrostemm A g ith Ago L.) + CARyophy LLACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Lychnis githago Scop.
Notes (Cor N Co Ckle ):
If my land cry against me … Let thistles grow instead of wheat and cockle instead of barley.
Job 31:40 (KJV)
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
FIGURe . Corn Cockle (Agrostemma githago).
This weed, rarely encouraged for its attractive ofl wer, is more often regarded as a poisonous weed 
of wheat. In the United States, it is declared a noxious weed seed in Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, 
Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, Mississippi, 
North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, and West Virginia.
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Commo N Names (Cor N Co Ckle ):
Bolderik (Dutch; EFS); Corn Campion (Eng.; GMH); Corn Cockle (Eng.; EFS); Corn Pink (Eng.; 
GMH); Darnell (Eng.; GMH); Gerzeau (Fr.; EFS); Gith (Eng.; GMH); Githage (Eng.; GMH); Gi-t
taione (It.; EFS); Karamuk (Tur.; EFS); Kornrade (Ger.; EFS); Lolium (Eng.; JLH; GMH); Mazze-t
tone (It.; EFS); Neguillon (Sp.; EFS); Nielle des Blés (Fr.; EFS); Nigela dos Trigos (Por.; EFS); 
Nigella (Eng.; GMH); Raden (Ger.; JLH); Ray (Eng.; GMH); Tare (Eng.; GMH); Yetón (Arg.; EFS); 
Zizany (Eng.; GMH).
a Ctivities (Cor N Co Ckle ):
Anesthetic (1; CRC); Antileukemic (1; X11408934); Antimitogenic (1; X11255109); Antimycotic 
(1; PH2); Antiproliferant (1; X11408934); Antiviral (1; X11408934); Apoptotic (1; X11408934); 
Bacteriostat (1; CRC; WO2); Cytotoxic (1; X14648395); Diuretic (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Embryotoxic 
(1; X11453369); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Expectorant (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Hemolytic (1; 
HH2); Hypotensive (1; WO2); Narcotic (1; WO2); Ribosome-inactivator (1; X11408934); Toxic (f1; 
PH2; WO2); Vermifuge (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Vulnerary (1; FNF).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cor N Co Ckle ):
Aposteme (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer (f; CRC); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cough (f; PH2); Dermatosis 
(f; PH2); Dropsy (f; CRC; GMH); Edema (f; JLH; PH2); Exanthemata (f; CRC; WO2); Infection (1; 
HH2); Fungus (1; HH2); Gastrosis (f; BIB; CRC; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; CRC; WO2); Induration (f; 
JLH); Jaundice (f; CRC; EFS; GMH; WO2); Leukemia (1; X11408934); Mycosis (1; HH2); Paralysis 
(f; BIB; CRC); Swelling (f; JLH; PH2); Tumor (f; CRC); Uterosis (f; JLH); Virus (1; X11408934); 
Wart (f; JLH); Worm (f; BIB; PH2); Wound (1; FNF).
d osages (Cor N Co Ckle ):
FNFF =?
Young leaves “used as a vegetable with vinegar and bacon for emergency food” (FAC). Home-o
pathic only (HH2; PH2).
• Germans burned seeds until black and applied them to cancer (JHL).
d ow Nsides (Cor N Co Ckle ):
No health hazards known in conjunction with proper administration of designated homeopathic 
dosages (PH2). Seed toxic, 2–3 g considered harmless to humans, over 5 g potentially lethal; signs 
of intoxication include colic, conjunctivosis, cramps, delirium, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, la-ch
rymation, mucositis, and restlessness (PH2). The FDA Poisonous Plant database listed 95 citations 
as of November 2004.
Natural History (Cor N Co Ckle ):
The large purple ofl wers have pale streaks, the “honey guides.” The long calyx teeth seem to serve as 
landing strips for butterflies and moths, which pollinate the ofl wer. Nectar is secreted at the bottom 
of the tube, too deep for bees. Anthers shed their pollen before the stigmata mature (GMH).
extra Cts (Cor N Co Ckle ):
LD50 (saponin mix) = 750 mg/kg orl mus HH2. LD50 (saponin mix) = 2.3 mg/kg ivn rat HH2. 
LD50 (saponin mix) = 50 mg/kg orl rat HH2. Sprouts contain allantoin.
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
ho LLyho CK (Alce A rose A L.) + MALvACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Althaea ficifolia (L.) Cav.; Althaea rosea (L.) Cav.
Notes (Holly Ho Ck):
Can that which is tasteless be eaten without salt, or is there any taste in the slime of the purslane?
Job 6:6–7 (RSV)
As Zohary notes, biblical scholars suggest bothA lcea and Malva as the best candidates for the Hebrew 
halamuth. Both genera are common Israeli herbs, in early winter, used as edible potherbs. In toto, 
Zohary argues stronger for Malva than Alcea, and who knows, so many thousands years later, what 
was meant by these non-botanists of days gone by. Zohary’s picture leads me to believe that he is ta-lk
ing about the same hollyhock that keeps coming up back by my greenhouse, which once was calle d
Althea rosea. Anthropologist Jane Philips says it is one of the most widely used folk cures, both in 
Lebanon and America (BIB). It is in Zohary’s book that I first saw “the slime of the purslane” (ZOH), 
and I have personally seen what I call purslaneP (ortulaca oleracea) on the streets of Tel Aviv.
Commo N Names (Holly Ho Ck):
Alcea (Sp.; USN); Alcée (Fr.; KAB); Alcée Rose (Fr.; KAB); Altaia (Greek; KAB); Altea (Peru; EGG); 
Alteia Rosada (Ma.; JFM); Althée (Fr.; KAB); Althée Rose (Fr.; KAB); Augenpappel (Ger.; KAB); Ba-s
tun ta San Giusepp (Malta; KAB); Bâton de Saint Jacques (Fr.; KAB); Baummalve (Ger.; EFS; KAB); 
Baumrose (Ger.; KAB); Binafsa (Arab.; GHA); Black Hollyhock (Eng.; FAC); Bourdon de Saint Jacques 
(Fr.; KAB); Brandrose (Ger.; KAB); Braunrose (Ger.; KAB); Chernaya Roja (Rus.; KAB); Ehrenrose 
(Ger.; KAB); Felriss (Ger.; KAB); Feuerbluete (Ger.; KAB); Garden Hollyhock (Eng.; GMH); Garten-
malve (Ger.; KAB); Glochenpappel (Ger.; KAB); Glockrose (Ger.; KAB); Guimauve Rose Trémière 
(Fr.; EFS; KAB); Gülhatmi (Tur.; EFS); Halsrose (Ger.; KAB); Hanna Aoi (Japan; TAN); Herbstrose 
(Ger.; KAB); Herzleuchte (Ger.; KAB); Hochleuchte (Ger.; KAB); Hock Herb (Eng.; KAB); Hollyhoke 
(Eng.; JLH); Hollyhock (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; USN); Kohlrose (Ger.; KAB); Malva (Peru; Sp.; EFS; 
EGG); Malva Arborea (Sp.; KAB); Malva de India (Por.; EFS); Malva de Jardin (Sp.; JFM); Malva 
de San Jose (Sp.; JFM); Malvaííso (Por.; EFS); Malva Jaspeada (Chile; JLH); Malvaloca (Sp.; JFM; 
KAB; USN); Malva Real (Chile; Peru; Ven.; EGG; EFS; JFM; JLH; KAB); Malvarrosa (It.; Malta; Sp.; 
EFS; JFM; KAB; USN); Malvavisco (Sp.; EFS); Malvone (It.; EFS; KAB); Mályvarózsa (Hun.; EFS); 
Mauve (Eng.; JLH); Mauve Arborée (Fr.; KAB); Mauve des Jardines (Fr.; KAB); Mauve Rose (Fr.; 
KAB); Mirame Lindo (Sp.; JFM); Mundrose (Ger.; KAB); Nachrose (Ger.; KAB); Nalba de Gradina 
(Rom.; KAB); Pappelrose (Ger.; EFS); Passe Rose (Fr.; EFS; KAB); Roemische Malve (Ger.; KAB); 
Rosa di Mare (It.; EFS); Rose Alcée (Fr.; KAB); Rose _ B?aton (Fr.; KAB); Rose de Mer (Fr.; KAB); 
Rose d’Outre Mer (Fr.; KAB); Rose Mallow (Eng.; EFS); Rose Papale (Fr.; KAB); Rose Trémière (Fr.; 
EFS; USN); Rosen Eibisch (Ger.; EFS); Rosenpappel (Ger.; KAB); Rosoni (It.; EFS); Round Dock 
(Eng.; KAB); Schwartz Pappelblüüte (Ger.; EFS); Schwartzmalve (Ger.; EFS; KAB); Shtok Rosa (Rus.; 
KAB); Shu K’uei (China; EFS; KAB); Shu Kui Hua (Pin.; DAA); Siegmarsblume (Ger.; KAB); Stan-
genrose (Ger.; KAB); Stockmalve (Ger.; EFS; KAB; USN); Stockrose (Ger.; USN); Stokroos (Dutch; 
EFS); Stokrose (Den.; EFS); Stokross (Dutch; KAB); Thuc Quy (Ic.; KAB); Ungerblume (Ger.; KAB); 
Varita de San Jose (Cuba; Dr.; AHL; RyM); Varra de San Jose (Sp.; JFM); Weinrose (Ger.; KAB); W-et
terrose (Ger.; KAB); Winterrose (Ger.; KAB); Zhanba (Mongolia; X12795226).
a Ctivities (Holly Ho Ck):
Analgesic (f1; BRU; X2504193); Antiaromatase (1; X12502186); Antidiaphoretic (f; BIB); An-ti
edemic (f1; X2504193); Antiestrogenic (f1; X12502186); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; X2504193); 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Hollyhock (Alcea rosea).
Aromatase Inhibitor (1; X12502186); Astringent (f; DEP); Circulostimulant (f; DAA); Demulcent (f; 
DEP; GMH); Diuretic (f; DEP; EGG); Emollient (f1; BRU; GMH); Expectorant (f; EFS); Febrifuge 
(f; DEP; LMP); Fungistat (f; FNF); Gastroprotective (1; FNF); Hypoglycemic (1; WO3); Refrigerant 
(f; DEP); Stomachic (f; LMP); Vasoprotective (1; FNF).
iNdi Catio Ns (Holly Ho Ck):
Abscess (f; BIB; GHA; JFM); Aphonia (f; JFM); Aposteme (f; JLH); Bite (f; DAA); Bleeding (f; 
DAA); Boil (f; WO3); Bronchosis (f; JFM); Bruise (f; BIB); Burn (f; DEP); Cancer (f; BIB; JFM); 
Childbirth (f; LMP); Cold (f; BIB); Colosis (1; BRU); Constipation (f; DAA); Cough (f1; BIB; BRU; 
DEP; GHA; JFM; PH2); Cramp (f1; BIB; BRU); Cystosis (f; DEP); Dermatosis (f1; BRU; JFM; PH2; 
WO3); Diabetes (1; WO3); Dysentery (f; BIB; DEP; KAB); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAA; LMP); Earache 
(f; EGG); Edema (f1; X2504193); Enterosis (f; DEP; PH2); Fever (f; BIB; PH2); Gastrosis (f; EGG; 
PH2); Goiter (f; WO3); Gravel (f; BIB); Hematemesis (f; EGG); Hematuria (f; DAA); Hemorrhoid 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
(f; DAA); Inafl mmation (f1; JFM; PH2; X2504193); Itch (1; BRU); Jaundice (f; WO3); Laryngosis 
(f; JFM); Malaria (f; DAA); Miscarriage (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Pain (f1; BRU; X2504193); 
Pharyngosis (f1; BRU; PH2); Pulmonosis (f; GMH; PH2); Respirosis (f; JFM; PH2); Rheumatism (f; 
BIB); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Snakebite (f; DEP); Sore (f; DAA; DEP; PH2); Sore Throat (f; BIB; JFM); 
Stomatosis (f1; BRU; PH2); Strangury (f; JFM); Sweating (f; BIB); Swelling (f1; EGG; X2504193); 
Tenesmus (f; DEP); Thirst (f; PH2); Tumor (f; JLH); Urethrosis (f; JLH; PH2); Vaginosis (f; EGG).
d osages (Holly Ho Ck):
FNFF = !!
Young mucilaginous leaves cooked and eaten; ofl wer petals, raw or cooked, and cooked ofl wer buds 
also eaten; black hollyhock petals useful for imparting deep colors to teas and wines. Roots yield 
an edible starch (FAC; TAN) 1–2 oz mucilage (DEP). 1–2 g fl/teacup (PH2). 1.5 g fl/100 ml water 
as mouthwash (PH2).
• Arabians drink the sweetened floral tea for cough (GHA).
• Arabians use leaves in collyria and poulticed onto abscesses (GHA).
• Brazilians apply the leaves to inafl mmation (JFM).
• Chileans apply the root decoction to tumors (JLH).
• Costa Ricans take floral infusion for cough and sore throat (JFM).
• Gypsies pound roots with honey, taking 2x per day to prevent miscarriage (BIB).
• Lebanese mix juice with powdered coffee, soot, spiderwebs, or sugar to stop bleeding (BIB).
• Lebanese take tea of dried plants and/or ofl wers for colds, cramps, sweating, and sore 
throat (BIB).
• Middle Easterners apply mucilage to bruises, or with dough and olive oil to tumors (BIB).
• Peruvians poultice leaves, cooked in oil or milk, on swellings (EGG).
• Peruvians use sudoric dfi ecoction for cough and bloody vomiting (EGG).
• Peruvians use fresh leaf decoctions in douches (EGG).
• Peruvians use steam from floral decoction for earache (EGG).
• Punjabi use flowers for rheumatism, the root for dysentery (KAB).
• Venezuelans take ofl ral/foliar decoction/tea for aphonia, bronchosis, laryngosis, and 
strangury (JFM).
d ow Nsides (Holly Ho Ck):
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards known in conjunction with the proper administration of desi-g
nated therapeutic dosages (PH2).
CAMeL’s tho RN (Alh Agi m Aurorum MeDIK.) ++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Alhagi camelorum Fisch.
Notes (Camelt Hor N):
We have sent you money to buy burnt-offerings, and sin offerings, and incense, and prepare 
ye manna.
Baruch 1:10 (KJV)
Because the Baruch manna was for sale, it was probably the resinous gum from some tree of the 
Levant. During the heat of the day, a sweet gummy substance oozes from the leaves and stems. This 
hardens upon contact with the air and is then collected by shaking over drop-cloths.
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Camel’s Thorn (Alhagi maurorum).
Commo N Names (Camelt Hor N):
Aagul (Arab.; KAB); Adhikantaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Agoul (Fr.; KAB); Agul (Arab.; Mali; UPW); 
Ahagul (Arab.; Mali; UPW); Al Heef (Arab.; GHA); Alhaju (Arab.; KAB); Ananta (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Aqul (Oman; Qatar; Saudi; GHA); Arabian Manna Plant (Eng.; KAB); Athariyun (Urdu; KAB); 
Bahukantaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Ballituruche (Kan.; KAB); Borellia (Mali; UPW); Camel’s Thorn 
(Eng.; Scn.; AH2); Dhirghamula (Sanskrit; KAB); Dulallabha (Beng.; KAB); Duralabba (Ayu.; 
AH2); Duramula (Sanskrit; KAB); Durlabha (Sanskrit; KAB); Durlambha (Nepal; KAB); Duspa- r
sha (Sanskrit; KAB); Elbo (Niger; UPW); Farakiyun (Urdu; KAB); Gandhari (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Ghaz (Kila Saifulla; KAB); Girikarnika (Sanskrit; Tel.; KAB); Girikarnika Yavasa (Sanskrit; DEP); 
Hagah Matsui (Isr.; PAY); Haj (Arab.; KAB); Halhagi (Fr.; KAB); Igol (Arab.; GHA); Javansa 
(Hindi; DEP; KAB); Javasa (Hindi; Urdu; KAB); Javasha (Ayu.; AH2); Javaso (Guj.; KAB); Jawas 
(Mar.; KAB); Jawassa (Bom.; KAB); Jawassi (Bom.; KAB); Junwasa (Hindi; KAB); Juwasa (Hindi; 
DEP; KAB); Kachchura (Sanskrit; KAB); Kahribuz (Bal.; KAB); Kag (Oman; GHA); Kandar 
(Gandava; KAB); Kandeira (Gandava; KAB); Kandera (Sibi; KAB); Kantakaluka (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Kantaki (Sanskrit; KAB); Kantechumbaka (Mar.; KAB); Kappattumpa (Mal.; KAB); Kas (Mar.; 
Sin.; KAB); Kaskhandero (Sin.; KAB); Kharebuz (Iran; KAB); Kharibuz (Iran; NAD); Kharishutr 
(Iran; KAB); Kshudrengudi (Sanskrit; KAB); Makhe (Kila Saifulla; KAB); Marudbhava (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Persian Manna Plant (Eng.; KAB); Rodanika (Sanskrit; KAB); Samudranta (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Shinz (Kharan; Laleji; Las Bela; Ormara; KAB); Shoukuljamal (Arab.; DEP; KAB); Shutarkhar 
(Iran; DEP; KAB); Shutharkhar (Bal.; Iran; DEP; KAB); Sukshmapatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Tandan 
(Kohlu; KAB); Tanwan (Loralai; KAB); Tella (Tel.; DEP); Tellaginiya (Tel.; KAB); Tikshnaka- n
taka (Sanskrit; KAB); Tindan (Sibi; KAB); Toreyingalu (Kan.; KAB); Triparnika (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Tz’u Mi (China; KAB); Ushtarkhar (Iran; KAB); Usturkhar (Sin.; KAB); Vanadarbha (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Vasanta (Sanskrit; KAB); Vishaghna (Sanskrit; KAB); Vivarnaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Yas 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Yavasa (Hindi; Sanskrit; DEP; KAB); Yavasaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Yawas (Mar.; 
KAB); Zoz (Sibi; Zhob; KAB); Zuwasha (Cutch; KAB).
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a Ctivities (Camelt Hor N):
Alexiteric (f; BIB); Antiatherosclerotic (1; WO3); Antibilious (f; BIB; DEP); Antiemetic (f; WO2); 
Antihypercholesterolemic (1; WO3); Antinociceptive (1 × 15507342; )Antiseptic (f1; WO2); Aperient 
(f; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; PAY); Cholagogue (f; BIB); Demulcent (f; BIB); Depilatory (f; WO2); 
Depurative (f; BIB; KAP); Diaphoretic (f; KAB); Diuretic (f; BIB; WO2); Ergogenic (f1; WO3); 
Expectorant (f; BIB); Febrifuge (f; KAB); Hypolipidemic (1; WO3); Hypotensive (1; WO3); Laxa-
tive (f; BIB; WO2); Orexigenic (f; KAB; SAY); Proteolytic (1; WO2); Refrigerant (f; KAB); Sup-
purative (f; BIB); Sympathomimetic (1; WO2); Tonic (f; KAB; SAY).
iNdi Catio Ns (Camelt Hor N):
Abscess (f; BIB; KAB); Adenopathy (f; JLH; UPW); Anorexia (f; BIB; SAY); Arthrosis (f; GHA); 
Asthma (f; BIB); Atherosclerosis (1; WO3); Bacteria (1; WO2); Biliousness (f; DEP); Bleeding (f; 
BIB); Bronchosis (f; BIB); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, gland (f; JLH); 
Cardiopathy (1; X1305866); Cataract (f; GHA; PAY); Catarrh (f; PAY); Cerebrosis (f; BIB); Cons-ti
pation (f; PAY); Corneosis (f; BIB); Cough (f; DEP; PAY); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f1; SAY; 
X15138016); Enterosis (f; UPW); Epistaxis (f; BIB); Fever (f; PAY); Gastrosis (f; PAY); Gingivosis 
(f; PAY); Halitosis (f; PAY); Headache (f; BIB; WO3); Hematachezia (f; PAY); Hemicrania (f; BIB; 
KAB); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB; KAB); High Blood Pressure (1; WO3); High Cholesterol (1; WO3); 
High Triglycerides (1; WO3); Impotence (f; PAY); Infection (f1; PAY; WO2); Jaundice (f; GHA); 
Leprosy (f; BIB; KAB); Migraine (f; BIB); Nephrosis (f; PAY); Obesity (f1; BIB; KAB; WO3); 
Odontosis (f; PAY); Opacity (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; KAB); Pain (f1; GHA; WO3; X15507342); 
Polyp (f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; JLH; PAY; WO3); Rheumatism (f; PAY; WO2); Smallpox (f; BIB); 
Sore (f; BIB; PAY); Splenosis (f; PAY); Stomachache (f; PAY); Stomatosis (f; PAY); Swelling (f; 
BIB; KAB; WO2); Thirst (f; KAB); Tumor (f; UPW); Water Retention (f; KAP).
d osages (Camelt Hor N):
FNFF = !!
Roots dug and consumed in the Sahara (UPW). The sugary secretion (manna) is edible, occurring 
in small round grains, consisting mostly of sugars: melizitose, 47.1; sucrose, 26.4; and invert sugar, 
11.6% (BIB); 1–2 g herb (KAP); 48–96 ml herb decoction (KAP).
• Ayurvedics regard the plant for anorexia, bronchosis, cerebrosis, constipation, dermatosis, 
epistaxis, fever, leprosy, obesity, and thirst (KAB).
• Israelis boil root, steep overnight, strain, and drink 2 to 3 × day for kidney sand (PAY).
• Israelis boil root until the water is half gone, drinking it to stop bloody diarrhea (PAY).
• Israelis expose rheumatic pain to the crushed root steam (PAY).
• Israelis take seed tea for constipation, hemorrhoids, spleen infections, and stomachache 
(PAY).
• Konkani smoke the plant with ajwan seed, black datura, and tobacco for asthma (KAB).
• Ormara natives apply root decoction topically on abscesses and swelling (KAB).
• Romans used the plant for nasal polyps (UPW).
• Unani view the plant as alexiteric, aperient, using for corneal opacities, hemicrania, 
and hemorrhoids; they used the manna as aperient, aphrodisiac, cholagogue, depu-ra
tive, expectorant, using it for asthma, eruptions, hemorrhoids, nausea, and smallpox 
(KAB).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
o NIo N (Allium cep A L.) +++ LILIACeAe
Notes (o Nio N):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5–6 (KJV)
We remember the fish we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the 
onions, and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna 
to look at.
Numbers 11:5–6 (RSV)
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5–6 (NWT)
Although widely used in biblical times, the onion is only mentioned once, in Numbers 11, true also 
of the leek and the garlic that we hear built the pyramids. Medicinally, I view the leek and onions 
as dilute garlic (BIB).
Commo N Names (o Nio N):
Akaakai (Hawaii; LIB); Albasa (Hausa; KAB); Albassa-Haoussa (Sudan; AVP); Azalim (Ber.; 
BOU); Azlim (Ber.; BOU); Basal (Arab.; Malta; GHA; KAB); Basar (Sin.; NAD); Basl (Arab.; DEP; 
EFS; NAD); Basla (Malta; KAB); Baslim (Ber.; BOU); Bassal (Arab.; BOU); Bawang (Mal.; Malaya; 
DEP; EFS; NAD); Besla (Arab.; BOU); Bhazal (Heb.; KAB); Bolle (Ger.; KAB); Btsong (Tibet; 
NPM; TIB); Ceapa (Rom.; KAB); Ceba (Lan.; KAB); Cebo (Lan.; KAB); Cebola (Mad. Por.; AVP; 
EFS); Cebola Comun (Por.; AVP); Cebola las Hortas (Por.; KAB); Cebola Ordinario (Por.; KAB); 
Cebolla (Bel.; Sp.; AVP; EFS); Cebolla Cabezona (Sp.; AVP); Cebula (Pol.; KAB); Ceola (It.; KAB); 
Cepa (Lan.; KAB); Chabura (Uvosha; Peru; SOU); Ciboria (Peru; Shipibo/Conibo; EGG); Ciboule 
(Fr.; KAB); Cipolla (It.; EFS; KAB); Dirghapatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Dungari (Guj.; Sin.; DEP; KAB); 
Dungari Kandu (Guj.; Sin.; NAD); Durgandha (Sanskrit; NAD); Echte Zwiebel (Ger.; EFS); Eerulli 
(Mal.; NAD); Fara Albassa (Sudan; AVP); Gabu (Sokoto; KAB); Gemein Zwiebel (Ger.; EFS); Guda 
(Kano; KAB); Gudagi (Sokoto; KAB); Hagyma (Hun.; KAB); Hui Hui Ts’ung (China; EFS); Hu 
Ts’ung (China; EFS); Ira-Vengayam (Tam.; DEP; KAB); Irulli (Tam.; DEP; KAB; NAD); Jaman 
Pullu (Aym.; Bol.; DLZ); Kanda (Bom.; Mah.; Mar.; DEP; KAB; NAD); Kando (Kon.; KAB); Ke-s
unni (Burma; DEP; KAB; NAD); Khtim (Cam.; KAB); Kiska (Tur.; EB54:155); Krommyon (Greek; 
KAB); Ku Kut (Mex.; AVP); Kunbali (Kan.; DEP; KAB); Kyetthwonni (Burma; DEP; KAB; NAD); 
Lasona (Ilo.; KAB); Lasuna (Tag.; KAB); Lauch (Ger.; AVP); Lawashi (Sokoto; KAB); Lebsal (Ber.; 
BOU); Loegen (Den.; KAB); Log (Den.; EFS); Lok (Swe.; EFS); Luk (Rus.; KAB); Lunu (Sin.; KAB; 
NAD); Makakanda (Sanskrit; KAB); Makkhang (Limbu; NPM); Mi (Sur.; AVP); Neermulli (Tel.; 
NAD); Neerulli (Kan.; NAD); Nirulli (Kan.; Tel.; DEP; KAB); Nripakanda (Sanskrit; KAB); Nrip-a
priya (Sanskrit; KAB); Nripavhaya (Sanskrit; KAB); Nripeshtha (Sanskrit; KAB); Ochong (Lepcha; 
NPM); Ognon (Haiti; AVP); Oignon (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS); Oignon Comun (Fr.; KAB); Oignon 
de Cuisine (Fr.; KAB); Onion (Eng.; CR2; NAD); Onyan (Ulwa; ULW); Palandu (Beng.; Sanskrit; 
EFS; NAD); Piaj (San.; KAB); Piau (Kon.; KAB); Piyaj (Beng.; DEP; NAD); Piyang (Beng.; NAD); 
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FIGURe . Onion (Allium cepa).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Piyas (Assam; Hindi; India; Iran; DEP; EFS; KAB; NAD); Piyaz (Hindu; Iran; Nepal; Urdu; EFS; 
KAB; NAD; SUW); Pulantic (Beng.; NAD); Puyaj (Bom.; KAB); Pyaj (Beng.; Bhojpuri; Chepang; 
Gurung; Magar; Mooshar; Nepal; Newari; Sunwar; Tamang; Tharu; NAD; NPM); Rajapalandu (S-an
skrit; KAB); Rajapriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Rajeshtha (Sanskrit; KAB); Raktakanda (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Ri-Sgog (Tibet; NPM); Rochaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Roedloek (Swe.; KAB); Safa (Sokoto; KAB); 
Seba (Cat.; KAB); Sebúya (Garifuna; IED); Seigola (It.; AVP); Shaja (Kano; KAB); Sibojo (Ma.; 
JFM); Sibuyas (Pam.; Tag.; KAB); Siepel (Dutch; EFS); Siwulla (Aym.; Bol.; Que.; DLZ); Sochan 
(Tur.; KAB); Sogan (Tur.; EFS; EB49:406); Sommer-Kuchen Zwiebel (Ger.; EFS); Tamanegi (Japan; 
TAN); Tibsal (Ber.; BOU); Tongolo (Hova; KAB); Tongolobe (Hova; KAB); Tongolovazaha (Hova; 
KAB); Ts’ong Tse (China; KAB); Ui (Dutch; Ma.; EFS; JFM); Uigen (Dutch; KAB); Ullegaddi 
(Tam.; NAD); Vella-Vengayam (Tam.; DEP; KAB); Vengayam (Kan.; Tam.; DEP; NAD); Vorosh-a
gyma (Hun.; EFS); Vulli-Gaddalu (Tam.; Tel.; DEP; KAB); Xonocatl (Mex.; AVP); Yangoa (Korea; 
TAN); Yavanestha (Sanskrit; KAB); Yerragadda (Tel.; NAD); Zalim (Ber.; BOU); Zipolle (Ger.; 
KAB); Zippel (Ger.; KAB); Z’Oignon (Haiti; AHL); Zongnon (Haiti; AVP); Zonyon (Creole; Haiti; 
VOD); Zwiebel (Ger.; AVP; DEP; KAB).
a Ctivities (o Nio N):
Allergenic (f1; APA); Amebicide (f1; X10594976); Anthelmintic (f; WHO); Antianthrax (1; LIB); 
Antiaggregant (12; KOM; MPI; SHT; WHO; WO3); Antiallergic (1; BRU; PHR; WHO); Antian-a
phylactic (1; X3932203); Antiasthmatic (f1; PHR; PNC); Antiatherosclerotic (f, APA; WO1); Anti-
12
biotic (1; PNC); Anticarcinogenic (1; WO3); Anticariogenic (1; LIB); Anticystitic (1; X11272677); 
Antidermatophytic (1; X7600010); Antidiabetic (f12; X15582196); Antidote (Tobacco); (f; NAD); 
Antiedemic (f1; APA; WHO); Antihistamine (1; WHO); Antihypercholesterolemic (1; MPI); Anti-
hyperglycemic (12; GHA; WHO; X15582196); Antihyperlipidemic (1; BGB; WHO); Antihyper -
tensive (1; DAD); Antiinafl mmatory (f12; PHR; VOD); Antimitotic (1; WHO); Antimutagenic 
(1; X9838070); Antioxidant (1; WO2; X15582196); Antiplatelet (1; BGB; WHO); Antiproliferant 
(1; X15506817; X15890236); Antiseptic (f12; APA; BGB; JFM; PH2); Antispasmodic (f; PNC); 
Antithrombotic (1; X15342218); Antithromboxane (1; WHO); Antitoxigenic (1; X7600010); Antitu-
mor (f1; APA; BGB; JLH); Aphrodisiac (f1; DAD; SKY; WHO; JAC7:405); Apoptotic (1; JAF51:208; 
X15890236); Bacillus (1; LIB); Bactericide (12; KOM; PH2; SHT; WHO); Candidicide (f1; WHO); 
Cardiotonic (f; DAD; JFM); Carminative (f; APA; PNC; WHO); Chemopreventive (1; X15506817); 
Choleretic (f; JFM); Collyrium (f; GHA); Copper Chelator (1; WO2); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor 
(1; WHO); Decongestant (f1; APA); Demulcent (f; NAD); Deobstruent (f; KAP); Diaphoretic (f; 
JFM); Diuretic (f1; BGB; PNC; SKJ; VOD; WHO); Emmenagogue (f; DAD; DEM; KAB; WHO); 
Expectorant (f1; APA; GHA; PNC; SKJ; WHO); Febrifuge (f; GHA); Fibrinolytic (12; APA; 
MPI; SHT; WHO); Fungicide (1; APA; WHO; X7600010; X15113089); Gram(+)-icide (1; WO3); 
Gram(-)-icide (1; WO3); Hepatoprotective (f; X15582196); Hypocholesterolemic (12; BGB; JNU; 
MPI; WHO; X15539326); Hypoglycemic (f12; APA; MPI; PNC; WHO; X15738612); Hypotensive 
(12; DAD; KOM; SHT); Immunodepressant (1; X9103661); Lipolytic (2; BGB; KOM; SHT); Lipox-
ygenase Inhibitor (1; WHO); Mast Cell Stabilizer (1; X3932203); Nephroprotective (f; X15582196; 
X15539326); Orexigenic (2; BGB; PH2; WHO); Parasiticide (f1; X10594976); Pectoral (f; KAB); 
Peristaltic (f; KAB); Phospholipase Inhibitor (1; WHO); Propecic (f; EGG); Protein Kinase Inhib-i
tor (1; WHO); Protisticide (1; X10594976); Rubefacient (f; JFM); Sedative (f; KAB); Soporic fi (f; 
DEP); Spermagenic (1; JAC7:405); Stimulant (f; JFM; NAD); Stomachic (f; KAB); Streptococcus 
(1; LIB); Thrombolytic (1; X15342218); Tonic (f; WHO); Vermifuge (f; APA); Vulnerary (f; VOD).
iNdi Catio Ns (o Nio N):
Abscess (f; EB49:406); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Allergy (f1; BRU); Alopecia (f; EGG); Ameba (f1; 
X10594976); Anaphylaxis (1; X3932203); Angina (f; BGB; PHR); Anorexia (2; BGB; KOM; PH2; 
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WHO); Anthrax (1; LIB); Aphonia (f; DLZ); Apoplexy (f; DEP); Atherosclerosis (2; APA; KOM; 
PH2; SHT); Asthma (f1; APA; BRU; JFM; PHR; PH2); Atherosclerosis (1; JFM; WO2); Bacil-
lus (1; X4064797); Bacteria (1; JFM; PH2); Bite (f; DEP); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bite (f; BOU; 
NAD); Bleeding (f; KAB); Blister (f1; EGG; SKJ); Boil (f1; NAD; SKJ); Bronchosis (2; BGB; 
PHR; PH2; WHO); Bruise (f; EGG; PHR; WHO); Bugbite (f; PHR); Burn (f; JLH; PHR); Cancer 
(1; APA; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; FNF; JLH; JNU); Cancer, colon (f1; JNU); Cancer, esophagus 
(f1; JNU); Cancer, gland (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, lung (f1; JNU); 
Cancer, rectum (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; APA; BRU; FNF; JLH; JAC7:405); Cancer, 
uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); Candida (f1; X10594976); Carbuncle (f; KAB; LIB); Cardiopathy (f1; APA; 
JFM; JNU); Caries (1; X9354029); Cataract (f; BOU); Catarrh (f; KAB); Chest Cold (f; JFM); 
Chilblain (f; KAP; X15664457); Cholecocystosis (f; JFM; PHR); Cholera (f; DEP; WHO); Circu-
losis (f; EGG); Cold (f12; DEM; GHA; PHR; PH2); Colic (f; EGG; PHR; PH2; WHO); Colosis (f; 
KAP); Congestion (f1; APA; BGB; JFM); Convulsion (f; KAB; LIB); Corn (f; JLH; LIB); Cough 
(f12; BGB; FNF; GHA; JFM; PHR; PH2); Cramp (f; GHA); Cystosis (1; X11272677); Deafness 
(f; GHA; JFM); Depressed Immune System (2; PHR); Dermatosis (f1; GHA; SKY; X7600010); 
Diabetes (f12; APA; WHO; X15582196; X15738612); Dropsy (f; BGB; DAD; DLZ; GMH); Dys-
entery (f; BGB; DAD; JNU); Dysgeuzia (f; KAB); Dysmenorrhea (f; PHR); Dyspepsia (f12; JFM; 
PHR; PH2); Dyspnea (f; BGB); Dysuria (f; KAB); Earache (f1; APA; DEM; DEP); Edema (f; 
JFM; LIB); Enterosis (f; KAP); Epilepsy (f; JFM); Epistaxis (f; KAB; LIB); Escherichia (1; PH2; 
X4064797); Felon (f; JLH); Fever (f2; DEM; GHA; PHR; PH2; WHO); Flu (f; DEM); Fracture (f; 
EB51:195); Fungus (1; X10594976); Furuncle (f; DLZ; PHR); Gallstone (f; EGG); Gas (f; DAD; 
JFM; SKJ); Gastrosis (f; EGG; GHA); Giardia (1; X10594976); Gingivosis (1; X9354029); Gravel 
(f; BGB; DAD; GMH); Headache (f; LIB; VOD); Hemorrhoid (f; LIB); Hepatosis (f; KAB); High 
Blood Pressure (2; PH2); High Blood Pressure (2; PHR; SHT; WHO);  High Cholesterol (2; APA; 
SHT; WHO);High Triglycerides (1; WHO); Hyperlipidemia (f; SKJ); Hysteria (f; DEP; KAB); 
Impotence (f; KAB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (2; JNU; PHR; PH2); Inafl mmation (2; PHR); 
Insomnia (f; KAB); Interstitial Cystosis (1; X11272677); Jaundice (f; LIB; WHO); Laryngitis (f; 
DLZ); Leishmania (1; FT75(1):9); Lymphangites (f; KAB); Malaria (f; DEP; GHA; JFM); Mange 
(f; JFM); Migraine (f; KAB); Mycosis (1; X10548758); Nephrosis (f; BGB; GHA); Neuralgia (f; 
JFM); NIDDM (2; WHO); Nyctalopia (f; KAB); Obesity (f1; BGB; LIB; SKJ); Odontosis (f; KAB); 
Ophthalmia (f; SKJ); Osteoporosis (1; ACT5:330; JNU); Otosis (f; SKJ; WHO); Pain (f; GHA; 
JFM); Paralysis (f; DLZ); Parasite (f1; JFM; ULW; X10594976); Periodontosis (1; X9354029); 
Pertussis (f; PHR); Pharyngosis (2; PHR); Phthisis (f; DEP); Pimples (f; JFM; WHO); Proctosis 
(f; KAB); Prolapse (f; KAB); Protozoa (1; X10594976); Pulmonosis (f; ULW); Rabies (f; KAB); 
Rash (f; GHA); Respirosis (f; ULW); Rheumatism (f; JFM); Salmonella (1; PH2); Scabies (f; JFM; 
LIB); Scurvy (f1; NAD); Sinusosis (f; LIB); Sores (f1; JNU; WHO); Sore Throat (f; DEP; GHA; 
LIB); Splenosis (f; DEP; LIB); Splinter (f; X15664457); Staphylococcus (1; LIB); Sting (f; JFM); 
Stomachache (f; PHR); Stomatosis (2; PHR); Strangury (f; KAP); Streptococcus (1; X9354029; 
X4064797); Sunstroke (f; DEP); Swelling (f; JFM); Syncope (f; DEP; KAB); Tenesmus (f; BGB); 
Thorn (f; X15664457); Thrombosis (f; JFM); Tinnitus (f; JFM); Tonsilosis (f; JFM); Toothache (f; 
JNU); Tuberculosis (f; JFM; LIB); Varicosis (f; DLZ); Venereal Disease (f; LIB); Vertigo (f; KAB); 
Virus (1; X10594976); Vision (f; GHA); Wart (f; PHR); Whitlow (f; JLH); Worm (f; JFM); Wound 
(f; NAD; PHR); Yeast (1; WHO; X10594976).
d osages (o Nio N):
FNFF = !!!
Bulbs and leaves widely eaten; ofl wers and vivapoarous plantlets also eaten (FAC; TAN; EB54:155); 
0.25–1 onion (2–5 oz) (APA); 1 tsp onion juice 3 to 4 ×/day (APA); 1 onion per day (JAD); 10–20 ml 
bulb or leaf infusion (KAP); 1–3 g powdered seed (KAP); 50 g fresh onion or 20 g dry onion (KOM; 
SHT; WHO); 4–5 tsp tincture/day (PHR); 4–5 Tbsp onion syrup (PHR).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Grated bulbs heated and mixed with grated soap and applied to abscess (EB49:406).
• Grated bulbs mixed with albumen, pine tar, and soap, and applied topically in setting 
fractures (EB51:195).
• Arabs use honey extract as expectorant and for stomach cramps; they rub it on the face to 
remove dark spots or rash (GHA).
• Arabs cook red onions with eggs and sesame oil for cold and cough (GHA).
• Arabs apply crushed bulb juice as eardrops for deafness and infections (GHA).
• Arabs eat fresh onion to clear irritated throat (GHA).
• Bahamans put a slice of onion in the shoe near the heel to treat a cold (JFM).
• Bolivians eat the bulbs for respiratory problems, and for bladder and kidneystones and 
inafl mmation (DLZ).
• Bolivians take candied onions for cough, dropsy, insomnia, pertussis, strangury, onion 
soup for cramps, paralysis, rheumatism, varices (DLZ).
• Curacaons plug an earache or ringing ear with the onion neck (JFM).
• Dominicans use diced bulbs with honey for bronchitis and catarrh (AHL).
• Nicaraguan Garifuna take juice orally for respiratory-pulmonary disorders, worms, and 
intestinal parasites (IED).
• Haitians apply sliced onion to head for headache (VOD).
• Italians use onions for chilblains, splinters, and thorns (X15664457).
• Japanese put a cut onion under the pillow for insomnia (LIB).
• Peruvians and Bolivians report onion skin tea for laryngitis with loss of voice (DLZ; 
SOU).
• Peruvians apply the outer layers of the onion to burns to prevent blistering (EGG).
• Russians boil bulbs in vinegar and apply to corns (JLH).
• Spaniards recommend onion juice for buzzing in the ears, and even deafness (JLH).
• Trinidadans take onion decoction for chest cold, cough, and tuberculosis (JFM).
• Yucatanese take 3 tsp onion juice per day for coronary thrombosis, edema, proteinuria, 
strangury, adding lemon juice for flu, rheumatism, and tonsilitis (JFM).
d ow Nsides (o Nio N):
Class 1. Some idiopathic allergies (JAD). Allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and contact dermatosis reported 
(WHO).
extra Cts (o Nio N):
I have long believed that string beans and raw onions have helped me avoid diabetes. Studies in 
2005 — some positive, some negative — have not weakened my belief (X15582196). El-Demerdash 
et al. (X15582196) strengthened my case, demonstrating hypoglycemic activities of both onion and 
garlic juice (at 10 ml/kg body weight or 4 g/kg, a huge dose for me, equivalent to 400 g onion juice). 
The antioxidant and antihyperglycemic activities of onion and garlic may protect against liver and 
renal damage (X15582196). Conversely, Jelodar et al. (2005) found no hypoglycemic activity for 
onion, as compared to much more potent garlic (X15738612). Wetli et al. (2005) say that osteopo-
rosis costs America $17 billion economically, over and beyond the pain and suffering. Adding 7% 
dried onion bulbs to diets decreases bone resorption and increases bone mineral content in growing 
rats. Rutin had been thought to contribute some of this activity but Wetli et al (.2005) ruled out afl vo -
noids as the major contributor(s) and suggested instead gamma-L-glutamytlr-ans-S-1-propenyl-L-
cysteine sulfoxide (GPCS), adding this to the long list of dietary phytochemicals that support bone 
health, Ca, K, Mg, vit. C, D, and K, phytoestrogens (coumestrol, humulone, isoafl vones, zearelenol), 
possibly other afl vonoids (hesperidin, rutin) and monoterpenes (X15853380). Chang et al. (2005d) 
demonstrated a growth inhibitory effect of alk(en)yl thiosulfates from onion and garlic on tumor cell 
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lines. Sodium n-propyl thiosulfate and sodium 2-propenyl thiosulfate (natural constituents of onion 
and garlic, respectively) were originally deemed to cause hemolytic anemia in dogs. They inhibiitn  
vitro proliferation of three human tumorigenic cell lines in a dose-dependent manner. Both induced 
apoptosis (X15890236). Wetli et al. (2005) showed that a gamma-glutamyl peptide (gamma-L-glu-
tamyl-trans-S-1-propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) inhibited bone resorption by osteoclasts. One gram 
onion added to rat food signicfi antly inhibits bone resorption at 2 mM (X15853380). Corea et al. 
(2005) found four new antispasmodic compounds (furostanol saponins); high concentrations of 
quercetin, quercetin 4(I)-glucoside, taxifolin, taxifolin 7-glucoside, and phenylalanine were also 
isolated (X15713001). (=) SMCS proved a better antioxidant than glibenclamide and insulin, but the 
drugs were better for antidiabetic activity (X12587728). Feeding rats 1 g powdered onion/day/month 
boosted bone mineral content 17%, bone thickness more than 15%, performing better than calcitonin 
(=) (JNU). In the study by Park and Shin (2005), cinnamon and onion oil followed garlic and clove 
bud oils in lethality to the Japanese termite, Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe. Diallyl trisuldfi e was 
most toxic, then diallyl disuldfi e, eugenol, diallyl suldfi e, and beta -caryophyllene (X15913300).
LeeK (Allium porrum L.) +++ LILIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
A. ampeloprasum L. fide some Auct.; Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (L.) J. Gay; Allium laetum 
Salisb.; Allium porrum var. maximim Schweinf.; Porrum comune Reichb.; Porrum sativum Mill.; 
Porrum sectile Schult. fide HH2
Notes (l eek):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5–6 (KJV)
We remember the fish we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the 
onions, and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna 
to look at.
Numbers 11:5–6 (RSV)
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5–6 (NWT)
Zohary notes that the leek (hatzir) is widely cultivated in Israel and is “indeed the most precious” of 
the few cultivated species of Allium. Some authors seem to think of A. ampeloprasum as the plant 
when grown for its bulb, A. porrum as the leek. More from Cornucopia than Pharmacopeia, i.e., 
from a culinary point of view, Facciola groups them all under Allium ampeloprasum: (1) the Levant 
Garlic, Allium ampeloprasum, cultivated for its large roots, and including the Argentine garlic, 
elephant garlic, Levant garlic, multiplier leek, Perennial Sweet Leek, Persian chives, and Yo-rk
town onion; (2) Allium ampeloprasum var. babingtonii, the British leek or Welsh leek; (3) Allium 
ampeloprasum KURRAT group, the Salad leek or Kurrat Nabati, believed to be the leek of ancient 
Egypt (leaves found in Egyptian tombs); (4) Allium ampeloprasum, Porrum group , the leek (FAC). 
Kirtikar and Basu lump them both under Allium ampeloprasum (KAB).
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Commo N Names (l eek):
Ail à Tuniques (Fr.; KAB); Ail d’Orient (Fr.; TAD); Ajet (Sp.; EFS); Ajo Porro (Cuba; Sp.; AVP; 
USN); Àlbásàà Mai Kara (Hausa; Nig.; UPW); Alho Porró (Por.; USN); All Porret (Cat.; KAB); 
Argentine Garlic (Eng.; FAC); Basal (Arab.; EFS); Breitlauch (Ger.; HH2); British Leek (Eng.; 
FAC); Burri (Ger.; EFS); Cebollín (Sp.; AVP); Currat (Malta; KAB); Currat Salvagg (Malta; KAB); 
Dungali (India; EFS); Giant Garlic (Eng.; TAD); Goondina (Iran; EFS); Great Headed Garlic (Eng.; 
TAD); Hatzir (Heb.; Isr.; BIB); He (Vn.; EB42:413); Jumbo Garlic (Eng.; TAD); Kânda (India; EFS); 
Karâts (Arab.; JLH); Kiras (Arab.; DEP); Kirath (Arab.; DEP; EFS); Kourât (Arab.; JLH); Krachhai 
(Cam.; KAB); Kurrat Nabati (?; FAC); Kyet Thoon (Burma; DEP); Lauch (Ger.; KAB; USN); Leek 
(Eng.; FAC; EB42:413); Levant Garlic (Eng.; FAC); Look (Dutch; KAB); Mama LaSalle’s French 
Garlic (Eng.; TAD); Multiplier Leek (Eng.; FAC); Paru (Beng.; DEP; KAB); Pearl Onion (Eng.; 
TAD); Perennial Sweet Leek (Eng.; FAC); Persian Chives (Eng.; FAC); Pferdknobauch (Ger.; TAD); 
Pirasa (Tur.; EFS); Platandu (Sanskrit; EFS); Poireau (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; JLH; TAN; USN); Porei 
(Rus.; KAB); Poro (Sen.; UPW); Porre (Den.; EFS); Porreau (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS); Porree (Ger.; 
USN); Porret (Eng.; EFS); Porreta (Por.; UPW); Porrey (Ger.; KAB); Porrina (It.; HH2); Porro 
(Cat.; It.; Peru; Sp.; EGG; USN); Porro Hortense (Por.; UPW); Pourrat (Lan.; KAB); Pourriole (Fr.; 
KAB); Prasium (JLH); Prei (Dutch; Sur.; AVP; EFS); Praz (Rom.; KAB); Puerro (Dr.; Peru; Sp.; 
AHL; EGG; TAN; USN); Puerro Agreste (Sp.; KAB); Puerro de Vina (Sp.; KAB); Pulantu (India; 
EFS); Purjo (Swe.; EFS); Purlok (Den.; JLH); Purret (Eng.; HH2); Pyaz (India; EFS); Salad Leek 
(Eng.; TAN); Shan Chiu (China; EFS); Siboyas sa Taal (Pi.; KAB); Spanischer Lauch (Ger.; HH2); 
Suppenlauch (Ger.; HH2); Taree Irani (FAC); Ti l’Onion (St. Lucia; AVP); Toi tay (Vn.; EB42:413); 
Tsung (China; EFS); Verruga (Sp.; AVP); Welch Leek (Eng.; FAC); Welschlauch (Ger.; HH2); Win-
terlauch (Ger.; HH2); Winter leek (Eng.; TAN); Yorktown Onion (Eng.; FAC).
a Ctivities (l eek):
Antitumor (1; WO3); Aphrodisiac (f; DAW); Apoptotic (1; JAF51:208); Constipation (f; UPW); 
Digestive (f; DAW; EFS); Discutient (f; DAW; EFS); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS; KAB; UPW); Emollient 
(f; KAB); Expectorant (f; EFS; KAB); Hypoglycemic (f; EB49:406); Hypotensive (f; BIB); Laxative 
(f; UPW); Nephrotonic (f; KAB); Stimulant (f; KAB); Stomachic (f; DAW); Suppurative (f; KAB); 
Vermifuge (f1; FNF; HH2).
iNdi Catio Ns (l eek):
Abscess (f; DAW); Angina (1; FNF); Arthrosis (f; DAW; JLH); Ascariasis (f; DAW); Bladderstone 
(f; KAB); Boil (f; KAB); Calculus (f; KAB); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; FNF; JLH; WO3); Ca-r
cinoma (f1; FNF; JLH); Chafing (f; KAB); Chilblain (f; KAB); Cold (f; DAW); Conjunctivosis (f; 
KAB); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; DAW); Cystosis (f; KAB); Diabetes (1; FNF; EB49:406); Diarrhea 
(f; DAW); Dysentery (f; DAW); Enterosis (f; JLH); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Hepatosis (f; JLH); High 
Blood Pressure (f1; BIB; FNF); Impotence (f; DAW); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; DAW; 
FNF); Mycosis (f1; DAW; FNF); Nephrosis (f; DAW); Ophthalmia (f; KAB); Otosis (f; DAW); Polyp 
(f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; DAW); Rhinosis (f; DAW; JLH); Ringworm (f1; DAW; FNF); Scrofula (f; 
DAW); Stone (f; KAB); Tuberculosis (f1; DAW; FNF); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; JLH); Wart (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Wen (f; JLH); Worm (f1; DAW; FNF; HH2); Wound (f; BIB).
d osages (l eek):
FNFF = !!
Whether you take the narrow or broad taxonomic interpretation, all parts of most varieties are 
eaten somewhere. Of the stricter interpretation of leek, Tanaka says, all parts, except root, are used 
in soups and stews (TAN); Facciola says of the stricter Porrum leek group, leaves and stalks are 
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eaten, boiled, braised, steamed, or raw, in “salads. … Widely used in gourmet French cuisine, esp-e
cially vichyssoise. Glamorgan sausages, popular in Wales, are meatless sausages made from leeks, 
cheese, and breadcrumbs. Sprouted seeds are eaten like those of onion or garlic” (FAC).
• Asian Indians suggest leek juice with cream for chafing, chilblains, and sore eyes (KAB).
• Brits say, “to eat leeks in Lide and Ramsins in May and all the year physicians may play 
(AAH).”
• Cambodians use the plant as a diuretic and emollient (KAB).
• Danish suggest boiled leek for induration of the abdomen and stomach (JLH).
• French suggest crushed leek for tumors of the joints (JLH).
• Germans plastered the plant or its juice on cancers (JLH).
• Lebanese tie bruised leaves around cuts (BIB).
• Lebanese with HBP are encouraged to eat more of the diuretic leek (BIB).
extra Cts (l eek):
Viewing this as generic with garlic, but dilute, I would use larger doses for any of the indications 
for which garlic has proven successful, including antisepsis, both prophylactic and curative, and as 
an immunostimulant.
GARLIC (Allium s Ativum L.) +++ LILIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Porrum sativum Mill.
Notes (g arli C):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5–6 (KJV)
We remember the sfi h we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the onions, 
and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna to look at.
Numbers 11:5–6 (RSV)
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5–6 (NWT)
To me, garlic is biblical food farmacy for cancer, cardiopathy, cerebropathy, diabetes, and sepsis. 
I often ponder a paradox. While many health writers will tell you not to chronically tweak your 
immune systems with such things as boneset, echinacea, elderberry, huangchi, I have not heard them 
say the same thing about garlic, one of the best immune boosters, with at least a dozen compounds 
reported to boost the immune system. Back during the anthrax scare, I spoke of garlic (seriously, 
although most people assumed I was talking frivolously) as the “herbal duct tape” because of its mu-l
tiple antiseptic and immune-stimulating phytochemicals. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) are quick to 
say that people with depressed immune systems are more likely to get the “disease of the year” 
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FIGURe . Garlic (Allium sativum).
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(my flippant term for, as examples, anthrax, bird ufl , SARS, or West Nile virus). However, I have 
never heard them recommend boosting the immune system with antiseptic garlic to improve one’s 
odds against these very diseases. That is a ponderous paradox. Back during our first anthrax scare, 
there was no clinical proof that Cipro or garlic was useful against anthrax. Garlic is a broad-spectrum 
antibiotic, not liable to lead to multiple drug resistance. And now garlic has been showinn  vitro to 
help slow anthrax (X14598920). Will the phytochemical politicians again advise us not to suggest 
that garlic can help with the “disease of the year?” I can get garlic immediately in case of anthrax 
attack — but I might need several days, a doctor’s appointment, a prescription, and a few dollars to get 
Cipro. Garlic would help; Cipro would help; resistance will emerge to pure Cipro; resistance would be 
less likely to develop to the synergic mix of dozens of antiseptic compounds in whole garlic. The year 
2004 saw garlic identiefi d as the herb of the year. If I were told I could have only one medicinal herb, 
it would certainly be the biblical garlic. I think of it as the medicine of the millennium. I confess that 
I have not reviewed all the PubMed citations — 120 alone in the first quarter of 2005.
Commo N Names (g arli C):
Aglidion (Greek; KAB); Aglio (It.; Malta; AVP; EFS; KAB); Ail (Fr., Haiti; AHL; AVP; EFS); 
Ail Comun (Fr.; AVP); Ail de Cuisine (Haiti; AHL); Aiu (Rom.; KAB); Ajo (Bel.; Sp.; Dr.; AHL); 
Ajo comun (Sp.; EFS); Ajusa (Aym.; Bol.; Que.; DLZ); Alho (Mad.; Por.; AVP); Alho Manso (Por.; 
JFM); Alho Ordinario (Por.; AVP; EFS; KAB); All (Cat.; KAB); Arishtha (Sanskrit; KAB); Asna 
Pullu (Que.; DLZ); Ay (Cat.; KAB); Ayo (Ga; KAB); Banag (Ilo.; KAB); Baoang (Vis.; KAB); 
Bauang (Vis.; KAB); Baratchouria (Bas.; AVP); Bauangpoti (Jolo; KAB); Bawang (Java; Tag.; 
KAB; TAN); Bawang Puteh (Mal.; EFS); Belluli (Can; KAB); Bhutabhna (Sanskrit; KAB); Chesnok 
(Rus.; KAB); Churl’s Treacle (Eng.; KAB); Czosnek (Pol.; AVP; KAB); Cu Toi (Annam; KAB); Da 
Suan (Pin.; JAD); Dawang (Malaya; KAB); Dirghapatraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Foom (Arabic; KAB); 
Fokhagyma (Hun.; EFS); Ganda (Vis.; KAB); Garlic (Eng.; CR2); Gartenlauch (Ger.; AVP); Gogpa 
(Tibet; NPM); Gogpa (Sherpa; NPM); Grinjana (Sanskrit; KAB); Hsiao-suan (Chi.; EFS); Hv-il
dog (Den.; AVP); Hwitolk (Swe.; AVP); Ivimba (Xosa; KAB); Kanchai (Cam.; KAB); Katukanda 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Kesumphiu (Burma; KAB); Knofofl ok (Dutch; AVP); Knoblauch (Ger.; EFS); 
Knoofl ok (Dutch; EFS); Knoofl ok (Sur.; AVP); Knoplook (Dutch; KAB); Kyalic (Miskito; ULW); 
Kyatthoubega (Burma; KAB); Kyetthwunbya (Burma; KAB); Lahasun (Bhojpuri; NPM); Lahsan 
(Hindi; KAB); Lai (Haiti; AHL); Lasan (Guj.; Hindi; India; EFS; KAB); Lashan (Beng.; KAB); L-as
huna (Sanskrit; KAB); Laso (Vis.; KAB); Lasun (Beng.; Danuwar, Mooshar, Sunwar, Tharu; KAB; 
NPM); Lasuna (Sanskrit; Malaya; Mar.; EFS; KAB); Lasunas (Mar.; KAB); Lauch (Ger.; KAB); 
Lava (Newari; NPM); Lay (Creole; Haiti; TRA; VOD); Lye (Haiti; AVP); Lehsun (Urdu; KAB); 
Lha-ming-khrag (Tibet; NPM); Look (Dutch; KAB); Lossun (Kon.; KAB); Mahakanda (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Mahaushana (Sanskrit; KAB); Mahusudha (Sanskrit; EFS); Manmuk (Rai; NPM); Manul 
(Korea; TAN); Mlechhakanda (Sanskrit; KAB); ‘Mpunzi (Xosa; KAB); Naharu (Assam; KAB); 
Ninniko (Japan; TAN); Noh (Tamang; NPM); Poor Man’s Treacle (Eng.; KAB); Q’achi (Cal-la
waya; DLZ); Rahushhishta (Sanskrit; KAB); Rasona (Sanskrit; KAB); Rasonaka (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Rasun (Beng.; San.; KAB); Samanachupang (Krobo; KAB); Samsak (Tur.; KAB); Sarimsak (Tur.; 
EFS; EB49:406); Sarmisak (Tur.; EB54:155); Sar Moussak (Tur.; AVP); Saum (Arab.; KAB; TAN); 
Scorodon (Greek; KAB); Seer (Iran; AVP); Sgog Skya (Tibet; TIB); Shuklakandha (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Shunuan (Dec.; KAB); Sir (Iran; EFS; KAB); Som (Arab.; EFS); Soom (Arab.; AVP); Suan (China; 
KAB); Suan t-eou (China; KAB); Sudulunu (Sin.; KAB); Tafarnuwa (Hausa; KAB); Tai-Tsoua 
(China; AVP); Ta Suan (China; KAB); Taum (Arab.; KAB); Tchesnoks (Rus.; AVP); Teum Tal Ichell 
(Malta; KAB); Theriague du Paysan (Fr.; KAB); Thom (Arab.; GHA); Thoum (Arab.; AVP; BOU); 
Thujsa Pullu (Aym.; Bol.; DLZ); Tiskert (Ber.; BOU); Tissert (Ber.; BOU); Tongologasy (Hova; 
KAB); Tongolonkova (Hova; KAB); Toum (Arab.; BOU); Ugragandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Usturoiu 
(Rom.; KAB); Vatari (Sanskrit; KAB); Vellaippundu (Tam.; KAB); Vellullitellagadda (Tel.; KAB); 
Vitlok (Swe.; EFS); Yavaneshta (Sanskrit; KAB).
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a Ctivities (g arli C):
Acarifuge (1; KAL); ACE Inhibitor (1; NP6:1); Adaptogenic (1; X15881870); Alterative (f; KAP; PED); 
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Amebicide (f1; APA; X11101670); Analgesic (f1; BGB; ULW); Angiotensin Receptor 
Blocker (1; NP6:1); Anodyne (f; DAD); Androgenic (1; KAL); Anthelmintic (f1; KAL; WHO); Antiaafl -
toxin (1; X1394115); Antiaggregant (f123; APA; FNF; KOM; PH2; SHT; VOD); Antiallergic (f1; AKT; 
JN131:1075s); Antiandrogenic (1; DAD; JN131:1075s); Antianemic (f1; JN131:1016s); Antiangiogenic 
(f; BO2); Antiarteriosclerotic (f12; KAL); Antiarthritic (f1; KAL); Antiatherogenic (2; BGB; WHO); 
Antibiotic (f12; AKT; PNC; PED); Anticancer (f1; KAL; SKY); Anticholinesterase (1; KAL); Antico-l
lagenase (f; BO2); Antidiabetic (f1; KAL; PNC); Antidote (f; VOD; WO2); Antieicosanoid (1; BO2); 
Antifertility (1; KAL; WO2); Antifungal (f12; KAL; SKY); Antigiardal (1; X11101670); Antihepatotoxic 
(1; CAN; KAL); Antihypercholesterolemic (1; WHO); Antihyperglycemic (1; KAP); Antihyperlipidemic 
(1; WHO); Antihypertensive (f1; SKY; VOD; WHO); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; APA; BGB); Antiintegrase 
(1; KAL); Antiisoprene (1; BO2); Antileukemic (1; JN131:1027s); Antilymphomic (1; BO2); Antimyco -
bacterial (1; PR14:303); Antimycotic (f12; BGB; KAL); anti-NF-kB (1; BO2; JN131:1020s); Antinitro-
saminic (1; VOD; JN131:1027s); Antioxidant (1; AKT; KAL; PH2; SHT; WO3); Antiplatelet (1; WHO); 
Antiproliferant (1; X15890236); Antiprostaglandin (1; WHO); Antipyretic (f1; WHO); Antiradicular (1; 
VOD); Antirheumatic (f1; KAL); Antiseptic (f123; AKT; APA; GHA; PH2; PNC; SKY; VOD); Antisick-
ling (1; JN131:1016s); Antispasmodic (f1; DLZ; PED; WHO); Antistress (1; KAL); Antithrombotic (f1; 
FAY; PH2; PNC); Anti-TNF (1; BO2); Antithyroid (1; KAL); Antitubercular (1; PR14:303); Antitumor 
(f1; BGB; PNC); Antiulcer (f1; X11238826); anti-VEGF (1; BO2); Antiviral (1; AKT; APA; KAL; SKY); 
Aphrodisiac (f1; DAD; WHO); Apoptotic (1; BO2; X15890236); Bactericide (2; AKT; FAD; KOM; SKY; 
WHO); Beta-Blocker (1; NP6:1); Calcium-Channel Blocker (1; NP6:1); Cardioprotective (f1; FNF; VOD; 
X15881870); Cardiotonic (f1; AKT; JFM); Carminative (f1; PED; RIN; WHO); Choleretic (f1; MAM); 
Decongestant (f1; FAY); Detoxicant (f; AKT; FAY); Diaphoretic (f; JFM; PED; PNC); Digestive (f1; AKT; 
PED); Diuretic (f1; FAD; WHO); Edemagenic (1; WO3); Emmenagogue (f1; JFM; WHO); Estrogenic (1; 
KAL); Expectorant (f; PED; PNC; WOI); Fibrinolytic (123; APA; GHA; KAL; KOM; PH2); Fungicide 
(f12; FAD; KOM; MAM); Gastroprotective (f1; FNF; VOD); Gastrotonic (f; KAB); Glutathiogenic (1; 
BO2; PH2; JN131:1010s); Hepatoprotective (1; BGB; JFM; WO3); Hyperglycemic (1; PNC); Hypocholes-
terolemic (12; AKT; DAD; FAD; PH2; SHT); Hypoglycemic (f1; DAD; KAL; PED; PNC; X15738612); 
Hypolipidemic (f1; BGB; DAD; PED; PNC); Hypoperistaltic (2; WHO); Hypotensive (12; AKT; BGB; 
FAD; SHT); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; AKT; VOD); Hypouricemic (f; JFM); Immunostimulant (1; AKT; 
BGB; CAN; FAY; PED); Insectifuge (f1; KAL); Insulin-sparing (1; PNC); Interferonigenic (1; X11238818); 
Interleukenogenic (1; WO3); Lactogogue (f; NMH); Larvicide (1; WO2); Lipogenic (f; KAB); Lipolytic 
(12; KOM; PH2; SHT; WHO); Lymphocytogenic (1; AKT); Memorigenic (f1; GHA; JN131:1016s); Muco-
lytic (1; MAB); Myocontractant (1; CAN); Myorelaxant (1; CAN); Nervine (PED); NKC Enhancer (1; 
AKT; PH2); NO-genic (1; KAL); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Ovicide (1; WO3); Oxytocic (1; WO2); Parasiticide 
(f1; AKT); Phagocytotic (1; AKT; JN131:989s); Prooxidant (1; BO2); Protisticide (1; KAL); Radiopr-o
tective (JN131:1010s); Rubefacient (f; JFM); Sedative (1; WHO); Spermicide (1; KAL); Tonic (f; KAB); 
Vasodilator (1; SHT; WHO); Vermifuge (f1; AKT; APA; VOD); Vulnerary (f1; PED). (For much more 
information, see Koch and Lawson’s excellentG arlic Book (KAL): I do not have time to read and rescore, 
but if they tabulate clinical trials demonstrating the efcfi acy of whole garlic, it should get a 3.)
iNdi Catio Ns (g arli C):
Abscess (f1; DAA; PNC); Acne (f; FAD); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Aegilops (f; JLH); Aging (f1; PH2); 
Allergy (f1; AKT; EGG); Alopecia (f1; WHO; WO2); Alzheimers (1; JN131:1010s); Amebiasis (f12; 
FAY; PNC); Amenorrhea (f1; BGB; JFM; LIB); Anemia (f; DAD); Angina (f1; FNF); Anorexia (f; 
FAY); Anthrax (1; X14598920); Appendicitis (1; FAY; PNC); Aphthae (1; KAL); Arrhythmia (f; EGG); 
Arteriosclerosis (12; BGB; BIS; FAD; KAL; PH2); Arthrosis (f1; FAD; KAL; PHR; PH2; EB49:406); 
Asthma (f1; PNC; WHO); Atherosclerosis (f123; AKT; APA; PHR; SHT: WHO); Athlete’s Foot (f12; 
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LIB; TGP); Bacillus (1; LAW; X10548758); Bacteria (1; JFM; PH2); Bite (f; FAY; JFM); Boil (f1; 
DAA); Bronchiestasis (1; KAL); Bronchosis (f12; FAD; PHR; PH2; BOD; WHO); Burn (f12; KAL); 
Callus (f; JFM; PH2); Cancer (f12; AKT; FAD; PH2); Cancer, abdomen (f1; AKT; FNF; JLH); Ca-n
cer, bladder (f1; FNF; JLH; X11341051; X11238811);  Cancer, breast (f1; BRU; JN131:989s); Cancer, 
colon (f1; AKT; (f1; FNF; JLH)); Cancer, esophagus (f1; JN131:1075s); Cancer, gland (1; X11238818); 
Cancer, liver (f1; BO2; PR14:564); Cancer, lung (f1; BRU; FNF; JLH; JN131:989s); Cancer, prostate 
(f1; X11102955); Cancer, skin (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; AKT; VOD; X11238811); Ca-n
cer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); Candidiasis (f12; CAN; KAL; TRA; VOD); Carbuncle (f; FAY); Ca-r
diopathy (f123; BGB; EGG; FAD; SKY; VOD); Caries (f1; FNF; KAB); Catarrh (f1; AKT; BGB); 
Celiac (1; KAL); Chilblain (f; EGG); Childbirth (f; JFM; KAB); Cholecocystosis (f; APA); Cholera 
(f1; PNC; TRA); Chronic Fatigue (f; JFM); Circulosis (f; DLZ); Coccidiosis (1; KAL); Cold (f12; 
AKT; FAD; GHA; PHR; PNC); Colic (f1; GHA; WHO); Colosis (1; KAL; LAW); Congestion (f1; 
FAY); Conjunctivosis (f; GHA); Constipation (f; JFM; PH2); Convulsions (f; KAB; PHR); Corn (f; 
EGG; JLH; LIB; PHR); Cough (f12; APA; FAD; PHR); Cramp (f; PH2); Cryptococcus (1; DAA); 
Cystosis (f; JFM); Cytomegalovirus (1; KAL); Dandruff (f; EGG; GHA); Deafness (f; LAW); Debility 
(f; PH2); Dementia (1; X11238823); Dermatosis (f1; AKT; DAA; DAD; KAL; PNC; VOD); Diabetes 
(f1; GHA; MAM; PH2; PNC; X15738612); Diarrhea (f1; AKT; GHA; PNC); Diptheria (f; DAA; DAD; 
EGG); Dropsy (f; KAB); Dyspepsia (f1; AKT; JFM; KAL); Dysentery (f12; AKT; DAD; FAD; PNC); 
Dysmenorrhea (f; PHR; PH2); Dyspepsia (f1; BIS; PNC; WHO); Dyspnea (1; FAD; FAY); Earache 
(f1; FAD; TRA); Edema (f; JFM; PNC); Enterosis (f12; AKT; APA; FAD; GHA; PH2; VOD; WHO); 
Epigastrosis (2; WHO); Epilepsy (f; AKT; FAY); Escherichia (1; LAW; WO2); Felon (f; JLH); Fever 
(f12; FAD; PHR; PH2); Fibrinolytic (SHT); Fibroid (f; DAD; JLH); Filaria (1; KAL); Flatulence (f1; 
GHA; WHO); Flu (f1; AKT; APA; EGG; KAL; PNC; TRA); Fungus (f1; AKT; JFM); Gangrene (f; 
EGG; KAP); Gas (f1; DAD; GHA; JFM; PH2; TRA; VOD); Gastroenterosis (f12; BIS; DAD; FAD); 
Gastrosis (f12; AKT; FAD; FAY; PH2; WHO); Giardia (f1; KAL; X11101670); Gout (f; DEP; FAD; 
JFM); Headache (f; JFM); Helicobacter (1; AKT; X11238826); Hemorrhoid (f; JFM); Hepatosis (f12; 
APA); Hepatotoxicity (Acetaminophen); (2; MAM); Herpes (f1; KAL; TRA); High Blood Pressure 
(f12; AKT; FAD; PH2; SHT; ULW; WHO); High Cholesterol (123; AKT; APA; KAL; PH2; SHT); 
High Triglycerides (123; AKT; APA; KAL; SHT); HIV (1; KAL); Hookworm (f1; AKT; KAL; WHO); 
HPS (1; X15833681); Hyperlipidemia (123; SHT; WHO); Hyperperistalsis (2; WHO); Hypoglycemia 
(f; FAY); Hypotension (f; DAD); Hysteria (f; JFM); Immunosuppression (12; PHR; SKY); Impotence 
(f1; AKT; X112388); Infection (f123; AKT; APA; EGG; GHA; PH2; PNC; SKY); Insomnia (f; JFM); 
Intermittent Claudication (12; BGB; SHT; TGP); Itch (f1; TRA; VOD); Keratosis (1; KAL); Lamblia-
sis (1; KAL); Laryngosis (f1; KAL; KAP); Lead Poisoning (1; PNC); Leishmania (1; X11119248); 
Leprosy (f; JFM); Leukemia (f; JLH); Leukoderma (f; EGG; KAB); Lumbago (f; PH2); Lupus (f; 
KAL); Lymphoma (1; BO2; JLH); Malaria (f; DAD; EGG; JFM); Malnutrition (f; VOD); Mange (f; 
JFM); Melancholy (f; JFM); Melanoma (1; JN131:1027s); Meningosis (f; DAA); Menopause (f; JFM); 
Mucososis (1; KAL); Myalgia (f; PHR; PH2); Mycosis (f1; AKT; PNC; TRA); Myofascitis (f; DAA); 
Nausea (f1; TRA; WHO); Nephrosis (f1; DLZ; GHA; KAL); Neuralgia (f1; KAL; PHR); Neuroblas-
toma (1; JN131:1027s); Nicotinism (1; KAL); Odontosis (f; KAB); Osteoporosis (1; X15173999); Otitis 
(f1; BOU; FAD; SKY); Pain (f; GHA; JFM; PH2; EB49:406); Palpitation (f; JFM); Paradentosis (1; 
KAL); Paralysis (f; KAB); Parasite (f1; AKT; ULW); Paratyphoid (f; KAP); Paratyphus (f; LAW); 
Periodontosis (1; LAW; X15892950); Pertussis (f12; DAD; FAD; FAY; PNC); Pharyngosis (f12; PHR); 
Pinworm (f1; AKT; FAY); Pneumonia (f1; DAD; KAL; VOD); Poliomyelitis (1; KAL; LAW); Polyp 
(f; JLH); Porphyromonas (1; X15892950); Pulmonosis (f; KAP; VOD); Pulposis (1; LAW); Raynaud’s 
Disease (2; TGP); Respirosis (f1; AKT; BGB; KAL; PH2; WHO); Rheumatism (f1; FAD; KAL; PH2; 
VOD; EB49:406); Rhinosis (f12; BGB); Ringworm (f1; APA; DAA; WHO); Roundworm (f1; KAL; 
WHO); Salmonella (1; WO2); Scabies (f1; DAA; JFM); Sciatica (f; PHR; PH2); Senile Dementia (1; 
KAL; X11238823); Sepsis (f1; KAL); Shigella (1; LAW; TRA; WO2); Sinusosis (f1; FAY); Snake-
bite (f; FAD; FAY; GHA); Sore (f1; FAD; JFM); Sore Throat (f1; KAL); Soroche (f; KAL); Sple-
nosis (f; EGG; KAB); Sporotrichosis (1; KAL); Staphylococcus (1; LAW); Stomachache (f; FAY); 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Stomatosis (f12; PHR); Streptococcus (12; X9354029; X15892950); Stroke (1;JN131:1010s); Swelling 
(f; AKT; FAD; FAY; GHA; JFM); Syncope (f; KAB); Tapeworm (f; JFM); Thirst (f; KAB); Thrombosis 
(f123; APA; EGG; GHA; KAL; KOM; PH2); Toothache (f1; TRA); Tonsilosis (f1; LAW); Trachoma 
(f; DAA); Trichomonaisis (f1; DAA); Trypanosomiasis (1; KAL); Tuberculosis (f1; APA; EGG; GHA; 
JFM; KAL; TRA); Typhoid (f; DAA); Typhus (f1; DAD; KAL); Ulcer (f1; AKT; X11238826); Ulcus 
cruris (12; KAL); UTIs (f1; WHO); Vaginosis (f12; APA; DAA; KAL); Varicosity (f; DLZ; JFM); Virus 
(1; PH2; TRA); Vitiligo (f; EGG); Wart (f; EGG; PHR; PH2); Wen (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; JLH); Worm 
(f1; AKT; APA; EGG; JFM; VOD); Wound (f; GHA; PHR); Yeast (f12; APA; CAN; JAD; WO2).
d osages (g arli C):
FNFF = !!!
Bulbs and leaves widely eaten more as spice than vegetable; seeds, seedlings, and vivaparous sprouts 
also eaten (FAC, TAN; EB54:155); 1–5 cloves/day (APA); 2–4 g, 3× /day (CAN); 2–4 ml tincture 
(1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.03–0.12 ml garlic oil/day (CAN); 2–8 ml garlic syrup (CAN); 
2–4 ml garlic juice (CAN); 9–15 g fresh bulb (FAY); 1.5–6 g fresh tuber (KAP); 1–2 minims garlic 
oil (KAP); 4 g fresh garlic/day (KOM); one 400-mg StX/day; 3–4 550-mg capsules 3× /day (NH). 
One enteric-coated 400-mg tablet (StX to contain at least 3 mg allicin potential) ×1 /day at mealtime 
(NH); 1/4–1/2 cup fresh bulb (PED); 6–12 g dry bulb (PED); 9 g dry bulb/45 ml alcohol/45 ml water 
(PED); 2–4 ml garlic juice (PNC); 2–8 ml garlic syrup (PNC); 600–900 mg/day coated garlic (SHT); 
4 g garlic or one average clove; 5000 µg allicin/day (SKY); 8–12 g bulb, ×3 /day (TRA).
• Arabs inhale steam from boiling water with garlic for tuberculosis (GHA).
• Arabs suggest eating cloves daily for colic, diabetes, diarrhea, enteralgia, and swellings 
(GHA).
• Arabs warm skinned cloves in cow’s milk, add fat, heat until thickened; add ground g-in
ger, laurel, pepper, and senna; take for colds, cough, nephrosis, and improving memory 
(GHA).
• Arabs use ashes from burnt cloves to treat eye infections (GHA).
• Bolivians suggest a clove garlic for arteriosclerosis, cerebral congestion, high arterial 
pressure; garlic soup for circulatory and kidney problems (DLZ).
• Bolivians suggest three cloves garlic mashed in one cup of milk with honey for arterio-
sclerosis, gastric, respiratory, or pulmonary problems (DLZ).
• Bolivians suggest a glass of water with 20 drops garlic tincture for hemorrhage, high blood 
pressure, palpitations, varicose veins (DLZ) (maybe a martini with garlic instead of onion? 
(JAD).
• Dominicans suggest rubbing garlic onto rheumatism (AHL).
• Haitians take bulb decoctions, juices, or teas for bronchitis, dermatoses, gas, itch, pneumonia, 
and other pulmonary problems; they eat the bulbs for worms and hypertension (VOD).
• Mexicans suggest taking three cloves in milk each morning to prevent malaria and tube-r
culosis (JFM).
• Mexicans take a leaf decoction as emmenagogue (JFM).
• Peruvians eat the cloves for arrhythmia, arteriosclerosis, cardiopathy, catarrh, diabetes, 
embolism, hysteria, hypertension, malaria, menopause, smoker’s syndrome, splenosis, 
and thrombosis (EGG).
• Peruvians suggest rubbing cut garlic on corns, dandruff, infection, itch, rheumatism, 
sores, vitiligo, and warts (EGG).
• Trinidadans take garlic decoction for dyspepsia, enterosis, hypertension, stomachache, 
strangury, and rubbing the crushed cloves on the belly to facilitate childbirth (JFM).
• Yucatanese suggest three chipped bulbs in milk or tomato juice for diabetes, malaria, or 
rheumatism, or steeping in alcohol 5 days and taking up to 20 drops a day for asthma, 
atherosclerosis, or hypertension (JFM).
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
d ow Nsides (g arli C):
Class 2c (AHP, 1997). Some thiol-bearing compounds in garlic and onion and their relatives can 
cause acantholysisi n vitro (Brenner et al., 1995) and possibly pemphigus in vivo. “More than 5 cloves 
a day may induce afl tulence and heartburn (Castleman, 1996) and ‘thin blood’” (people taking blood 
thinners may overthin their blood thereby). Some people are very allergic to garlic. Contraindicated 
in hyperthyroid (TRA); Commission E reports rare GI disturbances, allergic reactions, and change 
of odor of skin and breath (Commission E). Allergic reactions of contact dermatosis and severe as-th
matic attacks (from inhalation of garlic powder) may occur. Topical application of garlic or garlic 
oil may cause local irritating effects. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may occur following ingestion 
of fresh garlic bulbs, extracts, or oil (AEH1). Suldesfi may irritate the GI tract or cause dermatosis 
(CAN). Fresh garlic is reportedly dangerous to children (AHP). Use sparingly with children under 
2 years of age; may irritate mouth or stomach if used too liberally (WAM). Then there is Miller and 
Murray’s extremely cautious but not critical review (MAM). Although possibly “useful for mild 
hypertension … routine use is not recommended (MAM)” After informing us that no drug-drug 
interactions have been reported for garlic, they feed us a long list of potential drug-drug interactions. 
Hasty readers, especially medical doctors, will take this as a proven drug-garlic interaction, “Avoid 
concomitant use … with NSAIDS, anticoagulants and drugs that inhibit liver metabolism” (e.g., 
cimetidine (Tagamet), ciproafl xin (Cipro), clarithromycin, diltiazem (Cardizem), enoxacin, erythro-
mycin, ufl oxetine (Prozac), ufl voxamine, itraconazole, ketoconazole, nefazodone, paroxetine (Paxil), 
ritonavir) “may at least additively and perhaps synergistically interact with garlic.” Watch also drugs 
extensively metabolized by the liver (alprazolam, amitriptyline, astemizole, carbamazepine, ci-s
apride, clozapine, corticosteroids, cyclosporine, desipramine, diazepan (Valium), imipramine, ph-e
nytoin (Dilantin), propranolol, terfenadine (Seldane), theophylline, triazolam, warfarin (Coumadin), 
and drugs that may be affected by liver inhibition (e.g., propranolol, diazepam) (MAM). Miller and 
Murray (1998) tabulate allergic contact dermatosis, burning GI sensations, diaphoresis, diarrhea, 
light-headedness, menorrhagia, metrorrhagia, nausea, spinal epidural hematoma, and vomiting as 
side effects of garlic. They even try to attribute a case of spinal hematoma to garlic (in an 87-year-
old male ingesting 2 g daily “to prevent heart disease.” Perhaps they are too eager to accentuate the 
negative, attributing the problem “to garlic’s ability to inhibit normal platelet function.” Still acce-n
tuating the negative, they talk about rats given massive doses (50 mg/day garlic powder) developing 
degenerative changes in 45 days and severe testicular lesions after 70 days (MAM). The credibility 
of their uncritical data is questionable; for example, on one page (i.e., p. 144), they talk about 0.75 mg 
garlic essential oil divided in three doses a day causing anorexia, nausea, severe vomiting, diarrhea, 
marked weight loss, metrorrhagia, and menorrhagia; yet on the following page (i.e., p. 145), they 
casually discuss a dosage more than three orders of magnitude higher for 20 days lowering platelet 
aggregation from 30.37% to 21.21% (MAM). I feel I have to report this to my readers, although I 
consider it mostly hyperbolic. At 3 × 300 mg/day coated garlic powder tablet dosages, GI disco-m
fort was the most frequent side effect (also bloating, dizziness, headache, hypotensive circulatory 
reactions, outbreaks of sweating); daily doses of 900 to 1200 mg were associated with garlic odor. 
“May potentiate the effect of antihypertensive and anticoagulant medications” (SHT). No known 
contraindications during pregnancy and lactation (SKY).
extra Cts (g arli C):
Of the 120 new PubMed abstracts for garlic in the rfi st quarter of 2005, some were disappointing. Iranian 
scientists (e.g., Jelodar et al. ,2005) found, contrary to my expectations, that garlic, but not onion and 
fenugreek, is hypoglycemic in experimental rats. I think they should have also compared the mix of 
the three biblical herbs, anticipating synergy or additivism, all recommended in Persian folklore med-i
cine as good for diabetes (X15738612). Bakri and Douglas (2005) extended the well-known antiseptic 
activity of garlic to bacteria involved in periodontitis (X15892950). In general, the minimal inhibitory 
and minimum bactericidal concentrations for Gram-negative strains (garlic MIC range 35.7–1.1mg/ml; 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
allicin mean MIC 4.1 µg/ml; mean MBC 7.9 µg/ml) were lower than those for the Gram-positive strains 
tested (garlic MIC range 142.7–35.7 mg/ml; allicin mean MIC 27.5 µg/ml; mean MBC 91.9 µg/ml). The 
putative periodontal pathogens had among the lowest MICs (17.8–1.1 mg/ml garlic) and MBCs (35.7–1.1 
mg/ml garlic) (X15892950). Verma et al. (2005) demonstrated adapotogenic activity of garlic oil on 
exercise tolerance in coronary patients. Thirty patients were given garlic oil for 6 weeks. The 6-week 
treatment reduced heart rate at peak exercise and resultant workload on the heart (X15881870). Kim et al. 
(2005) showed that too much diallyl disuldfi e could be cytotoxic to neuronal cells. Levels of free radicals 
and membrane lipid peroxidation increased dose dependently at levels higher than 25 µM (X 15950962). 
Chang et al. (2005) found that sodium 2-propenyl thiosulfate had cyclooxygenase inhibitory as well as 
antiaggregant activity in canine platelets (X15850716). Akyuz and Kaymakoglu (2005) suggest garlic 
and lamivudine in combination as a natural/chemotherapy for hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS), one 
I never heard of previously. HPS is characterized by abnormalities of arterial oxygenation in patients 
with chronic liver disease, with or without portal hypertension. There is no denfi itive treatment except 
liver transplantation. One HPS patient with liver cirrhosis and HPS received garlic and lamivudine for 3 
years. Signs of liver failure and hypoxemia gradually improved, indicating that lamivudine may improve 
the functional reserve of the liver, while garlic may help to reduce the signs and symptoms of HPS 
(X15833681). Chang et al. (2005) suggest that garlic oil’s anticarcinogenic activities may be due to (1) 
antioxidant activity, (2) induction of apoptosis, (3) inhibition of DNA-adduct formation, (4) modulation 
of immune function, and/or (5) modulation of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzyme activities (X15796590). I 
can suggest dozens of other phytochemical reasons. For several other useful phytochemical activities in 
whole garlic, consult the multiple-activity-menu site at the USDA (http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/dev/all.
html) — and one might well be overwhelmed by the 19-page printout. Active hypoglycemic compounds 
may have insulin-sparing activity, the thiol groups competing for insulin with the inactivating com-
pounds (PNC). Ajoene is antiaggregant, antilipoxygenase, antiprostaglandin (CAN; PNC) synergizes 
the antiaggregant activity of dipyramidole, forskolin, indomethacin, and prostacyclin. Garlic (or allicin) 
is antiseptic to Actinobacter, Aeromonas, Aspergillus, Bacillus, Candida albicans, Citrobacter, Cory-
nebacterium, Cryptococcus, Epidermophyton, Escherichia coli, Hafnia, Herpes, Inufl enza, Klebsiella, 
Microsporum, Mycobacterium, Pasturella, Proteus, Providencia, Pseudomonas, Rhodotorula, Salmo-
nella paratyphi, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenterica, Staphylococcus aureus, Torulopsis, Tricho-
monas sp., Trichophyton, Trichosporum, and Vibrio cholera (CAN; PNC); LD50 = 60 mg/kg ivn mus 
(SHT); 120 mg/kg scu mus M11 (SHT) might be a good way to cut back on your grocery bill (except 
for garlic), if you believe this quote: “Rats fed up to 2000 mg/kg garlic extract for 6 months showed no 
weight loss but did show a slightly reduced food intake relative to controls. There were no changes in 
renal function, hematologic parameters, or selected serologic parameters; and there was no evidence 
of any pathologic changes in organs or tissues.” Experimentally antiaggregant, bactericidal, diuretic, 
fungicidal, hypocholesterolemic, hypotensive (FAD; FNF). Clinical studies suggest utility in arterio-
sclerosis, cardiopathy, GI disorders, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure (FAD). Commission E 
approvals differ: Blumenthal et al. (1998) approve 4 g fresh garlic or equivalent preparations “supportive 
to dietary measures at elevated levels of lipids in blood” and preventive measures for age-dependent 
vascular changes,” while Gruenwald et al. (1998) approve garlic for almost the same things for which 
they approve echinacea, viz. arteriosclerosis, bronchosis, cold, cough, fever, pharyngosis, stomatosis, 
and “tendency to infection.”
ALoe ( Aloe ver A (L.) BURM. F.) (GeL) ++ ALoe ACeAe (LILIACeAe)
syNo Nyms : 
Aloe barbadensis Mill; Aloe indica Royle, nom. nud.; Aloe perfoliata var. vera L. [basionym]; Aloe 
vulgaris Lam., nom. illeg. fide USN
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FIGURe . Aloe (Aloe vera).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Notes (a loe ):
And there came also Nicodemus, which at the first came to Jesus by night, and brought a mix -
ture of myrrh and aloes, about an hundred pound weight. Then took they the body of Jesus, and 
wound it in linen clothes with the spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury.
John 19:39–40 (KJV)
Nicode’mus also, who had at first come to him by night, came bringing a mixture of myrrh and 
aloes, about a hundred pounds’ weight. They took the body of Jesus, and bound it in linen cloths 
with the spices, as is the burial custom of the Jews.
John 19:39–40 (RSV)
Nicode’mus also, the man that came to him in the night the first time, came bringing a roll of 
myrrh and aloes, about a hundred pounds [of it]. So they took the body of Jesus, and bound it up 
with bandages with the spices, just the way the Jews have the custom of preparing for burial.
John 19:39–40 (RSV)
Early authors, mostly American or English, on biblical botany, and even I, concluded that the 
biblical aloe of the New Testament wa sAloe perryi or Aloe socotrina. Knowing how taxonomi-
cally difcfi ult this genus of some 250 to 300 species is, I am relieved to accept the opinion of Israeli 
scientist Michael Zohary, who concludes that the aloe of John 19 was “probably an oil extracted 
from the succulent leaves of Aloe vera (in its broader sense also including A. succotrina and A. bar-
badensis).” It was widely used in that part of the world for embalming and for medicine (ZOH). It is 
generally agreed that the aloes and myrrh, not cheap even then, were to facilitate Jesus’ embalming 
and wrapping in linen (BMD). As mentioned in my second edition (CR2), there is still much confu-
sion resulting from varying interpretations by various scientists. I will abide by AHPA’s decision to 
treat the scientic nfi ame as the standardized common name, whether I like it or not.
Commo N Names (a loe ):
Acibar (Sp.; USN); Adala (Sanskrit; KAB); Aloe (Creole; Guy.; Ocn. Sp.; AH2; GMJ; USN); Aloès 
(Haiti; USN); Aloès de Jardins (Fr.; Haiti; AHL); Aloès Vulgaire (Fr.; USN); Aloe Vera (Scn.; 
AH2); Aloi (Greek; KAB); Angani (Tam.; KAB); A’oe (Ger.; AVP); A’ona (Pol.; AVP); Azvre (Por.; 
AVP); Babosa (Mad.; Por.; AVP); Babosa Commun (Por.; AVP); Bamboo (Usa.; AVP); Bamboo 
key (Fla.; AVP); Barbados Aloe (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; USN); Brahmi (Kan.; KAB); Chenninayakam 
(Mal.; KAB); Chinnakalabanda (Tel.; KAB); Curaçao Aloe (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; USN); Darakhte 
Sibr (Iran; DEP); Darakhtesinn (Iran; KAB); Echte Aloe (Ger.; USN); Eliya (Dec.; DEP); Ghig-u
vara (Hindi; KAB); Ghigvar (Hindi; DEP); Ghikanuar (Hindi; KAP); Ghikavar (Hindi; DEP); 
Ghikuanri (Oriya; KAB); Ghiqwara (Urdu; KAB); Ghiu Kumari (Nepal; SUW); Ghrita Kumari 
(Beng.; India; AH2; DEP; KAB); Girta Kunvar (Beng.; DEP); Kadvikunar (Guj.; KAB); Kalabanda 
(Tel.; DEP); Kanyá (Sanskrit; DEP); Kanyrasara (India; AH2); Katalai (Sri.; Tam.; AVP; DEP); 
Kattala (Mal.; DEP); Key Bamboo (Fla.; AVP); Komarisa (Singh.; DEP); Koraphada (Mar.; DEP; 
KAB); Kumári (Hindi; Sanskrit; DEP); Kunvar (Tel.; DEP); Laloi (Haiti; AVP); Lalwa (Creole; 
Haiti; VOD); Lankhu Laphi (Aym.; DLZ; SOU); Lephaee (Sin.; DEP); Lolu Sora (Kan.; DEP); Lu 
Hui (Pin.; DAA; KAB); Musabar (Arab.; KAB); Nha Dam Luu Hoi (Ic.; AVP); Patte laloi (Haiti; 
AVP); Pet’k’kin’ki (Maya; AVP); Sabar (Arab.; GHA); Sabara (Arab.; DEP); Sábila (Bol.; Peru; Sp.; 
DLZ); Sabur Obiknovennoi (Rus.; AVP; KAB); Sambour (Tur.; AVP); Saqal (Arab.; GHA); Sávila 
(Peru; Mdd.; Sp.; DAV; USN); Sávila Penca (Ecu.; BEJ); Sawila (Aym.; Que.; DLZ); Semper Vive 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
(Sp.; AVP); Sempervivum (Ma.; JFM); Sentebibu (Ma.; JFM); Shazaon Lepa Burma; DEP); Sibhir 
(Iran; AVP); Sibr (Iran; DEP); Simple Bible (Ma.; JFM); Sinkle Bible (Ma.; JFM); Singwanaka 
Luih (Ulwa; ULW); Tazavon-Lepa (Burma; DEP); True Aloe (Eng.; USN); West Indian aloe (Eng.; 
USN); Yerba de Gomas (Ma.; JFM); Zabbara (Malta; KAB); Zabila (Mex.; Sp.; AVP; DLZ).
a Ctivities (a loe ):
Abortifacient (f1; GMJ; WO3); Analgesic (f1; EGG; PH2); Angiogenic (1; X14517429); Anthelmin-
tic (1; MPI); Antiaggregant (f; CRC); Antiaging (f; WO3); Antialcoholic (1; WO3); Antiapoptotic (1; 
X15613791); Antibradykinin (1; X15182910); Anticancer (f1; JLH; X15531293); Antidote (alcohol) 
(f1; DLZ; WO3; X8937458); Antiedemic (f1; ALH; CAN; WHO); Antigliomic (1; X15747063); Anti-
herpetic (1; AAB; PH2; RCP7(1)); Antihistamine (1; APA); Anti-inafl mmatory (f1; AAB; CAN; PH2; 
WHO; WO3; X15751795; X15182910); Antilipoxygenase (1; X15751795); Antioxidant (1NP9(2):8); 
Antiplaque (f; WO3); Antiproliferant (1; X15531293); Antiprostaglandin (1; WHO; NP9(2):8); Ant-i
radicular (1NP9(2):8); Antiretroviral (1; NP9(2):8); Antiseptic (f1; CRC; PH2; X15615409); Ant-i
thromboxane (1; PH2; WHO; NP9(2):8); Antiulcer (f1; AAB; PH2); Antiviral (1; AAB; PH2; WO3); 
Antiwrinkle (f; WO3); Aperient (f; DAA; DEP); Aphrodisiac (f; NP9(2):8); Apoptotic (1; X15531293; 
X15747063); Arylamine-N-Acetyltransferase Inhibitor (1; PH2); Bactericide (1; APA); Bitter (FED); 
Cholagogue (f; CRC); Cicatrizant (f1; DLZ; EGG; RCP7(1)); Collagenic (1; PH2; NP9(2):8); Co-l
lagenase Inhibitor (1; X12479983); COX-2-I (1; X12677534); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; PH2); 
Decongestant (f; DLZ); Demulcent (f1; WAM); Depurative (f; CRC); Digestive (f1; CRC; WAM); 
Emmenagogue (f1; DAA; JFM; MPI); Emollient (f1; GMJ; WAM); Fibroblastogenic NP9(2):8; 
Fungicide (1; APA; PH2; NP9(2):8); Gram(+)-icide (1; X15615409); Gram(-)-icide (1; X15615409); 
Hemostat (1; WO3); Hypocholesterolemic (1; WO3; X14598919); Hypoglycemic (1; CAN; JAC7:405; 
X15117555); Hypotensive (1; X11731923); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; JAC7:405); Immunomodulator 
(1; PH2); Immunostimulant (1; NP9(2):8); Insecticide (f; CRC); Larvicide (f; CRC); Laxative (f1; 
PH2; WAM; NP9(2):8); Metalloproteinase Inhibitor (1; X12479983); Microcirculatory Stimulant 
(CAN); Mitogenic (1; WO3); Moisturizer (f1; CRC); Nematicide (1; CRC); Osteogenic (1; RCP7(1); 
Phagocytotic (1; CAN; PNC); Propecic (f; KAP); Purgative (f; DLZ); Radioprotective (1; MPI; 
X15613791); Stimulant (f; CRC); Stomachic (f; CRC; MPI); Thromboxane-A-2-Synthase Inhibitor 
(1; X12677534); TNF-genic (1; NP9(2):8); Tonic (f; MPI); Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor (1; PH2); Ver-
mifuge (f; IED); Vulnerary (f1; CAN; EGG; WAM; WHO; WO3; X14517429).
iNdi Catio Ns (a loe ):
Abrasions (f1; WHO); Abscess (f; CAN; DLZ); Acne (f; CRC; WHO); Acrochordons (f; CRC); 
Adenopathy (f; DEP); Alopecia (f; CRC; DAV; KAP); Amenorrhea (f; CRC; PH2); Anemia (f; 
WHO); Apoplexy (f; DEP); Arthrosis (f1; CAN; EGG; WO3); Asthma (f12; CAN; DLZ; EGG; 
KAP; PNC; RCP9(1); NP9(2):8); Bacteria (1; APA; PH2; NP9(2):8); Baldness (f; CRC); Bite (f; 
ULW); Bleeding (f; CRC); Blindness (f; WHO); Boil (f; AAB); Bronchosis (1; CAN; WO3); Bruise 
(f1; JFM; WHO); Bugbite (f1; APA; ULW); Burn (f1; AAB; CAN; ULW; VOD; WAM; WHO; 
X15751795); Cancer (f1; FNF, JAD; JLH; PH2); Cancer, anus (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; 
CRC; JLH); Cancer, larynx (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, lip (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; l CRC; 
JLH); Cancer, lymph (f; DEP); Cancer, nose (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; CRC; JLH); Can-
cer, stomach (f1; CRC; JLH; PH2); Cancer, tongue (f; EGG; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; CRC; JLH); 
Cerebrosis (f; DLZ); Childbirth (f; CRC; DAA); Cholecystosis (f; JFM); Cold (f; CRC; JFM); Colic 
(f; DEP; KAP; PH2); Colitis (f12; JFM; X15199891; X15043514); Condyloma (f; CRC; JLH); Con-
gestion (f; DLZ); Conjunctivosis (f; EGG; DEP; PHR); Constipation (f12; DAA; PH2; WAM; adult 
only); Consumption (f; KAP); Convulsion (f; CRC; NP9(2):8); Cough (f; APA; CRC; KAP); Cys -
tosis (f; JFM); Decubitis (f; AAB); Dermatosis (f1; PH2; ULW; WHO; WO3; NP9(2):8); Diabetes 
(f1; APA; CAN; VOD; JAC7:405; NP9(2):8); Dysmenorrhea (f; AHL; KAP); Dyspepsia (f; AHL; 
CRC); Eczema (f; CAN; CRC); Edema (f1; CAN; JFM; VOD; WHO); Enterosis (f; CRC; VOD; 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
WO3); Epilepsy (f; KAP); Erysipelas (f; CRC; EGG); Erythema (f12; X15857459); Escherichia (1; 
NP9(2):8); Fever (f; DEP; GHA; VOD; NP9(2):8); Flu (1; NP9(2):8); Fracture (1; RCP7(1)); Frostbite 
(f12; APA; PH2; WHO; NP9(2):8); Fungus (1; AAB; APA; MPI; PH2); Gastrosis (f; CRC; VOD; 
WO3); Gingivosis (f; WO3); Glaucoma (f; WHO); Glioma (1; X15747063); Glossosis (f; JLH); 
Gonorrhea (f; JFM);  Headache (f; GHA; VOD); Hemorrhoid (f; APA; CRC; WHO); Hepatosis (f1; 
BEJ; CRC; DEP; RCP6(1)); Herpes (12; AAB; PH2; NP9(2):8; RCP7(1)); High Cholesterol (1; WO3; 
X14598919); High Triglycerides (1; JAC7:405); HIV (1; WO3); Hysteria (f; CRC; VOD); IBD (12; 
X15043514); Immune Decfi iency (1; CAN; PNC); Impotence (f; NP9(2):8); Indigestion (1; WAM); 
Infection (f1; APA; BEJ; PH2; NP9(2):8) Infertility (1; CRC; MPI); Inafl mmation (f1; CAN; CRC; 
GHA; PH2; VOD; WHO; NP9(2):8; X15182910); Intoxication (1; X8937458); Ischemia (1; PH2); 
Itch (f; DAA); Jaundice (f; CRC; KAB); Klebsiella (1; NP9(2):8); Leprosy (f; KAB); Leukemia (f; 
CRC; JLH); Leukorrhea (f; JFM); Lumbago (f; KAB); Measles (1; NP9(2):8); Mouth Sores (f1; 
CAN; EGG); Myalgia (f; KAB); Mycosis (1; FNF; PH2; WHO); Nephrosis (f; JFM); Ophthalmia 
(f; DEP; KAB); Pain (f; EGG; GHA; PH2); Peptic Ulcers (f1; CAN; CRC); Periodontosis (f; EGG); 
PMS (f; APA); Pneumonia (f; JFM); Proctosis (f; CRC); Pseudomonas (1; NP9(2):8); Psoriasis (f12; 
CAN; PH2; WHO; NP9(2):8; X15857459); Pulmonosis (f; JFM); Radiation Burns (1; CRC; DAA; 
WHO); Rash (f1; AAB; IED); Rheumatism (f; WO3); Ringworm (f1; APA); Salmonella (1; CRC); 
Seborrhea (f; WHO); Shock (1; X15566601); Snakebite (f; IED); Sore (f1; IED; X15751795); Sore 
Throat (f; JFM); Splenosis (f; DEP; KAB); Sprain (f; JFM); Staphylococcus (1; CRC; PH2); Sting 
(f; IED); Stomatosis (f; JLH); Strangury (f; KAB); Streptococcus (1; CRC); Sunburn (f1; AAB; 
PNC; VOD; WAM); Swelling (f; GHA; JFM); Syphilis (f; PHR); Toothache (f; DAV); Trachosis (f; 
WO3); Tuberculosis (1; DAA); Tumors (f1; CRC); Ulcer (f1; APA; JFM; PH2; VOD; WAM; WHO; 
WO3); Uterosis (f; CRC); Vaccinia (1; NP9(2):8); Vaginosis (f; APA); Venereal Disease (f; CRC; 
JFM); Virus (1; PH2; NP9(2):8); Wart (f; CRC; JLH); Weaning (f; VOD); Worm (f1; IED; MPI; 
PH2); Wound (f1; APA; CAN; CRC; NP9(2):8).
d osages (a loe ):
FNFF = !
I would not myself think of it as food but TAN calls it a vegetable and FAC says the gel is often 
added to juices and jellies; bitter extracts are used in some beverages and candies and Dr. Samst 
Swedish bitters (FAC; TAN); 50–300 mg powder in a single dose at bedtime (AHP); 50–200 mg 
powder (APA); 1 Tbsp gel 3 ×/day (APA); 25 mg in 701 mg soybean oil, 1–2 softgels 3 ×/day; apply 
topically; or 1 tsp juice after meals (SF).
• Arabs rub fresh leaves or juice over the body to cool fevers (GHA).
• Ayurvedics regard the plant as alexiteric, alterative, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, and useful 
for asthma, bronchitis, dermatitis, erysipelas, fever, hepatosis, jaundice, leprosy, ophtha-l
mia, splenomegaly, and tumors (KAB).
• Caribbeans eat the “jelly” for constipation, cough, and sore throat (JFM).
• Chinese as early as 100 A.D. used aloe for convulsions, dermatosis, fever, and sinusosis 
(NP9(2):8).
• Curacaons take the sap for gallbladder ailments (JFM).
• Greeks in Dioscorides’ time used the sap for boils, dermatosis, itch, sores, and took it 
internally for infections and stomach disorders (NP9(2):8).
• Haitians make a hot aqueous extract of dried leaves as an antidiabetic, purgative, and 
vermifuge (VOD).
• Jamaicans take the “jelly” in decoction for biliousness and cold (JFM).
• Kenyans taught me how to use the gel as an efcafi cious sunscreen (JAD).
• Latinos eat jelly-like flesh to relieve sore throat (JFM).
• Omani apply the gel to swollen eyes (GHA).
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• Peruvians apply the gel to burns, conjunctivitis, erysipelas, inafl mmation, and sores (EGG).
• Trinidadans steep the flesh in stout, for jaundice; in rum, for pneumonia (JFM).
• Unani consider the plant antiinafl mmatory, carminative, digestive, purgative, tonic, and 
useful for biliousness, hemorrhoids, lumbago, myalgia, ophthalmia, splenitis (KAB).
• Yucatanese apply heated leaves to abscesses, bruises, erysipelas, and gum boils (JFM).
d ow Nsides (a loe ):
Gel Class 1 Internally; Gel Class 2d Externally (AHP); Class 2b, 2c, 2d for the powder. Dermatosis; 
Diarrhea; Intestinal Cramps; Nephrosis; Ulcers. Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson caution that anth-ra
quinones may be purgative, and an irritant to GI tract. Because of its cathartic and reputed abortifacient 
actions, its use in pregnancy and lactation should be avoided. However, they suggest that topical, but 
not oral, application might be okay during pregnancy and lactation (CAN). The latex can be a drastic 
cathartic. Contraindicated for pregnant women and children (LRNP). Do not use internally in pr-eg
nancy (WAM). Do not use with undiagnosed abdominal pain (WAM). Do not use internally for more 
than 10 days (WAM). Epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives 
have three times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH). May cause allergic dermatosis. Taken in excess 
it may result in ulcers or irritated bowels (TMA, 1996). Hypoglycemic. Commission E reports contra-
indications, adverse effects, and interactions of anthranoid laxatives (AEH). Naturopaths Yarnell and 
Meserole (1996) state that people allergic to aloe may develop a severe rash following its application. 
Alcoholic extract at 100 mg/kg for 3 months is toxic in mice (AAB). While not indicting this species, 
Neuwinger (1996) notes several fatalities from other species of Aloe. Few botanists can identify the 
species of aloe with nothing but the latex there, no leaf, no ofl wer, etc. (JAD).
extra Cts (a loe ):
Aloe gel, Barbados aloe, and aloe powder contain, respectively, 4.87, 4.65, and 4.21% aloin, and 
2.2, 2.1, and 2.03% aloe emodin. Gel preparations are reportedly effective against peptic ulcers 
(unless stress induced), radiation burns, and skin ulcers, and ineffective against stress-induced 
gastric and peptic ulcers. Healing wounds (10 mg/kg scu rat; 100 mg/kg scu mus); Bezakova et 
al. (X15751795), finding antilipoxygenase activity for aloe extracts, further rationaliz use of aloe 
extracts in acute inafl mmation, especially minor burns and skin ulcers (X15751795). Paulsen et al. 
(2005), in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of commercial Aloe vera gel, found it useful 
in psoriasis vulgaris. In 41 patients with stable plaque psoriasis, erythema, infiltration, and des-
quamation decreased in 72.5% [but 82.5% improved on placebo, making it better than the aloe. 
Sounds like placebo and Zoloft (X15857459).]. Mijatovic et al. (2005) reported antigliomic action 
of aloe emodin, a chemical found in aloe and many other unrelated species. The antigliomic act-iv
ity involves induction of both apoptosis and autophagy, as well as differentiation of glioma cells 
(X15747063). Biswas and Mukherjee (2003) proved vulnerary activity of several folkloric wound 
healers, including aloe, found effective in experimental models (X15866825).
Jo INte D ANABAsIs (An AbAsis A rticul At A 
(Fo RssK .) Moq.) + C he Nopo DIACeAe
Notes (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
The sons of Gad: Ziphion, Haggi, Shuni …
Genesis 46:16 (KJV)
Zohary, equating Shuni with Anabasis, believes that “there must have been Hebrew names for 
a species predominant through hundreds of miles of the Judaean Desert, the Negev, Edom and 
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elsewhere. … These names, while not finding a place among the ofl ra of the Bible, have survived as 
proper names in Hebrew and as plant names in Arabic” (ZOH). It is one of the most common desert 
dwarf shrubs, often dominating the vegetation type, enduring extreme drought for several consec-u
tive years. Several of the 25 species in the genus contain the alkaloid anabasine. This species, rich 
in potassium and saponins, is used as a detergent. Dried plants are collected as fuel.
Commo N Names (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
Agram (Arab.; ZOH); ‘Ajram (Arab.; ZOH); Ashna (Heb.; ZOH); Agram. (Leb.; HJP); Balbal (Leb.; 
HJP; ZOH); Hagarmi (Heb.; ZOH); Jointed Anabasis (Eng.; ZOH); Shenan (Arab.; ZOH); Shuni 
(Heb.; ZOH); Tatir (Atab.; HJP); Ushnan (Arab.; ZOH).
a Ctivities (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
Sore (f; HJP); Wart (f; HJP).
d osages (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
FNFF = !
Stems produce an edible gum or manna (UPH).
• Lebanese goat herders smear mashed plant, with blood and mud, on goat lesions (HJP).
• Lebanese use fresh leaf tea, or dry plant ashes, on running sores (HJP).
Natural History (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
The plants are heavily grazed by camels and goats (BIB; UPH). The fat sand rat Ps(ammomys 
obesus), a diurnal gerbillid, wholly herbivorous rodent, is able to survive consuming only this hal-o
phytic chenopod (X11073792).
extra Cts (Joi Nted a Nabasis ):
Contains a complex mix of saponins and prosaponins, involving glucose, glucuronic acid, and ox-y
triterpenic acid derived from anabasic acid (HEG; HOC). Thus far I find no reports of the interes-t
ing insecticidal alkaloid anabasine in this species, but I suspect it could well be there. Anabasine, 
if present, is reported to have antismoking, insecticidal, myorelaxant, respirastimulant, sialogogue 
activities, and is fairly potent as a rodenticide [Ldlo = 10 mg/kg (orl rat)] (PDB).
Rose -o F-JeRICho ( An Ast Atic A hierochuntic A L.) ++ BRAss ICACeAe
Notes (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
O my God, make them like a wheel; as the stubble before the wind.
Psalms 83:13 (KJV)
Folklore has it that Mary clenched this in her hand when birthing Jesus (GHA). A typical tumbl-e
weed and resurrection plant, it occurs in sand depressions or wadis in hot deserts, like the Judaean 
and Negev. It is probably what was mentioned as the “wheel” in Psalms 83. Zohary calls it the true 
Rose of Jericho. Dry fruiting branches hygroscopically expand into the “Jericho Rose” when placed 
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in water, even if dry for several years. The rose is sold in Middle Eastern markets as “Kaff Mariam,” 
(e.g., Qatar and other Arabian States and Emirates). The plant is soaked in water and, when it has 
unfurled, the water is drunk by the expectant mother, perhaps in hopes that the offspring will fill 
out as readily as the Jericho Rose, a symbol of resurrection (BAT; RIZ).
Commo N Names (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
Akaraba (Ber.; BOU); Bint en Nebi (Arab.; BOU); El Kemsha (Arab.; BOU); Elkmisha (Arab.; BOU); 
Haddaq (Arab.; BOU); Jericho Rose (Eng.; BIB); Jerose (Fr.; BOU); Kaff al-‘Adhra (Arab.; GHA); 
Kaff el-‘adra (Arab.; BOU); Kaff e Maryam (Arab.; Qatar GHA); Kaff Lella Fatma (Arab.; BOU); 
Kaff Maryam (Arab.; BOU); Kamaash (Arab.; BOU); Kamché (Arab.; Mauritania; UPW); Ke-m
she (Arab.; BOU); Kemshet en Nebi (Arab.; BOU); Kershoud (Arab.; BOU); Kmisa (Arab.; BOU); 
Komechi en Nebi (Mail; UPW); Kufayfah (Arab.; BOU); Main de Fathma (Alg.; Fr.; BOU; UPW); 
Mary’s Flower (Eng.; BIB); Qebad (Arab.; BOU); Rose de Jericho (Fr.; BOU); Rose of Jericho (Eng.; 
BOU); Shagaret Maryam (Oman; Qatar; Saudi; GHA); Palestinian Tumbleweed (Eng.; BIB); Sh- a
gret Mariam (Arab.; BOU); Shajaret et Talq (Arab.; BOU); St. Mary’s Flower (Eng.; BOU); Tamkelt 
(Ber.; BOU); True Rose of Jericho (Eng.; USN); Wheel (Eng.; BIB); Yedd Fatma (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
Analgesic (f; BOU); Emmenagogue (f; BOU); Hepatoprotective (1; X12643908).
iNdi Catio Ns (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
Amenorrhea (f; BOU); Childbirth (f; BOU; GHA); Cold (f; BOU); Epilepsy (f; BOU); Hepatosis (1; 
X2643908); Pain (f; BOU).
d osages (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
FNFF = ?
• Arabians, near birth, soak the dry plant in water and drink to avoid birthing pain (BAT; 
BOU; GHA; RIZ).
• Rabat Arabs take the infusion for colds and epilepsy (BOU).
extra Cts (r ose -o F-Jeri CHo ):
Anastatins A and B have hepatoprotective effects (on D-galactosamine-induced cytotoxicity in -pri
mary cultured mouse hepatocytes) even more potent than commercial silybin (X12643908).
WINDFLo WeR (Anemone coron Ari A L.) + RANUNCULACeAe
Notes (w iNd Flower ):
Consider the lilies of the field , how they grow; they toil not, neither do they spin: And yet I say 
unto you, that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these.
Matthew 6:28 (KJV)
Traditionally, says Zohary, this is believed to be the lilies of the efi ld of Matthew and Luke. Com-
mon, colorful, showy in much of the open areas of the Middle East, coming in blue, pink, purple, 
red, scarlet, white, violet (FP1; ZOH). This spectacular ornamental is said to still be abundant on 
the Mount of Olives, as it was in Jesus’ day (BIB). Today this is the most common anemone in the 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Windofl wer ( Anemone coronaria).
ofl rist trade. Mythology has it that the anemone sprung from the tears of Venus pining for Adonis: 
where a tear dropped, a windofl wer grew. Even Pliny swore that anemones only ofl wered when the 
wind was blowing. Magicians gathered them in his day as a remedy against disease, tying the ofl w-
ers around the neck or arm of the patient as a charm to cure all illness (BIB).
Commo N Names (w iNd Flower ):
Crown Anemone (Eng.; ZOH); Garden Anemone (Eng.; BIB); Lily (Eng.; BIB); Lily of the Field 
(Eng.; BIB); Poppy Anemone (Eng.; BIB); Sakkir (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shaka’ik un Za’man (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Windofl wer (Eng.; BIB; HJP).
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a Ctivities (w iNd Flower ):
Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (w iNd Flower ):
Leprosy (f; HJP); Malaria (f; HJP); Rhinosis (f; HJP); Sore (f; HJP); Tuberculosis (f; HJP); Tumor 
(f; JLH).
d osages (w iNd Flower ):
FNFF = X
• Arabs used the flowers for treating tumors (JLH).
• Lebanese immigrants claim that the plant is good for malaria (HJP).
• Middle Easterners still use classically to cleanse the nose and sores, using the root for 
tuberculosis and the plant for leprosy (HJP).
d ow Nsides (w iNd Flower ):
As of July 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed titles alluding to the toxicity of this species.
Natural History (w iNd Flower ):
Although not producing nectar, the ofl wers, opening by day closing by night, attract insects that feed on the 
copious pollen. The ofl wers are mostly cross-pollinated and the copious seeds distributed by the wind.
DILL (Anethum gr Aveolens L.) ++ ApIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Anethum sowa Kurz; Peucedanum graveolens L.; Peucedanum sowa Kurz.
Notes (d ill ):
Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin, 
and have omitted the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith: these ought ye to 
have done, and not to leave the other undone. Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow 
a camel.
Matthew 23:23–24 (KJV)
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for you tithe mint and dill and cummin, and have 
neglected the weightier matters of the law, justice and mercy and faith; these you ought to have done, 
without neglecting the others. You blind guides, straining out a gnat and swallowing a camel.
Matthew 23:23–24 (RSV)
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you give the tenth of the mint and the dill 
and the cumin, but you have disregarded the weightier matters of the Law, namely justice and 
mercy and faithfulness, These things it was binding to do, yet not to disregard the other things. 
Blind guides, who strain out the gnat but gulp down the camel
Matthew 23:23–24 (NWT)
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Dill (Anethum graveolens).
Although some scholars think this “biblical anise,” only in the KJV, might be Pimpinella, (ZOH) 
Zohary argues that it is unlikely that Pimpinella “has ever been grown in the biblical countries.” 
Dill is more characteristically a plant of oriental cultivation than anise. In postbiblical literature, 
dill is named shiveth, which is identical to the arabic sabth (ZOH). Dill was grown by the ancient 
Greeks and Romans. Lebanese have a legend that Abraham taught his people about dill when he 
came from the north. The Talmud records that its seeds, stems, and leaves were subject to tithe. The 
essential oil has shown inhibitory effects on various organisms, such as Bacillus anthracis.
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Commo N Names (d ill ):
Adas (Malaya; EFS); Adas Manis (Malaya; EFS); Anega (Ger.; Sp.; AVP; EFS); Anet (Eng.; USN); 
Aneta Odorant (It.; EFS); Aneth (Fr.; BOU); Aneth Odorante (Fr., Fwi.; AVP); Aneth Denouil (Fr.; 
EFS); Aneto (It.; Por.; AVP; EFS); Ayn-Jaradi (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Baluntshep (Bom.; DEP); Baston 
do Diale (Belgium; JLH); Buzzalchippet (Arab.; AVP); Chebit (Syria; AVP); Chibith (Syria; AVP); 
Dereotu (Tur.; EBS; EB54:155); Dild (Den.; EFS); Dilkfruid (Dutch; EFS); Dill (Eng.; Swe.; CR2; 
EFS); Dilla (Nor.; EFS); Dillenkraut (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Dillkraut (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Dillsmen (Ger.; 
AVP); Ecarlade (Fr.; Fwi.; AVP); Endro (Por.; AVP; EFS); Eneldo (Peru; Sp.; AVP); Faux Anis (Fr.; 
Fwi.; EFS; AVP); Fenouil Batard (Fr.; Fwi.; AVP; BOU); Fenouil Puant (Fr.; Fwi.; AVP; BOU); 
Finnochio Fetido (It.; EFS); Funcho (Mad.; JAD); Gurkenkraut (Ger.; HHB); Hinojo Hedionodo 
(Sp.; EFS); Hulwa (Oman; GHA); Keper (Pol.; AVP); Keraonia (Arab.; AVP); Kerti Kapor (Hun.; 
EFS); Koper (Pol.; AVP); Misreya (Sanskrit; DEP); Misroya (Sanskrit; EFS); Neto (It.; EFS); Sabth 
(Arab.; ZOH); Sadhab el Barr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sadhan al Barr (Oman; GHA); Sa Myiet (Burma; 
DEP); Sata Kuppi (Tam.; DEP); Satapushpi (Sanskrit; DEP); Shabat (Qatar; GHA; RIZ); Shamar 
(Arab.; BOU; HJP); Shebat (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shebet (Arab.; BOU); Sheveth (Heb.; ZOH); Shibit 
(Arab.; BOU); Shibith (Oman; Syria; GHA; HJP); Shi Luo (China; DAA); Shi Luo Zi (Pin.; DAA); 
Shubit (Arab.; EFS); Shulupa (Beng.; DEP); Shumar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shumra (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Soi (Kas.; DEP); Sowa (India; AVP; EFS); Soya (Kum.; Nepal; Pun.; DEP; SUW); Spinet 
(Oman; GHA); Sulpa (Beng.; DEP); Sulpha (Beng.; DEP); Surva (Guj.; DEP); Sutopsha (Hindi; 
DEP); Suva (India; EFS); Tebs (Arab.; BOU); Tere Otou (Tur.; AVP); Venkel (DWI; JFM).
a Ctivities (d ill ):
Allergenic (1; X12868972); Antidote (f; BOU); Antiemetic (f; BOU); Antihyperlipidemic (1; 
X11409638); Antihypercholesterolemic (1; X11409638); Antioxidant (1; X15364640); Antiradicular 
(1; X15364640); Antisecretory (1; X12493079); Antiseptic (f1; ZUL; X12797755); Antispasmodic 
(f12; APA; BOU; KOM; PH2; TRA); Antitoxic (1; TRA); Antitumor (f1; TRA); Bacteriostat (12; 
APA; KOM; PH2; TRA; ZUL); Candidicide (1; X12797755); Cardiodepressant (1; APA); Carmin-a
tive (f1; BOU; JFM; PNC; ZUL); Collyrium (f; JFM); Deobstruent (f; DEP); Detergent (f; CRC); 
Digestive (f; BOU; CRC); Diuretic (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; DEP; JFM); Emmenagogue (f; DEP); 
Emollient (f; BOU); Estrogenic (f1; FNF); Fungicide (1; TRA); Gastroprotective (f1; X12493079); 
GST Inducer (1; X1438594); Hypoglycemic (1; TRA); Hypotensive (1; APA; FNF; TRA); Insecti-
cide (1; X15125529); Insectifuge (1; ZUL); Lactagogue (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; JFM; NMH; TRA); 
Larvicide (1; X15125529); Laxative (f; CRC); Mutagenic (1; X7411385); Myorelaxant (1; APA); 
Narcotic (f; CRC); Orexigenic (f; APA); Psychadelic (f; CRC); Respirostimulant (f; APA); Sedative 
(f1; BOU; TRA); Soporic fi (f; JFM); Stimulant (f; CRC); Stomachic (f1; BOU; PNC; ZUL); Vaso -
dilator (1; TRA).
iNdi Catio Ns (d ill ):
Anorexia (f12; APA; PHR); Aposteme (f; CRC; JLH); Bacillus (1; TRA); Bacteria (12; APA; ZUL); 
Bronchosis (12; PHR); Bruise (f; CRC); Cancer (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f; CRC; JLH); 
Cancer, anus (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver 
(f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; 
CRC; JLH); Candida (1; X12797755); Cardiopathy (1, TRA) Childbirth (f; JFM); Cholecocystosis 
(2; PHR); Cold (f12; PHR); Colic (f1; CRC; GHA; PNC; ZUL); Condylomata (f; CRC); Cough (f12; 
APA; CRC; PHR); Cramp (f1; BOU; PHR; PH2; TRA); Diabetes (1; TRA); Dropsy (f; AHL; CRC); 
Dyslactea (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; JFM; NMH; TRA); Dyspepsia (f12; APA; CRC; KOM); Enterosis 
(f12; APA; GHA; JLH; PHR; PH2); Escherichia (1; TRA); Fever (f12; PHR); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fun-
gus (1; X12797755); Gas (f1; JFM; TRA; ZUL); Gastralgia (f1; TRA); Gastrosis (f12; APA; PHR; 
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PH2; TRA; X12493079); Halitosis (f1; APA; PH2); Heart Problems (1; TRA); Hemorrhoid (f1; APA; 
CRC); Hepatosis (f2; JLH; PHR); High Blood Pressure (1; APA; FNF; TRA); High Cholesterol (1; 
X11409638); Induration (f; CRC; JLH); Infection (f12; APA; PHR); Insomnia (12; APA; CRC; PHR; 
PH2); Jaundice (f; AHL; CRC); Mastosis (f; CRC; JLH); Mycosis (1; TRA; X12797755); Nephrosis 
(f; APA; PH2); Neuroses (1; APA); Obesity (1; X11409638); Pain (f; BOU; DEP); Pharyngosis (12; 
PHR); Respirosis (f; PH2); Salmonella (1; TRA); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Scurvy (f1; 
CRC); Shigellosis (1; TRA); Salmonella (1; TRA); Sore (f; CRC); Spasms (f; PHR); Splenosis (f; 
JLH); Staphylococcus (1; CRC); Stomachache (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; JFM; TRA); Stomatosis (12; 
PHR); Syphilis (f; PH2); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Urethrosis (1; APA; PH2); Uterosis (f; JLH); UTI’s 
(f; APA; PHR); Venereal Disease (f; PH2); Worm (f; PH2); Yeast (1; X12797755).
d osages (d ill ):
FNFF = !!!
Dill is used primarily as a condiment. Dried fruits (seeds) are used in pickles, soups, spiced beets, 
sfi h, and sfi h sauces, with eggs, and in potato salads. Roasted fruits serve as a coffee substitute. Hot 
fruit extracts are used to make jams and liqueurs; the dill oil is also used in liqueurs. Fresh leaves 
are used in salads, with cottage cheese, cream cheese, steaks, chops, avocado, cauliofl wer, green 
beans, squash, tomatoes, and tomato soup, zucchini, and shrimp. Dried leaves, known as dill weed, 
are also used to season various foods. Ethiopians use tender plant parts, dried fruits, and ofl wers 
in afl vorings, especially alcoholic beverages. Oil from the seed is used chiey fl as a scent in soaps 
and perfumes, and in the pickle industry. Weed oil, from the aboveground parts of the plant, is 
used in the food industry because of its characteristic dill herb smell and afl vor (FAC, TAN). Chew 
1/2–1 tsp seed (APA); 2 tsp crushed seed/cup water (APA); 1 g seed (HHB); 3 g seed (KOM; PHR); 
0.1–0.3 g EO (KOM; PHR); 0.3–1 ml concentrated dill water (PNC); 0.05–2 ml (I would have said 
0.05–0.2 ml) essential oil (PNC); (cf. celeryseed, close kin) (PNC).
• Asian Indians use the seed for abdominal tumors (JLH).
• Bahamans use the plant decoction for stomachache in children (JFM).
• Belgians apply the leaves to tumors (JLH).
• Dominicans suggest bruised leaves for bruises and sores (AHL).
• Dominicans suggest the antiscorbutic stimulant root as a diuretic in dropsy and jaundice 
(AHL).
• Dutch Antilleans use the cooled plant decoction as a collyrium (JFM).
• Lebanese suggest the use of the tea alone, with or interchangebly with true anise, for baby 
colic (HJP).
• Peruvians use the seeds for cancerous indurations and as lactagogues (JLH).
• Peruvians use foliar or seed infusion as a diuretic (EGG).
• Peruvians use the plant juice as an antiseptic and carminative (EGG).
• Venezuelans use the decoction as carminative, diuretic, lactagogue, and soporicfi (JFM).
d ow Nsides (d ill ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). None known (KOM). No health hazards or side effects in conjunction with 
proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages (PH2). Contact photodermatosis possible 
as in most umbellifers. Fresh juice may possibly cause photodermatosis (PHR; X12868972). We 
might extend to all apiaceous oils Bisset’s comments on celeryseed oil, “The drug is contraindicated 
in inafl mmation of the kidneys, (BIS)” because apiaceous essential oils may increase the inafl m -
mation as a result of epithelial irritation (BIS). Tramil (TRA) conservatively cautions for dill and 
fennel; contraindicated in reproductive women; limit dosage to 3 days. Doses of 175 mg/kg aqueous 
extract gastrically intubated in pregnant rats may be embryotoxic and or teratogenic (TRA).
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extra Cts (d ill ):
Proestos et al. (2005) checked the species for afl vonoid phenolics and their antioxidant and antim-i
crobial activity, finding circa 360 ppm quercetin, 445 ppm (-)-epicatechin, and 16 ppm vanillic acid 
in dill (X15713039). LD50 (Hydroethanolic Fruit Extract) = 1000 mg/kg ipr rat (TRA).
MAyWeeD (Anthemis cotul A L.) + Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Anthemis abyssinica J. Gay; Anthemis foetida L.; Anthemis heterophylla Wallr.; Anthemis psorosperma 
Ten.; Anthemis ramosa Link.; Chamaemelum cotula (L.) All.; Chamaemelum foetidum Baumg.; Marula 
cotula (L.) DC.; Marula foetida (Lam.) S.F. Gray; Marula vulgaris Bluff & Fingerh. fide HH2
Notes (mayweed ):
But go into a field of flowers, where no house is builded, and eat only the flowers of the field; taste 
no flesh, drink no wine, but eat flowers only.
4 Ezra Apocrypha 9:24 (KJV)
Zohary notes that the yellow-white, diminutive daisy-like ofl wers (more than 20 species of Anthe-
mis being found in Israel) ensure it a primary place among the ofl wers of the efi ld. Wisely, he des -
ignates dog fennel as Anthemis sp. (ZOH).
Commo N Names (mayweed ):
Amarusca (Eng.; JLH); Arbiyan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Bald Eye Grow (Eng.; BUR); Camomilla Me-z
zana (It.; HH2); Camomille des Chiens (Fr.; USN); Camomille Puante (Fr.; USN); Chiggy Weed 
(Eng.; BUR); Cotula Fetida (It.; EFS); Dillweed (Eng.; BUR); Dilly (Eng.; BUR); Dillweed (Eng.; 
BUR); Dog Daisy (Eng.; BUR); Dog-fennel (Eng.; AH2; USN); Doggis Fenkel (Eng.; JLH); Echhuan 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Fetid Chamomile (Eng.; BUR); Fieldweed (Eng.; BUR); Fieldwort (Eng.; BUR); 
Foul Wormwood (Eng.; JLH); Fuss ul Kilab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Hashish el Knanzir (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Hay Fennel (Eng.; BUR); Horse Daisy (Eng.; BUR); Hunds Kamille (Ger.; HH2); Ikhawan 
(Arab.; ZOH); Ironwort (Eng.; AAH); Kahwan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kuhdill (Ger.; HH2); Macela 
Fetida (Por.; EFS; HH2); Madder Mayweed (Eng.; BUR); Magarza (Sp.; HH2); Manzanilla Fetida 
(Sp.; EFS); Manzanilla Hedionda (Sp.; HH2; USN); Manzanilla Malagata (Sp.; HH2); Margaça 
(Mad.; Por.; JAD); Margarzuela (Sp.; EFS); Mawth (Eng.; JLH); Maydewode (Eng.; JLH); Ma-y
ofl wer (Eng.; BUR); Mayweed (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Mayweed Chamomile (Eng.; USN); North -
ern Dogfennel (Eng.; BUR); Poison Daisy (Eng.; BUR); Ribyaan (Arab.; ZOH); Stinkende Kamille 
(Dutch; EFS); Stinking Chamomile (Eng.; HH2; USN); Stinking Mayweed (Eng.; HH2); Stinkende 
Hundskamille (Ger.; USN); Stinkkamille (Ger.; HH2); Wild Chamomille (Eng.; EFS; HH2).
a Ctivities (mayweed ):
Anodyne (f; BUR); Antiinflammaory (f; WO2); Antispasmodic (f; HH2); Bitter (f; BUR); Carminative 
(f; EFS); Collyrium (f; BUR); Diaphoretic (f; HJP; TOM); Emetic (f; EFS; HH2); Emmenagogue (f; 
EFS; HH2); Febrifuge (f; EFS); Insecticide (f; WO2); Insectifuge (f; AAH); Sedative (f; HJP); Tonic (f; 
EFS; HH2; TOM); Unguent (f; EB28:316); Vermifuge (f; EFS); Vesicant (f; BUR); Vulnerary (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (mayweed ):
Amenorrhea (f; UPH); Arthrosis (f; BUR); Asthma (f; BUR; HJP); Cancer (f; JLH); Conjuncti-
vosis (f; HJP); Dermatosis (f; HJP); Diarrhea (f; HJP; EB31:353); Dropsy (f; BUR); Dysentery (f; 
HJP); Dyspepsia (f; EB31:353); Epilepsy (f; HJP); Fever (f; EFS); Gas (f; EFS); Headache (f; HH2); 
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Hyperkinesis (f; HJP); Hysteria (f; HH2; HJP); Insecticide (f; UPH); Neurosis (f; HH2); Ophthalmia 
(f; HJP); Pain (f; BUR); Pulmonosis (f; BUR); Rheumatism (f; BUR); Scrofula (f; BUR); Sore (f; 
AAH; EB28:316); Spasm (f; EFS); Sting (Bee) (f; UPH); Worm (f; EFS).
d osages (mayweed ):
FNFF = !
Used for teas, and in Peru for flavoring (FAC).
• British use in salves for cancer (JLH).
• Irish use with crowfoot for cancer (JLH).
• Lebanese make floral tea to calm adolescents and hystericals (HJP).
• Mapuche Indians use for hysteria and neuroses (HH2).
• Russians use as a vermifuge (HH2).
d ow Nsides (mayweed ):
As of November 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed 39 titles alluding to the toxicity of 
this species.
Natural History (mayweed ):
The ofl wers attract many insect pollinators, which collect the pollen and/or sip the nectar. When ofl wer -
ing, the plant turns the outer ofl wers down in the evening and spreads them out in the morning (ZOH).
AGARWoo D (Aquil Ari A mAl Accensis LAM.) + thy MeLAeACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Agallochum malaccense O.K.; Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.; Aquilaria malaicense Rumph.; Aqui-
laria ovata Cav.; Aquilaria secundaria DC.; Aquilariella malaccensis Van Thiegh fide HH2
Notes (a garwood ):
All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes…
Psalm 45:8 (KJV)
This is the aloe of the Old Testament; that of the New Testament is generally considered to be Aloe 
vera. The darker of several types of eaglewood, especially when partially diseased and decayed, 
is highly valued in perfumery, as incense, and for fumigation. The treasured unhealthy wood is so 
much more valuable than the healthy, that the healthy tree is too often destroyed in the quest for 
patches of unhealthy wood. Called agar, it is powdered and used as a efl a and lice repellent. The 
soft and fragrant inner wood, itself worth its weight in gold, was molded and used as a setting for 
precious stones. Myth has it in the East that eaglewood is the only tree to have descended to Man 
from the Garden of Eden, all others having perished. Supposedly, Adam brought one of its shoots 
and transplanted it to the land where he settled, other eaglewoods having sprung from this shoot. 
That is why it is sometimes called Shoot of Paradise and Paradise Wood. Malayans made cloth from 
the pounded bark. Annamese make a paper substitute from the bark, having presented 30,000 rolls 
of aloe paper to a Chinese emperor in A.D (BIB).
Commo N Names (a garwood ):
Adlerholz (Ger.; USN); Agallochon (Greek; DEP); Agallochum (Eng.; DEP); Agalugi (HH2); Agar 
(Bom.; Guj.; Hindi; Iran; Jap. Tam.; Urdu; DEP; HH2; KAB); Agare Hindi (Arab.; DEP); Agarwood 
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FIGURe .0 Agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis).
(Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Agaru (Ayu.; Beng.; Kan.; Sanskrit; AH2; DEP); Aggalichandana (Tam.; 
DEP; KAB; WO2); Aggar (Arab.; HH2); Aggur (Arab.; HH2); Aghal (Sanskrit; ZOH); Aghalukhi 
(Arab.; DEP); Agnikashtha (Sanskrit; KAB); Agre Hindi (Iran; DEP); Agru (Tel.; DEP); Agulugin 
(HH2); Aguru (Sanskrit; HH2); Ahalim (Heb.; IHB); Ahaloth (Heb.; DEP; IHB; ZOH); Akatau 
(Mal.; KAB); Akyan (Burma; NAD); Akyau (Burma; DEP); Akyaw (Eng.; DEP); Aloes Wood 
(Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; USN); Anaryaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Aquilaire (Fr.; KAB); Asara (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Aud Hindi (Arab.; DEP); Aude Hindi (Arab.; DEP); Belanjirj (Iran; NAD); Bois d’Aigle (Fr.; 
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HH2); Bois d’Aloes (Fr.; HH2); Bringhaja (Sanskrit; KAB); Calambac (Eng.; DEP); Chan Krasna 
(Cam.; KAB); Cheng Ch’en Chi (China; KAB); Ch’en Hsiang (China; KAB); Chen Xiang (Pin.; 
AH2); Eaglewood (Eng.; USN); Gaharu (Malaya; IHB); Garu (Mal.; DEP); Hindiagara (Bom.; 
DEP); Indian Aloewood (Eng.; USN); Jinkoh (Malaya; HH2); Jishvarupa (Sanskrit; KNAD); Jonk 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Kanankoh (Malaya; HH2); Karas (Mal.; IHB); Kashthaka (Sanskrit; KAB); K-aya
gahru (Mal.; NAD); Kayu (Mal.; DEP); K?ekaras (Malaya; IHB); Kihay (Sin.; DEP; KAB); Klim 
(Malaya; Semang; IHB); Krasne (Cam.; KAB); Krimigandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Krimija (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Krishna (Sanskrit; KAB); Krishnagaru (Kan.; Tam.; Tel.; NAD); Kyara (Malaya; HH2); 
Laghu (Sanskrit; KAB); Lign-aloes (Eng.; JLH; USN); Lignum Aloes (Eng.; DEP); Loha (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Lohakhya (Sanskrit; KAB); Malacca Eaglewood (Eng.; WO2); Malayan Aloewood (Eng.; 
WOI); Mi Hsiang (China; KAB); Nwahmi (Thai; DEP); Nyaw Chah (China; DEP); Ood Hindi 
(Arab.; DEP); Owd (Iran; HH2); Owd Hindi (Iran; HH2); Paradise Wood (Eng.; HH2); Pataka (S-an
skrit; KAB); Pichhila (Sanskrit; KAB); Pravara (Sanskrit; KAB); Rajarah Kalijya (Sanskrit; NAD); 
Rajarha (Sanskrit; KAB); Sam Chit (Malaya; KAB); Sási (Assam; DEP); Shoot of Paradise (Eng.; 
BIB); Sinnah (Sin.; DEP; KAB); Tabak (Sakai; IHB); T?beal (Malaya; Pangan; IHB); ?Tnegkaras 
(Malaya; IHB); Ud (Mal.; KAB); Ud el Juj (Arab.; NAD); Ud Hindi (Arab.; DEP); Ude Hindi (Arab.; 
DEP); Ugar (Beng.; DEP); Uggor (Arab.; HH2); Vanshika (Sanskrit; KAB); Varnaprasadana (S-an
skrit; KAB); Xylaloe (Greek; ZOH); Yelunjooj (;? HH2); Yogasha (Sanskrit; KAB).
a Ctivities (a garwood ):
Anodyne (f; BIB; NAD); Antianaphylactic (1; X9324002); Anticancer (1; X7320738); Antihist-a
minic (1; X9324002); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Astringent (f; KAB); Cardiotonic (1; WO2); Carmina-
tive (f; BIB); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Cholagogue (f; NAD); CNS Depressant (1; X8441779; WO3); 
Cytotoxic (1; X7320738); Deobstruent (f; NAD); Diuretic (f; BIB); Febrifuge (1; X8441779); Insec-
tifuge (f1; WO2); Pulifuge (f1; WO2); Sedative (1; X8441779); Stimulant (f; BIB); Stomachic (f; 
BIB); Tonic (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (a garwood ):
Allergy (1; X9324002); Anaphylaxis (1; X9324002); Anuria (f; HH2); Asthma (f1; BIB; WO2; 
X9324002); Bleeding (f; DEP); Bronchosis (f; BIB; NAD); Cancer (f; BIB); Cancer, colon (f; BIB); 
Cancer, liver (f; BIB); Cancer, lung (f; BIB); Cancer, stomach (f; BIB); Cancer, thyroid (f; BIB); 
Cardiopathy (f; IHB); Childbirth (f; BIB; IHB); Cholera (f; HH2); Colic (f; BIB; DEP); Congestion 
(f; BIB); Cough (f; HH2); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysgeusia (f; 
KAB); Enteralgia (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; BIB); Fever (f1; BIB; DEP; X8441779); Gastrosis (f; BIB); 
Gout (f; BIB; DEP); Headache (f; NAD); Hepatosis (f; KAB); Hiccup (f; BIB); Impotence (f; KAB); 
Induration (f; BIB); Leukoderma (f; BIB; KAB); Malaria (f; BIB; HH2); Nausea (f; BIB; DEP); 
Nephrosis (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Otosis (f; BIB); Pain (f; BIB); Palpitation (f; IHB); Palsy (f; 
BIB; DEP); Paralysis (f; BIB); Pulmonosis (f; BIB); Rheumatism (f; BIB; DEP); Smallpox (f; IHB); 
Thirst (f; KAB); Tumor (f; JLH); Vertigo (f; BIB; DEP); Wound (f; BIB).
d osages (a garwood ):
FNFF = ?
• Asian Indians apply a paste of Agaru and Isvari in brandy to the chest in bronchitis and 
to the head in headache (NAD).
• Asian Indians use the plant for abdominal tumors (JLH).
• Ayurvedics use wood for ear and eye ailments, asthma, dermatosis, hiccup, and leuc-o
derma (KAB).
• Chinese consider the wood aphrodisiac, carminative, stimulant, and tonic (KAB).
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• Malayans, considering it carminative, stimulant, and tonic, take it in childbirth, for 
female ailments, and for coronary palpitations (IHB).
• Unani use wood for asthma, bronchitis, diarrhea, enteritis, gastritis, hepatitis, nausea, 
and to stabilize the fetus in the uterus (KAB).
Natural History (a garwood ):
Only fungus-infected wood provides the prized agarwood of commerce. Species of Aspergillus, 
Fusarium, Penicillium, and Fungi imperfecti.
ho RseRADIsh ( Armor Aci A rustic An A p. GAeRt N. et AL .) 
++ BRAss ICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Armoracia lapathifolia Gilib.; Cardamine armoracia O. Ktze.; Cochlearia armoracia L.; Cochle-
aria rusticana Lam.; Nasturtium armoracia (L.) Fr.; Radicula armoracia (L.) Robinson; Rorippa 
armoracia (L.) Hitchc.; Rorippa rusticana Gren. & Godr.
Notes (Horseradis H):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
Although most books on medicinal plants of the Bible, including my own, do not mention the horserad-
ish, it seems to be the most important passover herb and is mentioned in the Torah. Under several ortho-
graphic variants (marror, maror, mohror, moror, morror), the Torah mentions eating the morror (marror, 
maror, moror), or the bitter herb. Many of my Jewish friends consider it the bitter herb mentioned in 
Numbers 9:10–11 (Helen Metzman; Wayne Silverman, separate personal communications, 2007).
I find it a great spice, especially with ketchupy seafood cocktail sauces like I enjoyed last night 
with shrimp cocktail. I was taken aback when the first title crossing my desk as I settled back 
into compiling today was “Deodorization of Swine Manure using Minced Horseradish Roots and 
Peroxides.” Pennsylvania scientists Govere et al. (2005) removed all offensive phenolics without 
recurrence for 72 hours, but human panels considered the odor reduced 50% in intensity, dare I 
call it IC50 = 1 part horseradish to 10 parts manure + calcium peroxide (26 or 34 mM) + hydrogen 
peroxide (34, 52, or 68 mM). The authors conclude that using horseradish “as enzyme carriers and 
peroxides as electron acceptors emerges as an effective approach to phenolic p(-cresol- p-ethylphe-
nol) and phenol odor control in animal manure,” skillfully avoiding the issue of the nonphenolic 
contributors (volatile fatty acid-like -nbutyric, n-caproic, isobutyric, isocapoic, isovaleric, propionic, 
and n-valeric acids) and indoles (indole, scatole). “More work is required to find ways to increase the 
removal of indolic odorants and volatile fatty acids.” Govere et al. (2005)
Commo N Names (Horseradis H):
Aed-mädarõigas (Estonia; POR); Balsamita Jaramago (Sp.; EFS); Barbaforte (It.; EFS; HH2); 
Bayírtupu (Tur.; EFS); Boereradijs (Dutch; POR); Chren (Rus.; HH2); Chrzan (Pol.; HH2); Ch-r
zan pospolity (Pol.; POR); Cran (It.; EFS); Cran de Bretagne (Fr.; EFS); Cranson (Fr.; USN); Cren 
(It.; HH2); Grand Raifort (Fr.; POR); Great Raifort (Eng.; GMH); Hoosu radiishu (Japan; POR); 
Horseradish (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Khren (Rus.; POR); Közönséges Torma. (Hun.; POR); Kren 
(Ger.; POR); Kr?en (HH2); Kreno (Dutch; POR), La Gen (China; POR); Mädarõigas (Estonia; POR); 
Makatakak (Hocak; WIN); Ma luo po (China; TAN); Meeretisch (Ger.; POR); Meerradi (Ger.; 
POR); Meerrettich (Ger.; POR; USN); Mérédic (Fr.; HH2); Meredik (Dutch; POR), Mierik (Dutch; 
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FIGURe . Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana).
POR), Mierikswortel (Dutch; EFS); Morror (Heb.; ?); Mountain Radish (Eng.; GMH); Moutarde 
des Allemands (Fr.; GMH); Moutarde des capucins (Fr.; POR); Moutardelle (Fr.; POR); Peberrod 
(Den.; POR); Pepparot (Swe.; POR); Piparjuuri (Fin.; POR); Rábano Forte (Por.; HH2); Rábano 
Picante (Sp.; Por.; USN); Rábano Picanto (Por.; USN); Rábano Rusticana (Sp.; EFS; USN); Rábano 
Silvestre (Por.; POR); Rafano (It.; EFS); Raifort Cran (Fr.; USN); Raifort Sauvage (Fr.; EFS); Raiz 
Forte (Brazil; Por.; POR; USN); Red Cole (Eng.; GMH); Seiyo wasabi (Japan; TAN); Seiyou wasabi 
(Japan; POR); Taramago (Sp.; POR).
a Ctivities (Horseradis H):
Abortifacient (f; DEM; FEL; LIB); Allergenic (1; CAN); Antiedemic (f; BGB); Antiinafl mmatory 
(f1; BGB; COX; X15231456); AntiMRSA (1; X17260672); Antimutagenic (1; X16250249); Anti-
oxidant (1; FNF; PED; X15231456); Antisarcomic (1; WO2); Antiseptic (f12; APA; KOM; SKY; 
X17260672); Antispasmodic (f1; HHB; PHR; PH2); Antitumor (f1; FAD); Bactericide (1; BGB; 
FAD; X17260672); Bitter (f1; PED; WO2); Carcinostatic (f1; PHR; PH2); Carminative (f; EFS; 
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WO2); Chemopreventive (1; X15231456); Circulatory Stimulant (f; CAN); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; 
X15231456); Counterirritant (f1; PED); Decongestant (f1; APA); Depurative (f; DEM); Diapho-
retic (f; PNC); Digestive (f; APA; CAN; DEM); Diuretic (f; APA; FEL; LIB; PNC); Emmenagogue 
(f; LIB); Expectorant (f1; APA; FAD; PED); Fungicide (f1; HHB); Gram(+)-icide (1; X17260672); 
Gram(-)-icide (1; X17260672); Hyperemic (2; KOM; PHR; PH2); Hypotensive (1; BGB; CAN); 
Hypothyroid (1; CAN); Immunostimulant (f; LIB; PED); Insecticide (1; X16786497); Larvicide (1; 
X16786497); Laxative (f; LIB); Mucolytic (f; MAB); Orexigenic (f; DEM; EFS); Pectoral (f; EFS); 
Rubefacient (12; APA; SKY); Sialogogue (f; FEL; WO2); Stimulant (f; PNC); Vesicant (f1; FAD); 
Vulnerary (f; CAN; LIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Horseradis H):
Abrasion (f; HOO); Allergy (f1; LIB; PED); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; X15231456); Anorexia (f; APA; 
DEM); Arthrosis (f1; APA; BGB; CAN; COX; X15231456); Asthma (f1; BGB; DEM; FNF); Atony (f; 
FEL); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (12; HHB; HH2; KOM; X17260672; X10548758); Bronchosis 
(f12; APA; PHR; PH2; SKY; X16618018); Bruise (f; HOO); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, abdomen 
(f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; FNF); Cancer, colon (f1; FNF; JLH; X15231456); Cancer, liver (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, nose (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; FNF; JLH; WO2); Catarrh (1; KOM; PHR; X17260672); Chilblain (f; GMH); 
Cholecystosis (f; PHR; PH2); Cold (f1; DEM; SKY); Colic (f; APA; PH2); Congestion (f1; APA); Cough 
(f12; GMH; PHR; PH2); Cramp (f1; HHB; WIN); Cystosis (1; LIB; PHR); Debility (f; BOW); Dental 
Plaque (f; FAD); Diabetes (f; DEM; LIB); Dropsy (f; FEL; GMH; HHB); Dysmenorrhea (f; DEM); 
Dyspepsia (f; PHR; PH2; SKY); Dysuria (CAN; PED;  fi PHR); Edema (f; BGB; CAN); Enterosis (1; 
PH2; WO2); Epistaxis (f; HOO); Escherichia (1; HH2; X17260672; X10548758); Fever (f; BOW); Flu 
(f1; GMH; PHR; PH2; X17260672); Freckle (f; FEL; HOO); Fungus (1; HHB; X10548758); Gastrosis 
(f; LIB); Glossosis (f; DEM); Gout (f; BGB; GMH; HHB; PHR; WO2); Gravel (f; DEM); Haemophilus 
(1; X17260672); Headache (f; HOO); Hepatosis (f; HHB; PHR; PH2); High Blood Pressure (1; LIB); 
Hoarseness (f; FEL; GMH; HOO; WO2); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f12; HH2; PH2; X17260672; 
X16618018); Inafl mmation (f1; CAN; PH2); Lumbago (f; SKJ); Moraxella (1; X17260672); MRSA 
(1; X17260672); Myalgia (f12; BGB; KOM; PH2); Mycosis (f1; HHB; HH2; X10548758); Neuralgia 
(f; DEM; GMH); Pain (f1; DEM; PH2); Pericardosis (f; BOW); Pertussis (f; GMH; LIB); Pleurisy (f; 
BOW); Pseudomonas (1; X17260672); Pulmonosis (f12; APA; DEM; KOM; PHR; PH2; X17260672); 
Respirosis (f12; APA; DEM; KOM; PHR; PH2; X17260672); Rheumatism (f; DEM; HHB; PHR); 
Rhinosis (f1; JLH; PED); Sciatica (f; APA; BGB; GMH); Sinusitis (f12; LIB; SKY; WAF; X16618018); 
Sore (f; LIB; WIN); Sore Throat (f; LIB; SKY); Splenosis (f; GMH; WO2); Staphylococcus (1; HH2; 
X17260672); Stomachache (f; HOO; LIB); Stomatosis (f; DEM); Stone (f1; CAN; LIB); Streptococcus 
(1; X17260672); Swelling (f; BGB; JLH); Toothache (f; DEM; LIB); Typhoid (f1; WO2); Urethrosis (12; 
KOM; PH2); UTIs (urinary tract infections) (12; APA; BGB; KOM; PH2; X17260672; X16618018); 
Worm (f; APA; GMH); Wound (f; APA; BOW; HOO); Yeast (1; X10548758).
d osages (Horseradis H):
FNFF = !!!
Roots (and occasionally young leaves) widely eaten as spice (as pickle, potherb, or salad ingredient); sliced 
roots cooked and eaten like parsnips (FAC; TAN), 2–4 g fresh root before meals (CAN); 1–2 drachms 
grated root (FEL); 20 g fresh root (KOM); 1–2 Tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5–3 g dry root (PED); 2 g dry root: 
10 ml alcohol/10 ml water (PED); 0.5–1 tsp root 3 ×/day (SKY); 2–3 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY).
• Hoosiers apply bruised leaves to the forehead for headache, and the stomach for sto-m
achache (HOO).
• Hoosiers apply leaves wet with vinegar to abrasions, bruises, sprains, and wounds (HOO).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Hoosiers take sweetened vinegar decoction of horseradish for hoarseness (HOO).
• Hoosiers wash freckles regularly with a sour milk infusion (5 hours) of grated horseradish 
(HOO).
• Hoosiers sniff powdered root for nosebleed (Tyler strongly discourages such) (HOO).
d ow Nsides (Horseradis H):
Class 2d. Contraindicated with gastrosis or GI mucososis, and nephrosis. Not for children under 4 
years old (AHPA, 1997; AEH; KOM). No health hazards or side effects known in conjunction with 
proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson (1996) caution that glucosin-o
lates are allergenic and an irritant. Because of the irritant oil, excessive ingestion should be avoided 
during pregnancy and lactation. May depress thyroid function, an action “common to all members 
of the cabbage and mustard family.” “The oil is one of the most hazardous of all essential oils and is 
not recommended for either external or internal use” (CAN). Excessive doses may lead to diarrhea 
or night sweats. “One case of a heart attack has been recorded — the patient survived” (TAD).
extra Cts (Horseradis H):
Horseradish peroxidase hypotensive (ivn cat) stimulates arachidonic acid metabolites (CAN). 
Germans have a commercial preparation (Angocin Ant-iInfekt N), mixing shoots of Tropaeolum 
major and roots of horseradish. It is used to treat respiratory and urinary tract infections. The 
volatile mustard oils are activated in the GI tract after ingestion. Both oils have antibacterial a-ctiv
ity. (Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 
Streptococcus pyogenes, methicillin-susceptible [MSSA] and -resistant Staphylococcus aureus 
[MRSA]). Combining the two herbs led to synergy against Pseudomonas (X17260672).
Wh Ite W o RMWoo D (Artemisi A herb A-Alb A Asso) ++ A ste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Artemisia inculta Del.; Artemisia sieberii Besser; Seriphidium herba-album (Asso) Soják fide GHA 
& RIZ
Notes (w Hite w ormwood ):
But her end is bitter as wormwood, sharp as a two-edged sword.
Proverbs 5:4 (KJV)
Zohary maintains that this is most likely to be the biblical species in the Holy Land (ZOH )A. . judaica is 
similarly used. Bedouins sell both species in Cairo markets. Herba-alba is used in native perfumery. The 
drink absinthe is made from a similar species, and thousands of gallons were once consumed annually, 
especially in France. It is said at rfi st to produce pleasant sensations, inspiring the mind with grandiose 
ideas, making one “ drunken with wormwood.” Others compare the effects of the smoke from various 
species of Artemisia with smoke from Cannabis. Bedouins believe that the fumes will keep away the 
cosmopolitan evil eye, perhaps a parallel with Amerindian smudging. Such smudgings are occasionally 
visited by police ofcfi ials because the Artemisia smoke also smells like Cannabis smoke. Bedouins use 
dry wooly galls from the wormwood for tinder to start rfi es (BIB). In Lebanon, Philips maintains that A. 
arborescens, A. herba-alba, A. judaica, and A. maritima are used interchangeably.
Commo N Names (w Hite w ormwood ):
Abelbel (Ber.; BOU); ‘Alala (Arab.; BOU); Apsinthos (Greek; ZOH); Armoise (Fr.; BOU); Armoise 
blanche (Fr.; BOU); biblical Wormwood (Eng.; BIB); Desert Wormwood (Eng.; RIZ); Ghoreird 
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(Arab.; BOU); Ghurayrah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ifsi (Ber.; BOU); Izri (Ber.; BOU); Laanah (Heb.; 
ZOH); Laehnah (Heb.; BI2); Odessir (Ber.; BOU); Shih (Arab.; Qatar; Syria; BI2; BOU; GHA; 
HJP); Thym des steppes (Fr.; BOU); White Wormwood (Eng.; HJP; USN); Wormwood (Eng.; 
BOU); Zeri (Ber.; BOU); Zerzeri (Ber.; BOU).
a Ctivities (w Hite w ormwood ):
Abortifacient (f; HJP); Anthelmintic (f1; HJP; X7162537); Antienteritic (f; DAW); Antigastritic (f; 
DAW); Antihemolytic (1; FNF); Antileishmanic (1; X11346978); Antiophidic (1; FNF); Antiseptic 
(1; BOU; DAW; X8786657); Antispasmodic (f1; CWW; DAW; EB22:165); Antiulcer (1; CWW); 
Ascaricide (1; GHA); Bactericide (1; Yashphe et al., 1995); Decongestant (f; DAW); Diuretic (f; 
HJP); Emmenagogue (f; BOU; DAW); Febrifuge (f; BOU; DAW); Fungicide (1; CWW); Gastro-
acidulant (1; X10189949); Gastroprotective (1; X10189949); Hemostat (f; DAW); Hyperglycemic 
(1; X8786657); Hypoglycemic (1; X8786657); Hypolipidemic (1; CWW); Hypotensive (1; CWW); 
Insecticide (1; BOU); Parasiticide (1; BOU); Stimulant (f; BOU); Tonic (f; BOU); Vermifuge (f; 
BOU; DAW; HJP; X7162537).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite w ormwood ):
Abscess (f; BOU; DAW); Amenorrhea (f; DAW); Bacteria (1; X458619); Bedbug (f; HJP); Bleeding 
(f; BOU; DAW); Bronchosis (f; DAW); Burn (f; BOU); Cold (f; HJP); Congestion (f; DAW); Cough 
(f; BOU; DAW); Cramp (f; DAW); Dermatosis (f; HJP); Diabetes (1; X9324004; X8786657); Diar-
rhea (f; BOU); Dysphoria (f; DAW); Enterobius (1; X3256117); Enterosis (f; CWW; DAW; ZOH; 
EB22:165); Epilepsy (f; HJP); Escherichia (1; CWW); Fever (f; BOU; DAW); Fungus (1; CWW); 
Gastrosis (f1; DAW; EB22:165; HJP; X10189949; X3747566); Gingivosis (f; HJP); Headache (f; 
BOU; DAW); Head Cold (f; HJP); High Blood Pressure (f1; CWW; HJP); Infection (1; DAW; 
X8786657; X458619); Leishmania (1; X11346978); Malaria (f; HJP); Mycosis (1; CWW); Neurosis 
(f; BOU; DAW); Ophthalmia (f; BOU; DAW); Respirosis (f; CWW); Rheumatism (f; DAW); Rhino -
sis (f; DAW); Salmonella (1; CWW); Shigella (1; CWW); Sore (f; DAW); Spasm (f1; CWW; DAW; 
EB22:165); Stomachache (f; HJP); Toothache (f; CWW: DAW; FP3); Ulcer (1; CWW); Worm (f1; 
BOU; DAW; GHA; ZOH); Wound (f; BOU; HJP).
d osages (w Hite w ormwood ):
FNFF = !
Dried leaves used as tea by Negev and Sinai Bedouin (ZOH).
• Bedouins tamp leaves in the nostrils as a nasal decongestant for cold (BIB).
• Bedouins drink leaf tea, in water or milk, for colds and cough (BIB).
• Bedouins, when newly born, inhale smoke from burning leaves to insure good health 
(similar aromatic species of Artemisia are used by Orientals and Amerindians in mox-i
bustion and smudging, respectively) (BIB).
• Egyptians use wormwood for tapeworms (BI2).
• Israelis and Palestinians use the leaves for toothache (FP3; HJP).
• Lebanese apply leaf macerate with shea and olive oil to cuts, dermatosis, and lesions 
(HJP).
• Lebanese make a strong tea from dried whole herb to expel worms (HJP).
• North Africans use the plant to calm bleeding, cough, emotions, fever, headache, nerves, 
ophthalmia, and stomach (BOU).
• Saudi Bedouins inhale the smoke for medicinal purposes (GHA).
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Natural History (w Hite w ormwood ):
Although bitter, the plant is grazed by goats (ZOH). Camels that graze on the plant are said to be 
spared certain skin diseases. Snakes are reported from the shade of the herb (BIB). Farmers in the Nile 
Valley fumigate poultry with smoke from burning leaves. They view the herb as a snake repellent.
extra Cts (w Hite w ormwood ):
Aqueous extract is antileshmanial at 4 µg/ml (X11346978). Stomach acid content increased 251% 
by ethanol extracts (X10189949).
GIANt R eeD (Arundo don Ax L.) + po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
 Arundo bengalensis Retz.; Donax arundinaceus Beauv.
Notes (g ia Nt r eed):
A reed shaken with the wind.
Matthew 11:7 (KJV)
Many scholars have identiefi d this as the reed of the Bible, while Zohary has instead picked the 
very similar Phragmites communis, which see, from four species of reed in Israel with long root-
stocks and tall stems, hollow and jointed, entirely covered with large leaves, each ending in tassels 
of ofl wers. But Zohary admits to a “collective” colloquial concept of reeds much broader than the 
taxonomist’s narrower concepts (ZOH). Presenting us with some interesting information on Arundo 
donax, as well as several common names, the USDA’s R.E. Perdue (now retired) also noted that 
many of these common names are applied to both Arundo and Phragmites. With no voucher speci-
mens, who knows what was really in the hands or minds of early biblical writers and sfi herfolk? 
Various authors state that both the names and uses are almost interchangeable. (But onlAy rundo 
of these seems to contain the rather dangerous compound bufotenine.) What follows is some of 
what I wrote in 1985, hoping that it accrues to Arundo. Although believed by Egyptians to be a 
Syrian introduction, Arundo apparently is rare or absent as a truly wild plant or seedling. It is c-ul
tivated along water courses, but usually above the water level. Even around big lakes, it seems to 
be exclusively propagated by root divisions, usually by sfi hermen. Stems serve as support for vines 
and similar climbing plants, and for making trellises and the like for climbing cultivated plants. In 
Egypt, the reeds are also used for fencing and roofing. Reeds are also used as measuring rods, wal-k
ing sticks, arrow shafts, sfi hing poles, musical instruments (e.g., clarinets and bagpipes in Europe), 
baskets, and mats. Romans used such reeds for pens. It makes good-quality paper, and Italians use 
it in manufacturing rayon (BIB).
Commo N Names (g ia Nt r eed):
Adavi Keekasa Gaddi (Tel.; WO2); Alo Kyu (Burma; WOI); Arrow Reed (Eng.; EFS); Baktu-s
ing (Limbu; NPM); Bamboo Reed (Eng.; NPM); Bambou Indien (Guad.; AVP); Bambou Mare 
(Guad.; AVP); Bansi (Pun.; WOI; WO2); Bara Nal (Hindi; WO2); Bhok (Chepang; NPM); Ca- l
ami (It.; EB12:368); Cana (Por.; EFS); Caña Bambua (Pr.; Sp.; AVP); Caña Brava (Pr.; Sp.; AVP); 
Caña Brava de Castilla (Col.; Sp.; AVP); Caña Común (Sp.; EFS); Caña de Castilla (Cuba; Dr.; 
Sp.; AVP; EFS); Caña Guana Carrizo (Sp.; AVP); Caña Hueca (Sp.; Cuba; AVP); Caña India (Pr.; 
Sp.; AVP); Cañaveral (Mex.; Sp.; AVP); Cana-vieira (Mad.; JAD); Canna (It.; EB12:368); Canna 
Berganena (It.; EB12:368); Canna Commune (It.; EB12:368); Canna da Rocchi (It.; EB12:368); 
Canna di Cannitu (It.; EB12:368); Canna di Stenniri (It.; EB12:368); Canna do Reino (Por.; AVP); 
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FIGURe . Giant Reed (Arundo donax).
Canna Domestica (It.; EB12:368); Canna du Provenza (It.; EFS); Canna Montana (It.; EFS); Canna 
Zagariddara (It.; EB12:368); Canne de Province (Fr.; EFS); Carrizo (Mex.; Peru; EGG; EB12:368); 
Carruzo (Peru; Sp.; EFS); Ceneviera (It.; EB12:368); Ciane Gergane (It.; EB12:368); Ckingkan (Agu-a
runa; Peru; EGG); Cow Cane (Eng.; AVP); Cuin (Cuba; AVP); Danubian Reed (Eng.; NPM); Dexne 
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(Peru; Uvosha; EGG); Donaci (It.; EB12:368); Donax Cane (Eng.; NPM); Foocañunhyta (Ocaina; 
Peru; EGG); Gaba Nal (Assam; WO2); Gaha Nal (Beng.; WO2); Giant Reed (Eng.; NPM); Grand 
Roseau (Fr.; Mart.; AVP); Great Reed (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; NPM); Guajana (Pr.; Sp.; AVP); Gutamu 
(It.; EB12:368); Honrkandma (Rai; NPM); Italian Reed (Eng.; NPM); Kadi Lak (Sanskrit; WO2); 
Kalamos (Greek; EB12:368); Kami¸s (Tur.; EFS); Kasab (Egypt; EB12:368); Khen (Laos; AVP); 
Korukkai (Tel.; WO2); Lata (Col.; Sp.; AVP); Lenrakut (Tharu; NPM); Manglong (Lepcha.; NPM); 
Nal (India; WO2); Naldura (Gharwal; WO2); Narhal (Delhi; WO2); Narkat (Bhojpuri; Danuwar; 
Gurung; Nepal; Sunwar; Tamang; NPM); Narkul (India; WO2); Narsal (Delhi; WO2); Nyapan 
kathi (Newari; NPM); Panache (Mart.; AVP); Pfahlrohr (Ger.; AVP); Pfeilrohr (Ger.; EFS); Pijlriet 
(Dutch; EFS); Provence Cane (Eng.; NPM); Quassab (Arab.; AVP); Racine de Canne (Fr.; AVP); 
Riesenschilf (Ger.; EB12:368); Riet (Dutch; AVP); Rohr (Ger.; AVP); Roseau (Fr.; EB12:368); 
Roseau des Jardines (Haiti; AVP); Say Lau (Vn.; AVP); Spanish-Bambooreed (Eng.; WO2); Sukana 
(Pun.; WO2); Taquara (Por.; AVP); Taquari (Por.; AVP); Te?be?rau Gading (Malaya; IHB); Thagal 
(Nepal; NPM); Uaichi (Aguaruna; Peru; EGG); Virtamu (It.; EB12:368); Wasserrohr (Ger.; EFS); 
Z’herbe Roseau (Haiti; AVP).
a Ctivities (g ia Nt r eed):
Analgesic (f; EGG); Antifeedant (1; X10803974; X8254352); Antiacetylcholinesterase (1; WO2); 
Antigalactagogue (f; DAW; MPI; SKJ; WO2); Antihistaminic (1; WO2); Antispasmodic (f; MPI); 
Cyanogenic (1; BIB); Depurative (f; AHL; DAW); Diaphoretic (f; DAW); Diuretic (f; BIB; DAW; 
NPM); Emmenagogue (f; MPI; NPM; SKJ); Emollient (f; DAW); Hallucinogenic (1; BIB); Hyper-
tensive (1; DAW); Hypotensive (1; DAW; WO2); Insecticide (1; WO3); Myorelaxant (1; MPI); Res-
pirodepressant (1; MPI); Sudoric (fi f; DAW); Vasopressor (1; FNF).
iNdi Catio Ns (g ia Nt r eed):
Cancer (f; BIB); Condyloma (f; BIB); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; NPM); Headache (f; 
NPM); High Blood Pressure (1; DAW); Induration (f; BIB); Low Blood Pressure (1; DAW); Ma-s
tosis (f; BIB); Pain (f; EGG); Syphilis (f; AHL); Venereal Disease (f; AHL); Wart (f; BIB); Wound 
(f; JAD).
d osages (g ia Nt r eed):
FNFF = !
Young shoots occasionally eaten.
• Dominicans suggest the roots as antilactagogue, antisyphilitic, depurative, and diuretic 
(AHL).
• Egyptians use Arundo and Phragmites as diaphoretic and diuretic.
• Italians boil roots in wine with honey for various cancers (JLH).
• Peruvians consider the rhizomes analgesic and diuretic (EGG).
d ow Nsides (g ia Nt r eed):
The bufotenine alkaloids could be problematic.
Natural History (g ia Nt r eed):
Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following as affecting this species: Armillaria mellea (root 
rot), Leptostroma donacis, Papularia sphaerosperma, Puccinia coronata (crown rust), and Seleno-
phoma donacis (stem speckle).
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extra Cts (g ia Nt r eed):
Ethanolic rhizome extracts show antiacetylcholinesterase, antihistaminic, antispasmodic, and hy-po
tensive activities (WO2). Leaves emit isoprene (WO3).
Said to raise the blood pressure in high doses, lower it in lower doses (AHL). Leaves may co-n
tain bufotenine, which is reportedly antialzheimeran, anticholinesterase (1/30th physostigmine), 
aphrodisiac, cardioactive, CNS-active, hallucinogenic, hypertensive, mydriatic, respiraparalytic, 
and serotoninergic (http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke).
t RAGACANth MILK vet Ch ( Astr Ag Alus gummifer LABILL.) +++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
 Astracanthus gummifer (Labill.) Podlech; Astragalus adpressus Ehrenb ex Walp.; Astragalus eri-
anthus Willd.; Astragalus noemiae Eig. fide HH2
Notes (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the 
land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, 
and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (KJV)
Then their father Israel said to them, “If it must be so, then do this: take some of the choice fruits 
of the land in your bags, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm and a little honey, 
gum, myrrh, pistachio nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (RSV)
So Israel, their father, said to them, “If then, that is the case, do this: Take the finest products of 
the land and carry them down to the man as a gift, a little balsam, and a little honey, labdanum, 
and resinous bark, pistachio nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (NWT)
Working with the RSV, the only version of the three to mention gum, clearly differing botanically 
from the KJV and NWT above, Zohary concludes that the word nekhoth, mentioned only twice in 
the Hebrew Bible, should be translated tragacanth. The KJV seems to have substituted spices, the 
NWT labdanum, for the gum in the RSV. As a mediocre botanist, not a historian or biblical scholar, 
I do not know which, if any, version is correct. Further complicating life, the AH2 speciefi s that 
the Standardized Common Name of the dried gummy exudate of the stems of A. gummifer is gum 
tragacanth. Zohary notes that the genus Astragalus has about 1800 species, “many of them produc-
ing the tragacanth gum.” (ZOH) Zohary says tragacanth is “a dried gum exuded from certain spiny 
and shrubby species of Astragalus occurring in several countries of the Middle East, including 
Israel” (ZOH). Zohary lists 50 species of Astragalus, but not A. gummifer, in the Flora of Palestine 
(FP2). It is difcfi ult for trained taxonomists who have devoted their lives to the study of legumes to 
identify ofl wering and fruiting specimens of the shrub; who, then, can identify the “gum,” perhaps 
mentioned in Genesis? It could have been the gum of many species of Astragalus, perhaps even 
admixtures of gum from several species or even other gum- or resin-bearing shrubs. Before his 
death, Howard Scott Gentry, who himself had studied tragacanth in the Middle East, tried to in-ter
est me in just such a study. There was much anticancer interest in the various species oAf stragalus. 
I declined, frightened by the taxonomic complexity. I fear no one man in his lifetime could resolve 
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the taxonomic difcfi ulties of this complex but useful genus. Hungry early man doubtless used traga-
canth as a survival food, after seeing that ants, goats, and sheep relish the sweeter gums. Tragacanth 
gum is one of the oldest natural emulsiefi rs known to man, extensively used in vaginal jellies and 
creams, low-calorie syrups, toothpastes, and hand lotions. The gum is used in such foods as salad 
dressings, sauces, ice creams, confections, syrups, milk powder stabilizers, citrus oil emulsions, and 
cheeses. Together with guar, tragacanth may make the cheaper ice creams healthier, substituting 
soluble cholesterol-free polysaccharides for the unhealthy cream. Some of these polysaccharides 
are active against ascites tumor types in mice. Among the species taxonomically confused with or 
called tragacanth, or some derivative thereof, Hartwell notes “folk-cancer” remedies for chronic 
indurations of the liver (including, probably, cirrhosis), nasal polyps, non-ulcerated cancers, sup-er
ufl ous efl sh, and tumors of the eyes, fauces, and liver. It was once used to stiffen calico, crape, etc. 
Need for fuelwood in poor desert areas may jeopardize many natural stands of this shrub (e.g., in 
Iran, source of the best tragacanth, where it is largely used in medicine and confectionary) (BIB).
Commo N Names (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
Adragante (Fr.; EFS); Alquitira (Sp.; USN); Angira (India; EFS); Astragale à Gomme (Fr.; USN); 
Besem (Heb.; BI2); Dragante (It.; EFS); Goat-Thorn Bush (Eng.; AH2); Gomme Adragante (It.; 
EFS); Gum (Eng.; BIB); Gum Tragacanth (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Gummitragant (Ger.; USN); 
Katâd (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kathira Bayda (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kitre Givenne (Tur.; EFS); Nakaa 
(Arab.; ZOH); Nakaath (Arab.; ZOH); Nekhoth (Heb.; ZOH); Tragacanth (Eng.; FAC); Tragacanth 
Milkvetch (Eng.; AH2); Tragacanthstruik (Dutch; EFS); Tragacanto (Sp.; USN); Tragant (Den.; 
Ger.; USN); Traganthstrauch (Ger.; EFS).
a Ctivities (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
Anticancer (1; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Demulcent (f; BIB; EFS; HJP); Diuretic (f; BIB; HJP); 
Emollient (f; BIB; EFS); Laxative (1; BIB; EFS; PH2); Peristaltic (1; PH2); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
Burn (f; BIB); Cancer (1; BIB; JLH); Cancer, eye (1; BIB; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; BIB; JLH); Cancer, 
throat (1; BIB; JLH); Cirrhosis (f; JLH); Cough (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); 
Induration (f; JLH); Ophthalmia (f; JLH); Polyp (f; BIB; JLH); Rhinosis (f; BIB; JLH); Wound (f; 
BIB; HJP).
d osages (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
FNFF = !!
More food additive than food, the FDA denfi es GRAS gum tragacanth as “the exudate from one of sev-
eral species of Astragalus gummiefi r Labillardiere,” permitting its use up to 2000 ppm in baked goods 
and baking mixes, 7000 ppm in condiments and relishes, 13,000 ppm with fats and oils, 8000 ppm with 
gravies and sauces, 2000 ppm with meat products, 2000 ppm with processed fruits and fruit juices, and 
up to 1000 ppm in all other food categories. 1 tsp (circa 3 g) granulated drug added to 250–300 ml 
liquid (PH2).
• Lebanese apply powdered tragacanth to cuts and wounds (HJP).
d ow Nsides (t raga Ca Nt H milkvet CH):
None at therapeutic dosages except for rare allergy. Should be taken with plenty of water, as with 
all bulking agents (PH2).
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seA o RAChe (Atriplex h Alimus L.) + Che Nopo DIACeAe
Notes (s ea o ra CHe):
Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat.
Job 30:4 (KJV)
They pick mallow and the leaves of bushes, and to warm themselves the roots of the broom.
Job 30:4 (RSV)
They were plucking the salt herb by the bushes, And the root of broom trees was their food.
Job 30:4 (NWT)
Zohary suggests that this difcfi ult passage, like so many from Job, might have been better rendered 
as, “They pick the leaves of the orache and the wormwood.” The translation of maluah as “orache,” 
and not true mallow, is better because Job is alluding to the desert, where orache, also called salt 
bush (if not salt herb as in NWT), is common. It is a strong-growing bush or shrub, 5 feet or more 
tall, with gray foliage and inconspicuous ofl wers. One of the most common desert plants in salt atfl s, 
it is used as survival food and as a salt source. The closely relateAd triplex rosea, which occurs in 
the biblical area as well, has been a folk remedy for such cancerous conditions as corns, hard lumps, 
and indurations (JLH). Smoke from burning seed is used to treat skin ailments and sores. Lebanese 
doctors are said to extract anodynes, emetics, hypnotics and purgatives from the plants. According 
to Boulos, the seeds are in small doses emetic, in large doses poisonous (BOU). Ashes of the plant 
are taken for gastric acidity, the roots for dropsy (BIB).
Commo N Names (s ea o ra CHe):
Abougboug (Ber.; BOU); Alimo (It.; HH2); Álimo (Sp.; USN); Aramès (Ber.; BOU); Arams (Ber.; 
BOU); Armuelle Glauco (Sp.; USN); Arroche (Fr.; BOU); Arroche Halime (Fr.; HH2; USN); Halime 
(Fr.; BOU); Kattaf (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Mallow (Eng.; BIB); Maluh (Arab.; BOU); Malûhh (Arab.; 
HJP); Marisma (Sp.; USN); Mediterranean Saltbush (WO2); Meermelde (Ger.; HH2); Meerportu-
lak (Ger.; HH2); Orzaga (Sp.; USN); Osagra (Sp.; USN); Pourpier de Mer (Fr.; USN); Qataf (Arab.; 
BOU); Qataf Bahhari (Arab.; HJP); Qtout (Arab.; BOU); Roghata (Arab.; BOU); Rughat (Arab.; HJP); 
Rughl (Arab.; GHA); Salgada (Sp.; USN); Salgadeira (Por.; USN); Salguiera (Madiera; Por.; JAD); Sea 
Orache (Eng.; BOU; FAC; USN; WO2); Sea Purslane (Eng.; BOU; FAC; USN); Shrubby Orache (Eng.; 
USN); Staudenmelde (Ger.; HH2); Strauchmelde (Ger.; USN); Tall Shrubby Orache (Eng.; HJP).
a Ctivities (s ea o ra CHe):
Anodyne (f; HJP); Antacid (f; BOU); Antidiabetic (f1; HH2); Emetic (f; BOU; GHA); Hypnotic 
(f; HJP); Hypoglycemic (1; HH2); Insulin Potentiator (1; HH2); Insecticide (1; X9617055); Larv-i
cide (1; X9617055); Mosquitocide (1; X9617055); Purgative (f; HJP); Toxic (f; BOU); Vermifuge (f; 
HH2); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (s ea o ra CHe):
Dermatosis (f; HJP); Diabetes (f1; HH2); Gastrosis (f; BOU); Hyperacidity (f; BOU); Infection (f; 
HH2); Sore (f; HJP); Worm (f; HH2); Wound (f; HJP).
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d osages (s ea o ra CHe):
FNFF = !!
Described as famine food in North Africa (WO2). Leaves and young shoots have served as a p-ot
herb. These “mallows” are commonly eaten by the poor between Aleppo and Jerusalem (e.g., eaten 
by hungry Palestinian shepherds like spinach). According to the Talmud, Jews working on the 
reconstruction of the Temple in 520–516 b.c. ate these “mallows” (BIB; FP1). Facciola makes it 
sound a bit more enticing. Young leaves and shoot tips eaten raw or in casseroles, pastas, quiches, 
soups, etc. Plant produces an edible manna (FAC).
• Arabians view the seed decoction as emetic (GHA).
• Lebanese apply dried leaf powder to sores and wounds (HJP).
• Lebanese use seed infusion or direct seed smoke to dermatoses and sores (HJP).
• Negev Bedouins take the leaf tea for diabetes (HH2).
• North Africans cut the root into long narrow pieces used as a toothbrush (BOU).
• North Africans take the alkaline ashes of the plant for gastric acidity (BOU).
d ow Nsides (s ea o ra CHe):
North Africans view small doses of the seeds as emetic, large doses poisonous (BOU).
Natural History (s ea o ra CHe):
The fat sand rat( Psammomys obesus), a diurnal gerbillid rodent, is herbivorous and able to thrive while 
consuming only sea orache, a plant relatively low in energy content and high in ash and water content. 
Before consuming A. halimus leaves, the fat sand rats scrape off the outer layer with their teeth, thereby 
removing many of the electrolytes but increasing the gross energy and organic matter content of the 
leaves by only about 3.1%. There are advantages to this diet: (1) it provides a more stable diet throughout 
the year than do seeds; (2) fat sand rats have no competition for this food resource from other rodents; and 
(3) their burrows are at the base of the plants, requiring little energy to forage (X8679505).
DeseRt DA te ( bAl Anites A egypti Acus (L.) DeLILe.) ++ BALANIt ACeAe
Notes (d esert d ate ):
Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter 
of my people recovered?
Jeremiah 8:22 (KJV)
Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? Why then has the health of the daughter 
of my people not been restored?
Jeremiah 8:22 (RSV)
Is there no balsam in Gilead? Or is there no healer there? Why is it, then, that the recuperation 
of the daughter of my people has not not come up?
Jeremiah 8:22 (NWT)
Moldenke and Moldenke note that the Douay Bible of 1609 renders Jeremiah 8:22 to read, “Is there 
no rosin in Gilead?” resulting in this edition being termed the Rosin Bible. The Bishop’s Bible of 
1568 reads, “Is there no tryacle in Gilead?” and is termed the Treacle Bible. Should we call the 
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FIGURe . Desert Date (Balanites aegyptiacus).
Jehovah’s Witness version (NWT) the balsam version, and the KJV and RSV the balm versions? 
Jericho monks are said to regard Balanites as the balm or balsam, selling an oily gum from the 
fruit as such to travelers. Both Balanites and Pistacia are common in Palestine and commonly 
called balm. Balanites is also revered by the Mohammedans in western India. Israeli Zohary rules 
out Balanites in favor of Commiphora, or myrrh, favoring the assumption that the Queen of Sheba 
brought it as a gift from Arabia to King Solomon (BIB). But with so many opinions, I include Bala-
nites in case the Jericho monks are right and Zohary wrong. Here in America, the balm of Gilead is 
yet something else, a poplar with propolis-like resin. Scholars, not me, will probably argue about the 
Balm of Gilead for millennia. In these days of pharmaceutically inspired allopathic shenanigans, 
I would worry more about there being no balm in Gilead than there being no physician in Gilead. 
Physicians kill more people than guns, which kill more people than herbs.
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Commo N Names (d esert d ate ):
Addoua (Ber.; BOU); Adua (Hausa; KAB; UPW); Alo (Ber.; BOU); Angarvriksha (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Angulidala (Sanskrit; KAB); Anilantaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Balah Harara (Arab.; BOU); Balanite 
d’Egypte (Fr.; BOU); Betu (India; USN); Bhallakivriksha (Sanskrit; KAB); Bupapabu (Niger; UPW); 
Ciatt (Tigrinia; KAB); Daruparnaphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Dattier du Désert (Fr.; BOU; KAB); D-at
tier Sauvage (Fr.; USN); Desert Date (Eng.; BOU; TAN); Ebora (Ber.; BOU); Egorea (Guj.; KAB; 
NAD); Egyptian Balsam (Eng.; BOU); Egyptian Myrobalan (Eng.; FAC); Elheglyg (Arab.; KAB); 
Gak (Tigrinia; KAB); Gara (Tel.; KAB); Garachetti (Tel.; NAD); Garbaïe (Mali; UPW); Garrah 
(Gond.; KAB); Gaurtvaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Gongo (Upper Volta; UPW); Gouasa (Tigrinia; KAB); 
Gouritivac (Sanskrit; NAD); Guasa (Tigrinia; KAB); Gungo (Ghana; UPW); Guri (Tel.; WOI); Ha-d
jlidj (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Haugeleg (Fr.; BOU); Heghelig (Arab.; KAB); Heglig (Arab.; Nig.; BOU; 
UPW); Heglik (Sudan; KAB); Héglik (Fr.; USN); Hingan (Beng.; Dec.; Hindi; KAB; NAD; WOI); 
Hinganbet (Bom.; Cutch; Dec.; Mar.; KAB; WOI); Hingane (Mar.; KAB); Hingar (Ulwar; KAB); 
Hingen (Hindi; KAB); Hinger (Bom.; Guj.; KAB; NAD); Hingol (Beng.; Dec.; Hindi; NAD); Hin-
gon (Beng.; KAB); Hingoriyun (Porebunder; KAB); Hingot (Gwalior; Hindi; Urdu; KAB; NAD; 
WOI); Hingota (Hindi; KAB); Hingotia (India; USN); Hingu (Hindi; KAB); Hinguputra (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Ibororhen (Ber.; BOU); Ingalarade (Kan.; KAB); Ingalare (Kan.; KAB); Ingalukke (Kan.; 
KAB); Ingua (Hindi; KAB); Inguda (Sanskrit; KAB); Ingudi (Sanskrit; Tel.; KAB; WOI); Ingudihala 
(Uriya; KAB); Ingul (Sanskrit; KAB); Inguni (Sanskrit; KAB); Jalajantu (Sanskrit; KAB); Kantaka 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Krisharaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Kroshtuphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Kunja (Togo; UPW); 
Kuosa (Tigrinia; KAB); Lalo (India; USN); Maghe (Tigrinia; KAB); Manchuta (Mal.; NAD); Mi-ro
balano de Egipto (Sp.; USN); Mjunju (Swahili; KAB); Mogha (Tigrinia; KAB); Munipadapa (Sa-n
skrit; KAB); Murtoki (Gambia; UPW); Myrobalan d’Egypt (Fr.; UPW); Nanjunda (Tam.; NAD; 
WOI); Nanjundan (Tam.; KAB); Nanjunta (Mal.; KAB); Ol Ngoswa (Masai; KAB); Putigandha 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Putripatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Regorea (Guj.; WOI); Ringri (Tel.; KAB; NAD); Sel-i
batico (Bogos; KAB); Sereno (Ivo.; UPW); Shulari (Sanskrit; KAB); Soapberry Bush (Eng.; BOU); 
Soapberry Tree (Eng.; FAC; TAN; USN); Soump (Wolof; KAB); Taboraq (Ber.; BOU); Tailabija 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Tanupatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Tapasamudrama (Sanskrit; KAB); Tapasataru (S-an
skrit; KAB); Teïchat (Arab.; Mauritania; UPW); Teisset (Ber.; BOU); Thorn Tree (Eng.; BOU); Ti-k
taka (Sanskrit; KAB); Tiktarnajja (Sanskrit; KAB); Toruvattu (Tam.; KAB); Tugga (Ber.; BOU); 
umNulu (Tonga; KAB); Vinashaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Vishakantaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Zachum Oil 
Tree (Eng.; BOU); Zachun (India; USN); Zachumbaum (Ger.; USN); Zaqqoum (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (d esert d ate ):
Alexipharmic (f; KAB); Alterative (f; KAB); Analgesic (f; KAB); Anthelmintic (f; BOU; HDN; 
KAB; X10904170); Antidiabetic (1; WO3); Antidote (Curare) (f; BOU); Antiedemic (1; X15763372); 
Antifeedant (1; HDN; WO3); Antifertility (1; X12179631); Antiinafl mmatory (1; X15763372); Anti -
nociceptive (1; X15763372); Antioxidant (1; X15763372); Antischistosomal (1; HDN; X15664459); 
Antiseptic (f; HDN); Antispasmodic (1; HDN); Aperient (f; KAB); Aphrodisiac (; fl UPW); 
Bactericide (1; HDN); Burn (f; BIB); Cathartic (f; DEP); Cholagogue (1; HDN); Choleretic (1; HDN); 
CNS Depressant (1; HDN); Curare (1; HDN); Emetic (f; BOU; KAB); Expectorant (f; DEP; WO2); 
Fungicide (1; HDN); Hemolytic (1; HDN); Hemostat (f; HDN); Hepatoprotective (1; PR15:598); 
Hypotensive (1; HDN); Insectifuge (f; HDN); Lactagogue (f; UPW); Larvicide (1; WO3); Laxative 
(f; BOU); Molluscicide (1; HDN); Nematicide (1; WO3); Piscicide (1; HDN); Purgative (f; DEP; 
HDN; NAD); Stimulant (f; UPW); Vermifuge (f; BOU; NAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (d esert d ate ):
Abscess (f; UPW); Angina (f; UPW); Anxiety (f; HDN); Asthma (f; HDN); Bacillus (1; HDN); Bac-
teria (1; HDN); Bilharzia (f; HDN); Bite (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; HDN); Blennorrhea (f; UPW); Boil 
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(f; BOU; KAB); Bronchosis (f; UPW); Bubo (f; HDN); Burn (f; NAD; WO2); Carbuncle (f; UPW); 
Caries (f; UPW); Catarrh (f; HDN); Childbirth (f; WO2); Circumcision fi (BOU); Cold (f; DEP; 
HDN); Colic (f; BIB; KAB; NAD; UPW); Conjunctivosis (f; HDN); Cough (f; BIB; DEP; KAB; 
NAD); Cramp (f; HDN); Dermatosis (f; KAB); Diabetes (1; WO3); Diarrhea (f; HDN); Dysentery 
(f; KAB; UPW); Edema (1; X15763372); Fasciolaris (1; X10904170); Fever (f; BOU; HDN); Freckle 
(f; NAD; WO2); Fungus (1; HDN); Gingivosis (f; UPW); Guinea Worm (1; WO3); Hemorrhoid (f; 
UPW); Hepatosis (f1; HDN; UPW; PR15:598); Herpes (1; BIB; HDN); High Blood Pressure (1; 
HDN); Impotence (f; UPW); Infection (f; BIB); Infection (1; HDN); Infertility (f; HDN); Inafl mma -
tion (f1; HDN; X15763372); Insanity (f; HDN; UPW); Jaundice (f1; UPW; PR13:439; X10441790); 
Leprosy (f; UPW); Leukoderma (f; BOU; KAB); Malaria (f1; BIB; BI2 BOU); Mycosis (1; HDN); 
Pain (f1; BOU; HDN; X15763372); Paralysis (f; UPW); Pertussis (f; WO2); Pneumonia (f; WO2); 
Pulmonosis (f; WO2); Rheumatism (f; BIB; UPW); Schistosomiasis (1; HDN; 15664459); Shingle 
(1; HDN); Sleeping Sickness (f; KAB); Smallpox (f; HDN); Snakebite (f; HDN); Sore (f; KAB); 
Splenosis (f; BOU; UPW); Stomachache (f; HDN); Stomatosis (f; UPW); Swelling (f1; UPW; 
X15763372); Syphilis (f; BIB; BOU; UPW); Urethrosis (f; HDN); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Virus 
(1; HDN); Worm (f; BI2; BOU; HDN; NAD); Wound (f; BI2; BOU; HDN); Yaws (f; UPW); Yellow 
Fever (;fl UPW).
d osages (d esert d ate ):
FNFF = !!
Fruits eaten fresh, dried, in alcoholic beverages (e.g., the Hauska ango), and syrups; seeds eaten raw 
or dried, in breads or soups, source of edible oil; ofl wers and leaves also eaten as vegetables or in 
soups (e.g., in Chad, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan) (BI2; FAC; UPW).
• African Arabs use the fruit pulp as detergent, the bark to poison fish (KAB).
• Asian Indian suggest 2 to 30 g seed as expectorant (DEP).
• Asian Indians suggest 1 to 20 grains fruit as purgative (DEP).
• Ayurvedics use the fruits as alexipharmic, alterative, analgesic, anthelmintic, antiderm- a
titic, and antidysenteric (KAB).
• Ethiopians use bark as an antiseptic, the leaf to dress wounds, and the fruit as an ant-hel
mintic laxative (BIB).
• Ghanans use smoke from stem to heal circumcision wounds, leaves as vermifuge (BI2).
• Lebanese apply the oil to sores, treating dermatosis and rat bites with fruits (BI2).
• Libyans use the leaves to clean infected wounds, and root for herpes and malaria (BI2).
• Nigerians consider the plant abortifacient (BI2).
• Nigerians eat the unopened flower buds as an aphrodisiac (UPW).
• Nigerian Yoruba take the floral decoction for sore throat (UPW).
• Saharans take powdered bark for angina and bronchosis (UPW).
• Sudanese use the oil as a purgative (KAB).
• Turks suggest this as one of the best stomachics, and great for curing wounds.
• Ugandans use the oil to treat sleeping sickness (BI2).
• Unani use fruits for boils, dermatoses, and leukoderma (KAB).
Natural History (d esert d ate ):
In the biblical desert, there are often strings of oases with about a dozen tropical tree species, 
including Acacia, Balanites, Moringa, Salvadora, etc. Needing high temperature and humidity, 
they adhere to the mouth of tributaries (e.g., in the Aravah and Jordan Valleys). In Arabia and 
Somaliland, Balanites often occurs in thornbush vegetation under arid tropical conditions, with 
Commiphora, Maerua, Ziziphus, etc.
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extra Cts (d esert d ate ):
The active principle, probably a saponin, is lethal to cercaria, sfi h, miracidia, mollusks, and tadpoles. 
One fruit weighing 25 g has enough active ingredient to kill the bilharzial mollusks in 30 l water.
FRANKINCeNse (boswelli A sAcr A BIRDW.) ++ BURseRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Boswellia carteri Birdw.
Notes (Fra Nki NCeNse):
And the LORD said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; 
these sweet spices with pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight:
Exodus 30:34 (KJV)
And the LORD said to Moses, “Take sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum, sweet spices 
with pure frankincense (of each shall there be an equal part).
Exodus 30:34 (RSV)
And Jehovah went on to say to Moses, “Take to yourself perfumes; stacte drops and onycha, and 
perfumed galbanum, and pure frankincense. There should be the same portion of each.
Exodus 30:34 (NWT)
It is nice when all three versions translate it as frankincense, all three actually being pretty con-sis
tent in the formula for a holy incense. On reading Zohary (1982), I see he had a change in plans just 
before publication, eliminating one species of Boswellia, for he says “the resins from the two spe-
cies listed above” (but he only listed one). He even hints, without clearly stating, that frankincense 
may involve resins from as many as 24 species of Boswellia. Boswellia carteri has been reduced to 
synonymy with Boswellia sacra. Frankincense came to the Holy Land via the famous spice route 
across southern Arabia and some of the littoral stations of East Africa, the same caravan highway 
used also for goods from India and points farther east (Zohary, 1982). Zohary rationalizes his c-on
clusions by pointing to similarities between the Arabic luban and the Hebrew levonah. Today, the 
Catholic Church may be the major consumer, often using frankincense in ceremonial incenses.
Another true scholar, botanical historian John W. Thieret (1996), seems to agree with Zohary, 
noting that a main source of frankincense is Boswellia sacra. “Herodotus (born 484 BC) wrote that 
the frankincense trees were guarded by vast numbers of small winged serpents; he was wrong.” 
(ZOH) Most frankincense comes from Somalia (following bananas and cattle as leading export) 
where it provides work for some 10,000 Somali families, but some is gathered in Arabia. Most goes 
to Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and Egypt, the major markets, but it heads off in lesser quantities in all 
directions. Early botanist Theophrastus, some three centuries before Christ, said that most franki-n
cense came from Saba (southwestern Arabia, once ruled by the famed Queen Sheba). That ancient 
country became rich from the incense trade. Approximately 333 b.c., Alexander the Great’s army 
captured Gaza, plundering its frankincense and sending it to Greece. Tons of incense were buried in 
the temples of Babylon and Nineveh. And in King Tut’s tomb, 3000-year-old balls of frankincense 
were recovered. “In today’s churches, frankincense is an ingredient in the incense that sometimes 
nearly suffocates the faithful…. Because frankincense and myrrh no longer enjoy the esteem that 
they did two millennia ago, I wonder what the Wise Men would bring today. Perhaps gold, dates, 
and oil” (Thieret, 1996). I would have guessed saffron.
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FIGURe . Frankincense (Boswellia sacra).
Import statistics are difcfi ult to come by. Scholarly historian Thieret (1996) suggests total yearly 
production of myrrh is perhaps 500 tons, of frankincense 1000 tons. Recently, U.S. imports run 5 
to 20 tons. The United Kingdom imports circa 30 tons frankincense each year, one perfume manu-
facturer alone consuming 5 tons annually (Thieret, 1996).
Ghazanfar (1994) notes that in southern Arabial, uban trees occur in wadis extending to the 
coast on the lower slopes of the gullies and runoffs. The gum exuding from cuts is the major medici-
nal incense, being burned to give a perfumed smoke, used to improve the aroma of clothing, hair, 
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and residences. The resin, used to stimulate digestion, to treat mastitis, and strengthen the teeth is 
also mixed into hair products. Soot collected from burning the resin is used as kohl memory device 
collyrium for soothing sore eyes. Pregnant Yemenis chew the gum, and it is also chewed for emo-
tional and psychological problems. Arabians often chew it as a masticatory, believed to improve the 
memory, or add it to coffee. The resin is presumed to be diuretic and purgative. Thieret (1996) adds 
that in Greco-Roman medicine, frankincense was prescribed for abscesses, bruises, chest ache, 
hemorrhage, hemorrhoids, paralysis, and ulcers. In northern Africa, it is used for back problems, 
chest congestion, chronic coughs, poliomyelitis, and venereal ailments (Thieret, 1996). I fear that 
much of the information I have compiled should be viewed as generic rather than specicfi . I have 
focused on Boswellia sacra and carteri (HHB and WO2 data below; however, refer to B. serrata, 
so-called Indian Olibanum, syn. B. glabra Roxb.). I doubt that there are many people who can swear 
on a stack of Bibles as to whether a resin is frankincense, myrrh, or one or the other species or 
genera or a mixture of many species. Let the buyer beware. The frankincense problem is a franken-
steinian taxonomic nightmare. I think the common name probably conveys, in this case, as much 
accuracy as the scientic fi name, for those resins for which there is no voucher specimen. I have, with 
that in mind, added the EFS common names for frankincense below, finding much congruence with 
names derived from other sources.
Frankincense was mentioned 22 times in the Bible, 16 times as an item of worship, 3 times as a 
product of the garden of Solomon, twice as a tribute of honor, and only once as an item of mercha-n
dise. It is chieyfl used in incense as a perfume, especially in Catholic ceremonies. Recent authorities 
maintain that the “incense” used in the service of the Tabernacle was a mixture, in definite propor-
tions of frankincense, galbanum (Ferula gumosa), onycha (Styrax benzoin), and stacte S( tyrax offi -
cinalis), and the use of any incense not composed of these four ingredients in the proper proportions 
was strictly forbidden. Frankincense was highly regarded by Egyptians for embalming and fumig-at
ing. The gum is used as a masticatory, to clean the mouth. Oil of olibanum is used in high-grade pe-r
fumes, especially for oriental and ofl ral types, and was once used as a depilatory. Resin is imported 
into Lebanon, primarily as incense, but secondarily as a cosmetic and medicine (BIB).
Commo N Names (Fra Nki NCeNse):
Árbol del Incensio (Sp.; USN); Arbre à Encens (Fr.; USN); Baga ul Bân (Syria; HJP); Bakhor (Arab.; 
GHA); Encens Mâle (Fr.; EFS); Frankincense (Eng.; CR2; FAC); Hsün lu Hsiang (China; EFS); 
Incenso (It.; USN); Incienso (Sp.; EFS); Ju Hsiang (China; EFS); Kapitthaparni (Sanskrit; EFS); 
Levonah (Heb.; ZOH); Lobhan (India; EFS); Lubân (Arab.; Yemen; EFS; GHA; ZOH; X15890471); 
Lubân Dhakar (Syria; HJP); Magher (Arab.; USA); Menjan Arab (Malaya; EFS); Mogar (Arab.; 
USA); Moxor (Somalia; USN); Mughur (Arab.; USA); Mustikim (Malaya; EFS); Oliban (Fr.; USN); 
Olibán (Sp.; USN); Olibano (It.; Sp.; EFS; USN); Olibanum (Eng.; CR2; FAC); Olibanum Tree (Eng.; 
USN); Ru Xiang (Pin.; DAA); Ru Xiang Shu (Pin.; AH2; USN); Salai (India; EFS); Saleh (India; 
EFS); Weihrauchbaum (Ger.; USN); Weihrauchpafl nze (Ger.; USN); Wierookboom (Dutch; EFS). 
a Ctivities (Fra Nki NCeNse):
Abortifacient (f; EFS); Alterative (f; BIB; EFS); Analgesic (f; HHB); Anticomplementary (1; PH2); 
Antidote (hemlock) (f; BIB); Antielastase (1; X12244881); Antihepatitic (1; PR14:510); Antiin-
flammatory (1; X12244881); Antileukotriene (1; X12244881); Antiseptic (1; PH2); Antitussive 
(f; X15890471); Astringent (f; BIB); Carminative (f1; BIB; EFS; PH2); Decongestant (f; BOW); 
Depilatory (f; BIB); Digestive (f; GHA; HAD); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS; GHA); Ecbolic (f; EFS); 
Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Expectorant (f; BIB; BOW); Fumigant (f; BIB); HCV-Protease Inhibitor 
(1; PR14:510); Irritant (1; PH2); 5-Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (1; X12244881); Memorigenic (f; BIB; 
GHA); Purgative (f; GHA); Sedative (f; BIB; EFS); Stimulant (f; BIB; EFS); Tonic (f; BIB; EFS).
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iNdi Catio Ns (Fra Nki NCeNse):
Abscess (f; HAD); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Anxiety (f; BOW); Arthrosis (1; COX; FNF); Asthma 
(f1; HHB; X12244881); Backache (f; HAD); Bilharzia (f; BIB); Bleeding (f; BIB; HAD); Boil (f; DEP); 
Bronchosis (f1; BIB; DEP; X12244881); Bruise (f; HAD); Callus (f; BIB); Cancer (1; COX; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, anus (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, breast (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, eye (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, penis (1; 
BIB; COX); Cancer, spleen (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, teat (1; BIB; COX); Cancer, testicle (1; BIB; COX); 
Carbuncle (f; DEP; JLH); Cerebrosis (1; X12244881); Chest ache (f; BIB); Colitis (1; FNF; X12244881); 
Congestant (f; HAD); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; HAD); Crohn’s Diseases (1; X12244881); Dermatosis 
(f; GMH); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; BOW); Dyspepsia (f; HAD); Edema (1; FNF); Fever 
(f; BIB); Gingivosis (f; BOW); Gonorrhea (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid (f; HAD); Hepatosis (1; PR14:510); 
Infection (f; BOW); Laryngitis (f; BIB; DEP); Leprosy (f; BIB); Leukemia (1; FNF); Mastosis (f; GHA; 
JLH); Meningioma (1; FNF); Myelosis (f; HAD); Neurosis (f; BIB; GHA; HAD); Ophthalmia (f; GHA; 
JLH); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; HHB); Paralysis (f; BIB); Pharyngosis (f; X15890471); Polio (f; HAD); 
Polyp (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Psychosis (f; HAD); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (1; BIB; FNF; 
X12244881); Side ache (f; BIB); Sore (f; DEP); Spermatorrhea (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomach-
ache (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f; BOW); Swelling (f1; BIB; FNF; HJP); Syphilis (f; BIB); Ulcer (f; HAD); 
Ulcerative colitis (1; X12244881); Urogenitosis (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; HHB); UTI (f; BOW); Vaginosis (f; 
BOW); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Vomiting (f; HAD); Wound (f; PH2).
d osages (Fra Nki NCeNse):
FNFF = !!
Aromatic frankincense chewed or essential oil extracted as afl voring used in baked goods, candy, 
gelatin, ice cream, and soft drinks (FAC).
• Asian Indians use frankincense for nervous disorders and rheumatism (BIB).
• Arabians use the digestive resin as hair oil, to stimulate digestion, and to strengthen teeth 
(GHA).
• Arabians use soot from burning frankincense to sooth sore eyes (GHA).
• Chinese use for urogenital ailments (BIB).
• East Africans use bark exudate as a tonic and diuretic, and to treat syphilis (BIB).
• Lebanese chew the frankincense to cleanse the mouth (HJP).
• Saudis chew it or add to coffee as diuretic, memorigenic (35 grains), and purgative (BIB; 
GHA).
• Swahili use the gum as a diuretic (BIB).
• Yemeni chew the gum for pregnancy and emotional and psychological problems (GHA).
• Tanganyikans boil resin with sesame oil, taking daily for bilharzia (BIB).
extra Cts (Fra Nki NCeNse):
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2).
BLACK MUst ARD (br Assic A nigr A (L.) W. D. J. Ko Ch ++ BRA ss ICACeAe
Notes (bla Ck mustard ):
Another parable put he forth unto them, saying, The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mus-
tard seed, which a man took, and sowed in his field: Which indeed is the least of all seeds: but 
when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air 
come and lodge in the branches thereof.
Matthew 13:31–32 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Black Mustard (Brassica nigra).
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Another parable he put before them, saying, “The kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard 
seed which a man took and sowed in his efi ld; it is the smallest of all seeds, but when it has grown 
it is the greatest of shrubs and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and make nests in 
its branches.”
Matthew 13:31–32 (RSV)
Another illustration he set before them, saying, “The kingdom of the heavens is like a mustard 
grain which a man took and planted in his field; which is, in fact, the tiniest of all the seeds, but 
when it has grown it is the largest of the vegetables and becomes a tree, so that the birds of heaven 
come and find lodging among its branches.”
Matthew 13:31–32 (NWT)
Zohary favors Brassica nigra, the black mustard, as the grain of mustard seed in the Bible. As an 
Israeli botanist, he would certainly know better than I that Brassica nigra is the tallest of the local 
species of Brassica and closely related Sinapis, and that its seeds are small (circa 1 mm). But he also 
admits that “The Greek sinapis is undoubtedly ‘mustard’.” No need to quibble about whether it is 
the least of seed or not. (I suspect a mustard seed is a hundred times heavier than orchid seed, even 
than Artemisia annua seed.) I suspect that in biblical times, as in Maryland efi lds in spring, few 
but botanists make distinctions between the Brassica and Sinapis. Many writers do not distinguish 
between black, brown (Indian), and white mustard Br( assica nigra, Brassica juncea, and Sinapis 
alba, respectively) but the spice and medicine trades seem to favor the white. And the canola and 
rapeseed varieties have been hopelessly manipulated, even in the GMO efi ld. Few if any taxono-
mists and agronomists can distinguish all Brassica varieties and species, and probably fewer chem-
ists, herbalists, pharmacists, and physicians can be sure of the variety or species. My entries can be 
no more reliable than their sources. Seems as though the group might better be treated generically 
than specicafi lly or varietally. Black mustard is cultivated for its seeds, one source of commercial 
table mustard, and used as a condiment and medicine. Seeds also contain both a fixed and an ess-en
tial oil, used as a condiment, lubricant, and soap constituent. Black mustard is mixed with white 
mustard (Sinapis alba) to make mustard ofl ur, used in various condiments as “English Mustard” 
when mixed with water, and “Continental Mustard” with vinegar. The leaves are eaten as a potherb. 
Mustard ofl wers are good honey producers. In agriculture, mustard is also used as a cover crop. 
Smoke from burning plants may repel flies and mosquitoes (BIB).
Commo N Names (bla Ck mustard ):
Aslrai (Hindi; KAB); Bilesasive (Kan.; KAB); Black Mustard (Eng.; CR2; WIN); Ch’ing Cheih 
(China; EFS); Chou Noir (Fr.; BOU); Fekete Mustár (Hun.; EFS); Gruener Senf (Ger.; KAB); 
Kalirai (Guj.; KAB); Kalo Tori (Nepal; NPM); Kalorai (India; EFS); Khardal (Arab.; BOU); Kh-ar
dal Aswad (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Khurdal (Arab.; KAB); Kuro Garashi (Japan; TAN); Libdan (Arab.; 
BOU); Libsan (Arab.; BOU); Lifsan (Arab.; BOU); Mostarda (Mad.; JAD); Mostarda Negra (Por.; 
EFS); Mostarda Ordinario (Por.; EFS); Mostaza Negra (Sp.; EFS); Mosterd (Dutch; KAB); Moutarde 
Noir (Fr.; BOU); Napi (Greek; KAB); Navuce Rouge (Fr.; KAB); Raisarisha (Beng.; KAB); Rayo 
(Nepal; SUW); Sansonv (Kon.; KAB); Sar Shaf (Iran; EFS); Sarsan (Bom.; KAB); Sarshapa (Sa- n
skrit; EFS); (Ger.; EFS); Schwartzer Senf (Ger.; EFS); Senapa (It.; KAB); Senapa Nera (Malta; 
KAB); Senape Nera (It.; EFS); Senep (Den.; KAB); Sénevé Noir (Fr.; BOU); Senfkohl (Ger.; EFS); 
Siya Hardal (Tur.; EFS); Sort Sennep (Den.; EFS); True Mustard (Eng.; KAB); Tzu Cheih (China; 
EFS); Xawipanatek (Hocak; WIN); Yungs-nag (Tibet; NPM); Zwarte Mosterd (Dutch; EFS).
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a Ctivities (bla Ck mustard ):
Abortifacient (f; CEB; DAW); Anodyne (f; DAW); Antidote (Narcotics) (f; CEB; FEL; HJP); Anti-e
demic (f; KAB); Antifertility (f; WOI); Antiinafl mmatory (f; KAB); Antiscorbutic (f1; BOU; FNF); 
Carminative (f; DAW); Cordial (f; EFS); Diuretic (f; DAW; FEL; HHB); Emetic (f; BOU; DAW); 
Febrifuge (f; BOU); Gastrotonic (f; CEB); Insectifuge (f; KAB); Laxative (f; BOU; DAW); Memo-
rigenic (f; HJP); Orexigenic (f; DAW); Pancreatonic (f; CEB); Rubefacient (f; DAW; EFS; SUW); 
Stimulant (f; DAW; WOI); Stomachic (f; DAW; EFS; HHB; WOI); Vesicant (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (bla Ck mustard ):
Abscess (f; DAW); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Ague (f; DEM); Alopecia (f; DAW); Ameba (f; DAW); 
Amenorrhea (f; FEL); Angina (f; FEL; HHB); Anorexia (f; DAW; DEM; KAB); Apoplexy (f; FEL); 
Arthrosis (1; FNF); Asthma (f; DEM); Bite (f; CEB); Bloat (f; DAW); Boil (f; DAW); Bronchosis (f; 
HHB; PH2); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; FNF; JLH); Ca-n
cer, neck (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, sinew (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, skin (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, wrist (1; FNF; 
JLH); Cardiopathy (f; HHB; PH2); Chest cold (f; HJP); Cholera (f; FEL); Circulosis (f; PH2); Cold 
(f; DAW; DEM; WIN); Congestion (f; DAW; FEL); Constipation (f; DAW; FEL); Cough (f; DAW); 
Cramp (f; DAW); CVI (f; PH2); Depression (f; HJP); Dermatosis (f; DAW); Dropsy (f; HJP); Dys -
entery (f; DAW); Dysmenorrhea (f; FEL); Dyspepsia (f; CEB; FEL); Ectoparasite (f; DAW); Edema 
(f; DAW); Enterosis (f; FEL; PH2); Epilepsy (f; DAW); Fever (f; BOU; DAW; DEM; FEL; HHB); 
Fibroid (f; JLH); Fibroma (f; JLH); Gastrosis (f; FEL; PH2; WIN); Glaucoma (f; PH2); Headache (f; 
DAW; FEL; PH2); Head-cold (f; DEM); Heartburn (f; HHB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hiccups (f; DAW); 
Induration (f; JLH); Inafl mmation (f; DAW; FEL); Itch (f; DAW); Lumbago (f; PH2); Lymphoma (f; 
JLH); Maculitis (1, FNF); Meningosis (f; FEL); Nervousness (f; DEM); Neuralgia (f; DAW; WOI); 
Ophthalmia (f; DAW); Otosis (f; DAW); Pain (f; DEM; FEL; HHB); Pharyngosis (f; DAW); Phthisis 
(f; DEM); Pleurisy (f; DAW; FEL; PH2; WOI); Polyp (f; JLH); Pneumonia (f; DAW; PH2; WOI); 
Pulmonosis (f; FEL); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (1; DAW; FNF; PH2; WOI); Rhinosis (f; 
DAW); Sciatica (f; PH2); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sinusosis (f; PH2); Snakebite (f; DAW; SUW); Sple-
nosis (f; DAW; JLH; KAB); Spine (f; FEL); Stomachache (f; DAW); Sore Throat (f; DAW; KAB); 
Stroke (f; HJP); Syncope (f; HJP); Toothache (f; CEB; DAW; DEM); Tuberculosis (f; DEM); Tumor 
(f; KAB); Typhus (f; FEL); Uterosis (f; JLH); Worm (f; DAW).
d osages (bla Ck mustard ):
FNFF = !!!
Seeds widely eaten as spice, or sprouted; also an oil source; leaves eaten raw or cooked; young 
ofl wer clusters cooked like broccoli (FAC; TAN).
• Ayurvedics suggest the plant for anorexia, cough, dermatosis, fever, splenomegaly, itch, 
parasites, throat, tumors, and worms (KAB).
• Balkans take black mustard early in the morning to prevent fainting spells and stroke, to 
cheer the mind and help the memory (HJP).
• Iranians use mustard as an emetic for narcotic poisoning (HJP).
• Lebanese boil the seed with juniper berries for dropsy (HJP).
• Lebanese poultice the seeds, with or without afl xseed, for chest cold and counterirritant 
(HJP).
• Syrians use mustard for indurations of the spleen (JLH).
• Unani view seeds as antiedemic, antiinafl mmatory, antitussive, bechic, laxative, orex-i
genic, stomachic, using for boils, rhuematism, splenomegaly, and toothache (KAB).
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d ow Nsides (bla Ck mustard ):
Class 1 (Internal, ingestion of too much can be irritating); Class 2b (External; duration not to exceed 2 
weeks); not for children under 6 years of age. Severe burns can occur with long-term topical use (AHP). 
Contraindications: children younger than 6 years; renal disease (mustard oil is absorbed through the 
skin). Even external poultice should be limited to 5 to 10 minutes pediatrically, 10 to 15 minutes for 
adults, less for sensitive patients (KOM). Millspaugh has said “unground seeds … proved dangerous, as 
they are liable to become impacted in the bowel and set up a fatal inafl mmation” (CEB), 15 to 30 minutes 
plaster can cause severe burns (AHP). Adverse effects: skin and nervous damage (prolonged use). Should 
not be used for more than 2 weeks (AEH). Avoid taking with ammonia-containing products as ammonia 
with mustard oil yields inactive thiosinamine (PH2). Contraindicated in GI ulcers and nephrosis (PHR). 
Overdoses internally cause GI distress (PHR). Hyperthyroidism with goiter traced “to the use of the 
isothiocyanates in mustard” (APA). Delaneyite nitpickologists will doubtless clamber to put the same 
goitrogenic warning on all members of the mustard family as well as papaya, caper, and nasturtium.
Natural History (bla Ck mustard ):
The plants are fairly high in vitamins, minerals, and protein. The leaves are eaten by ducks, mus-k
rats, and deer, and serve as shelter for small aquatic animal life. Black mustard is insect pollinated. 
Bees collect the copious mustard nectar and produce a mild-afl vored, light-colored honey. Mildews 
appear on the leaves, causing malformation of ofl wer heads and pods, a situation often controlled 
by sulfur dusting or spraying with Bordeaux Mixture. Main insect pest is Mustard Sawy fl (Athalia 
lugens proxima), larvae of which feed on the leaves. Nematodes include Ditylenchus dipsaci, Het-
erodera crucifera, H. schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, Nacobbus aberrans, Xiphinema 
indicum, Pratylenchus penetrans, and P. pratensis (HOE).
Box Woo D (buxus sempervirens L.) + BUxACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Buxus wallichiana Baillon fide DEP
Notes (boxwood ):
I will set in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together.
Isaiah 41:19 (KJV)
As in my out-of-print 1985 book, I have cited here those uses usually attributed to the European 
box (Buxus sempervirens) because the biblical box (Buxus longifolia) is reported to have similar 
properties. Balfour does not even distinguish them, referring to the box of Isaiah as “the Buxus 
sempervirens” of botanists (BIB). Indeed, some authors consider this only a variant of the European 
box, Buxus sempervirens. Zohary fails to list either (ZOH). The wood, hard and taking a fine polish, 
is valued wherever a hardwood is needed, for carvings, combs, mathematical instruments, spoons, 
and turnery, etc. Cultivated by the Romans for the hard wood, inlaid with ivory for cabinet work and 
jeweled caskets. The wood was also used for tablets that were covered with wax and used for w-rit
ing. It was said to be used both as a substitute for hops and as a green manure for hops. Boiled with 
lye it was supposed to tint the hair auburn. It is prized in the Holy Land as an ornamental evergreen. 
Leaves sometimes used to adulterate uva-ursi (BIB).
Commo N Names (boxwood ):
‘Athaq (Arab.; BOU); Azazzer (Ber.; BOU); Bakas (Arab.; KAB); Baqs (Arab.; BOU); Beuqs (Ber.; 
BOU); Bois Bénit (Fr.; KAB); ‘Boix (Cat.; BOU); Boj (Sp.; EFS); Boje (Sp.; EFS); Bojeo (Sp.; EFS); 
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FIGURe . Boxwood (Buxus sempervirens).
Bosso (It.; EFS); Bossolo (It.; EFS); Boxboom (Dutch; KAB); Boxwood (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; 
USN); Buchsbaum (Ger.; EFS); Buco (Por.; HH2); Buis (Fr.; BOU); Buis Commun (Fr.; KAB); Buis 
Toujours Vert (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Buje (Sp.; HH2); Bujo (Sp.; HH2); Buksus (Rus.; KAB); Bush Tree 
(Eng.; KAB); Busso (It.; KAB); Buxbom (Swe.; KAB); Buxo (It.; Por.; EFS; KAB); Bwès Beni (Bel-
gium; JLH); Chikri (India; Kas.; Pun.; DEP; EFS; KAB; WOI); Cimisu (Rom.; KAB); Cimsu (Rom.; 
KAB); Common Box Tree (Eng.; BOU; EFS); Common Boxwood (Eng.; USN); Dudgeon (Eng.; 
GMH); Duolgeon (Eng.; KAB); Dwarf Box (Eng.; KAB); European Box (Eng.; USN); Evergreen 
Box (Eng.; KAB); Huang Yang Mu (China; EFS); Ibiqis (Ber.; BOU); Merisor Turcesc (Rom.; KAB); 
Mortella (It.; KAB); Ozanne (Fr.; KAB); Palm (Dutch; KAB); Palmboom (Dutch; KAB); Palm-
boompje (Dutch; EFS); Pampri (India; EFS); Papar (Pun.; KAB); Papri (Jaunsar; Pun.; KAB); Papur 
(Pun.; KAB); Poppar (Him.; Pun.; KAB); Pyxos (Greek; KAB); Samshit (Rus.; KAB); Sansadu 
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(Jaunsar; KAB); Shamshad (Arab.; Him.; Iran; Pun.; Urdu; BOU; KAB; WOI); Shanda Laghune 
(Afg.; DEP; KAB); Shumaj (Pun.; DEP; KAB); S¸ims¸ir (Tur.; EFS); Turkish Boxwood (Eng.; USN).
a Ctivities (boxwood ):
Allergenic (1; HH2); Alterative (f; CRC); Analgesic (f; KAB); Antiacetylcholinesterase (1; 
X15036468); Antibutylcholinesterase (1; X15036468); Anticholinesterase (1; X15036468); Antiox-i
dant (f; X15143441); Antiseptic (1; X11926538); Antitumor (f; CRC); Astringent (f; KAB); Bactericide 
(1; PH2; X11926538); Cardiotonic (f; KAB); Cathartic (f; BIB; CRC); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Chol-a
gogue (f; CRC; EFS); Cytotoxic (1; HH2; PH2); Depurative (f; CRC; PHR); Dermatitigenic (1; HH2); 
Diaphoretic (f; BIB; CRC; DEP; PH2); Diuretic (f; EFS; CRC); Emetic (f; BIB; CRC); Febrifuge (f; 
CRC; DEP; EFS); Hepatotonic (f; KAB); Herbicide (1; X11926538); Hypotensive (1; HH2; PH2; 
X1720559); Laxative (f; CRC; EFS; HHB); Narcotic (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Phytotoxic (1; X10346940); 
Propecic (f1; EFS; HH2); Purgative (f; DEP; KAB); Sedative (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Sudoricfi (f; CRC; 
EFS); Teratogenic (f; HH2); Tonic (f; EFS); Toxic (f; EFS); Vermifuge (f; CRC; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (boxwood ):
Alopecia (f1; BIB; EFS; PH2); Bacteria (1; PH2; X11926538); Bite (f; GMH); Bot (f; GMH); Cancer (f; 
HHB; JLH); Constipation (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; HHB; PH2); Epilepsy (f; BIB; CRC; GMH; HHB); 
Fever (f; CRC; DEP; EFS; KAB); Gout (f; CRC; HHB; PH2); Headache (f; KAB); Hemorrhoids (f; 
BIB; CRC); Hepatosis (f; KAB); Infection (1; X11926538); Insomnia (f; EFS); Leprosy (f; CRC); 
Malaria (f; CRC; EFS; HHB; PH2); Pain (f; KAB); Paralysis (1; PH2); Pneumonia (f; PH2); Proctosis 
(f; KAB); Prolapse (f; KAB); Pulmonosis (f; HH2); Rash (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; BIB; BOU; CRC; 
HHB; PH2); Stomatosis (f; KAB); Syphilis (f; BOU; CRC); Tetanus (1; PH2); Toothache (f; BIB; CRC; 
HH2); Tuberculosis (1; PH2); Venereal Disease (f; BIB; BOU; CRC); Worm (f; CRC; EFS).
d osages (boxwood ):
FNFF = ?
I do not find anything in my usual edible plant books, but at least four sources suggest that the 
leaves and bark are used as a substitute for tea in Gahrwal (WO2). One drachm powdered leaves as 
purgative (GMH), 10 to 20 g powdered leaves as vermifuge (GMH); 1 to 2 oz wood in decoction as 
sudoric (fi GMH).
• Belgians use the wood oil for cancers (JLH).
• Unani consider the seeds astringent, cardiotonic, cerebrotonic, hepatotonic, the leaves 
good for headache, pain, and prolapsed anus (KAB).
d ow Nsides (boxwood ):
Class 3 (AHP). No health hazards known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). The FDA Po-i
sonous Plant Database yielded 62 abstracts as of November 2004. Narcotic and sedative in full 
doses, emeto-cathartic, possibly fatally so, and convulsant in overdoses (BIB). Leaves have caused 
fatalities in grazing animals. Toxic symptoms include collapse, convulsions, cramps, dermatosis, 
diarrhea, nausea, paralysis, shakes, vertigo, vomiting, and possibly death due to asphyxiation (CRC; 
PH2). The lethal dose of the alkaloid mix called “Buxin” is 800 mg per dog, or 100 mg/kg body 
weight, which speculatively estimated to humans would be 5 to 10 g/kg (HH2).
Natural History (boxwood ):
Leaves, occasionally browsed by goats and other animals, have proven fatal to cattle (WOI).
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extra Cts (boxwood ):
Most of the data above apply to Buxus sempervirens. Atta-ur-Rahman et al .reported new steroi-
dal alkaloids from Buxus longifolia: (+)-cyclovirobuxeine F, N-benzoyl-O-acetylbuxalongifoline, 
buxasamarine, (+)-cyclobuxamidine, and two known steroidal bases (16 alpha-acetoxybuxaben-za
midienine and trans-cyclosuffrobuxinine) from the leaves of Buxus longifolia. The new alkaloids 
showed signicafi nt antibacterial activity (X9358638).
GIANt MILKW eeD (cA lotropis procer A (WILLD.) AIt. x A sCLepIADACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Asclepias procera Ait.; Asclepias procera Willd.; Asclepias heterophylla Decaisne.; Calotropis 
hamiltonii Wight.; Calotropis heterophylla Wall.; Calotropis inflexa Chiovenda; Calotropis mudari 
Ham.; Calotropis syriaca (Gmel.) Woodson; Calotropis wallichii Wight.
Notes (g ia Nt milkweed ):
For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah: their grapes are grapes of 
gall, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (KJV)
For their vine comes from the vine of Sodom, and from the fields of Gomor’rah; their grapes are 
grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (RSV)
For their vine is from the vine of Sodom, and from the terraces of Gomor’rah; their grapes are 
grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (NWT)
Only Zohary, among the biblical scholars I have read, suggests this species as a biblical species, 
noting, as I have noted, that it is very common in the Holy Land; wherever it is found, it is called by 
its Arabic name osher. The apple of Sodom, he continues, is more a symbol than a botanical, gently 
criticising other writers, like perhaps even me, who have equated the Apple of Sodom with such spe-
cies as Citrullus colocynthis, Solanum incanum, or Solanum sodomaeum, “unjustiafi bly” see the 
latter species). Symbolizing the evil Gomorrah and Sodom, its cursed fruit is devoid of efl sh and full 
of hairs (the silk). The juice is poisonous. Sodom was once happy, famed for its fruits and wealth. It 
was burned by lightning but there are still remainders of that divine fire, and traces of the vfi e cities 
are still there. The Calotropis fruits may look t fi to eat, but when picked they dissolve into smoke 
and ashes. That certainly could apply to our local milkweed fruits and could apply equally well to 
the ripe fruits of the giant milkweed, better than those of Citrullus or Solanum. This is how Jose-
phus interpreted the Apple of Sodom. Zohary accepts Josephus’s interpretation. Having seen giant 
milkweed in Israel, Egypt, Kuwait, and wherever I go in the arid tropics, I am inclined to agree.
C. gigantea and C. procera are confused, with good reason, in the efi ld and in the herbarium. 
They have very similar activities and indications (WO2). My Haitian source (AVP) includeAss cle-
pias gigantea as a synonym for Calotropis procera, implying to me that AVP was not distinguishing 
the species. Vice versa for EFS. I have consequently entered all their common names below. Both are 
called giant milkweed by the USDA, but that common name is preferred for the namesakeC . gigan-
tea. AH2 further confounded the issue by giving them both the same standardized name,m udar, but 
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FIGURe . Giant Milkweed (Calotropis procera).
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some different and some shared common names for the two species. Here I reluctantly accede to the 
Herbal PDR (Edition 2), which treats the species separately. KAB keys the species as follows:
• Corolla lobes narrow, shorter than the staminal column with 2 obtuse auricles just below 
the entire apex: C. gigantea
• Corolla lobes broader, as long as or longer than the staminal column without auricles 
below the 2-cleft apex: C. procera
Commo N Names (g ia Nt milkweed ):
Akanda (India; EFS); Alabara (Sudan; AVP); Alarka (Sanskrit; EFS); Algodón de Arbol (Ma.; 
JFM); Algodón de Seda (Cuba; Dr.; Sp.; AVP; RyM); Algodón de Sierra (Ma.; JFM); Algodón 
Extranjero (Dr.; Sp.; AHL; JFM); Apple of Sodom (Eng.; ZOH); Arbole de Seda (Sp.; AVP; EFS; 
JFM); Arbre à Soie (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS; LWW); Arka (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; EFS); Asclépiade 
Géante (Fr.; AVP); Asclépias Géant (Guad.; AVP); Ashkar (Arab.; GHA); Auk, Auricula Tree (Ma.; 
JFM); Babambi (Cameroon; HDN); Bambango (Togo; HDN); Baramadha Aka (?; Nepal); Bara- n
bakh (Arab.; BOU); Biduri (Malaya; EFS); Bo (Somalia; HDN); Bomba (Ma.; Pr.; JFM; LWW); 
Bowstring Hemp (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Calotrop (Ma.; JFM); Calotrope (Fr.; BOU); Cazuela (Cuba; 
Sp.; AVP; JFM); Ciúme (Brazil; MPB); Coton de France (Mart.; LWW); Coton Soie (Haiti, AHL; 
AVP; JFM); Cow Heel (Ma.; JFM); Crown Flower (Eng.; AVP); Dindare (Eth.; HDN); Dumb Cotton 
(Ma.; JFM); Estrella de Hollanda (Sp.; AVP); Etethero (Kenya; HDN); Fafetone (Fr.; BOU); Faftan 
(Sen.; HDN); Faftan Calotrope (Ma.; JFM); Flôr da Sêda (Brazil; MPB); Flor de Seda (Brazil; 
MPB); French Cotton (Bar.; Jam.; BOU; JFM; LWW); French Jasmine (Ma.; JFM); Ganganpi (Ivo.; 
HDN); Giant Milkweed (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; AVP); Giant Swallowwort (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; AVP); 
Gigantic Swallowort (Eng.; EFS); Hortênsia (Brazil; MPB); Huré Go (Burkina Faso; HDN); Jester’s 
Cap (Eng.; AVP); Katuna di Seda (Dwi.; Ma.; JFK; LWW); Khok (Iran; EFS); Kihuta (Uganda; 
HDN); Kipanpango (Gambia; HDN); Kpampuug (Ghana; HDN); Krenka (Arab.; BOU); Lechoso 
(Ma.; JFM); Lembega (Malaya; EFS); Leta-Unde (Malwai; Yao; HDN); Liberty Tree (Ma.; Wi.; 
JFM; LWW); Madar (Ocn.; AH2); Mal Casada (Dr.; Sp.; AVP); Mandara (Sanskrit; EFS); Mata 
de Seda (Pr.; Sp.; AVP); Mercurio Vegetal (Ma.; JFM); Mudar (Fr.; Eng.; Scn.; AH2; EFS; ZOH); 
Mudar Pafl nze (Ger.; EFS); Nfogo (Sudan; AVP); Negyi (Ber.; BOU); Niogo (Sudan; AVP); Oshaar 
(Egypt; HDN); Oshar (Arab.; GHA); Osher (Arab.; ZOH); Oshur (Arab.; GHA); Palomitas de Seda 
(Ma.; JFM); Palu di Leche (Ma.; JFM); Pomme de Sodom (Fr.; Ma.; BOU; JFM); Pompompogolo 
(Sudan; AVP); Rembega (Malaya; EFS); Remiga (Malaya; EFS); Safed (Hindi); Sano Chad; HDN); 
St. Thomas Bush (Bah.; Ma.; JFM; LWW); Sodom Apple (Eng.; HJP); Sprainleaf (Ma.; JFM); 
Swallowwort (Ocn.; AH2); Torcha (Ber.; BOU); Totaa fi (Sudan; AVP); Tounfayfi a (Sudan; AVP); 
Tourza (Ber.; BOU); Tula (Ma.; Pr.; JFM; LWW); Tumfaa fi (Hausa; Mali; Niger; Nig.; HDN); 
Turdja (Maur.; HDN); Turuturu (Tanzania; HDN); Ushar (Arab.; Sudan; Syria; EFS; HDN; HJP); 
Ushayr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ushr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Wild Cotton (Bah.; Ma.; JFM; LWW); Wild 
Down (Bah.; Ma.; JFM; LWW); Zijdkkatoen (Dwi.; Ma.; JFM; LWW).
a Ctivities (g ia Nt milkweed ):
Abortifacient (f; HDN); Acaricide (1; X14620053); Alexiteric (f; KAB); Alterative (f; DEP; 
KAP); Analgesic (f1; KAB; MPB; X15848031); Anesthetic (f; HDN); Anthelmintic (1; HDN; 
KAB; X16085379); Anticoagulant (1; HDN); Anticonvulsant (1; X16446065); Antidiabetic (1; 
X16054794); Antiedemic (1; X15643548; X16192673); Antihistaminic (1; X16192673); Antiinafl m -
matory (1; HDN; KAB; MPB; X15643548; X16192673); Antinociceptive (1; X15848031); Antiox-
idant (1; X16054794); Antiseptic (f; HDN); Antispasmodic (f1; DEP; GHA; KAP; X15752643); 
Antitumor (1; JFM; PH2; X15689169; X16688796); Anti-VEGF (1; X16688796); Anxiolytic (1; 
X16446065); Bactericide (1; HDN); Bitter (f; KAP); Cardioactive (1; X3086679); Cardiotonic 
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(f1; BOU; KAP; PH2); Curare (1; HDN); Depilatory (f; DEP; HDN; KAB; MPB); Diaphoretic (f; 
DEP; PH2; SUW); Digestive (f; KAB); Diuretic (f; HJP); Emetic (f; DEP; HJP; KAP; PH2; SUW); 
Expectorant (f; BOU; DEP; KAP; PH2; SUW); Febrifuge (1; HDN; X16106390); Fibrinolytic (1; 
HDN; X15922393); Fungicide (f; HJP); Gastrotonic (f; KAB); Hemostat (f; X15922393); Hepato-
protective (1; HDN; X16688796); Hypertensive (1; HDN); Insecticide (1; HDN; JFM); Insectifuge 
(f; HDN); Larvicide (1; HDN; X12557934); Molluscicide (1; HDN); Nervine (f; DEP); Myorela-x
ant (1; X15752643); Neurotonic (f; GHA); Ovicide (1; HDN); Proteolytic (1; HDN; KAB; MPB; 
X15922393); Purgative (f; GHA; KAP; SUW); Respirastimulant (1; HDN); Rubefacient (f; DEP); 
Sedative (1; X16446065); Stimulant (f; KAB); Stomachic (f; EFS; KAB); Sudoric fi (f; EFS; KAP); 
Tonic (f; DEP; KAP); Tranquilizer (f; MPB); Uterotonic (1; HDN; KAP); Vasoconstrictor (1; HDN); 
Vermifuge (f1; HDN; X16085379); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (g ia Nt milkweed ):
Abscess (f; HDN); Amenorrhea (f; HDN); Anasarca (f; DEP; KAB; PH2); Ancylostomiasis (f; 
HDN); Anorexia (f; DEP); Aphtha (f; DEP); Apoplexy (f; BOU); Arthrosis (f1; DEP; HDN; HJP); 
Ascites (f; DEP; PH2); Asthma (f; BOU; DEP; KAB; SUW); Bacillus (1; HDN); Bacteria (1; HDN); 
Bite (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; X15922393); Bronchosis (f; DEP; KAP); Cachexia (f; DEP); Cancer 
(f1; JLH; PH2; X15689169); Cancer, abdomen (f1; JLH; X15689169); Cancer, liver (f1; JLH; PH2; 
X15689169; X16688796); Cancer, ovary (f1; JLH; X15689169); Cancer, skin (1; PH2; X15689169); 
Cardiopathy (1; FNF; HDN); Caries (f; HDN); Catarrh (f; DEP; KAB); Chancre (f; HDN); Cold (f; 
SUW); Colic (f; HDN); Constipation (f; DEP); Convulsion (f1; SEP; PH2; X15752643); Cough (f; 
GHA; KAB; PH2; SUW); Cramp (f1; DEP; KAP; X15752643); Dermatosis (f; DEP; JFM; SUW); 
Diabetes (1; X16054794); Diarrhea (f; SUW); Dropsy (f; DEP; HJP; KAB); Dysentery (f; BOU; 
DEP; HJP; KAP; PH2; SUW); Dysmenorrhea (f; HDN); Dyspepsia (f; PH2; SUW); Dyspnea (f; 
GHA); Dystocia (f; HDN); Earache (f; HJP); Edema (f1; HDN; X16192673); Elephantiasis (f; BOU; 
DEP; SUW); Enterosis (f; KAB; PH2; SUW); Epididymitis (f; DEP); Epilepsy (f; DEP; HDN); 
Escherichia (1; HDN); Fever (1; DEP; HDN; KAB; X16106390); Fungus (f; HJP); Gastrosis (f; 
HDN); Gonorrhea (f; DEP); Headache (f; HDN; HJP; JFM); Hemorrhoid (f; DEP; HJP; KAB); 
Hepatosis (f; DEP; KAB); High Blood Pressure (f; HDN); Hysteria (f; DEP); Infection (1; HDN); 
Inafl mmation (1; HDN; KAB; MPB; X16192673); Insanity (f; HDN); Insomnia (f; HDN); Leprosy 
(f; BOU; DEP; HJP; JFM; PH2; SUW); Leukoderma (f; KAB); Malaria (f; DEP; HJP; KAB); Myco-
sis (f; HJP); Obesity (f; PH2); Pain (f1; KAB; MPB; X15848031); Paralysis (f; DEP; KAB); Parasite 
(f; HDN); Pertussis (f; HDN); Pharyngosis (f; KAP; PH2); Phthisis (f; DEP); Psychosis (f; HDN); 
Rheumatism (f; DEP; MPB; SUW); Rhinosis (f; KAP; PH2); Ringworm (f; KAB); Scabies (f; BOU; 
KAB); Sinusosis (f; HDN); Snakebite (f; DEP; KAB); Sore (f; BOU; JLH); Spasm (f1; DEP; KAP; 
X15752643); Splenosis (f; DEP; KAB); Staphylococcus (1; HDN); Stomachache (f; HDN); Stoma-
tosis (f; DEP); Swelling (f1; DEP; JLH; KAB; SUW; X16192673); Syphilis (f; BOU; JFM; PH2; 
SUW); Toothache (f; BOU; DEP; JFM; PH2); Tumor (f; JLH); Tuberculosis (f; HDN); Venereal 
Disease (f; DEP; HJP; PH2); Vomiting (f; PH2; SUW); Wart (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; HDN); Worm 
(f1; PH2; SUW; X16085379); Wound (f; DEP; GHA; KAB).
d osages (s odom ’s milkweed ):
FNFF = X
200–600 mg bark as a diaphoretic and expectorant, 2–4 g as emetic (HHB; PHR). Boil seven leaves 
for 1 hour in 50 ml water; drink 4 ×/day (HDN).
• Arabians mix leaves with clove oil, Indian almond fruit, and black cumin seeds, heat, and 
rub onto paralyzed limbs (GHA).
• Asian Indians use the roots or leaves for cancer, especially abdominal tumors (JLH).
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• Ayurvedics consider the ofl wers antisialogogue, orexigenic, stomachic, and tonic, using 
them for asthma and piles; viewing the plant as anthelmintic, its ashes as expectorant, 
they use the hot leaves to treat enteralgia (KAB).
• Baluchistani use the bark as an expectorant, roots as purgative, and dried juice as a-nti
spasmodic and neurotonic (GHA)
• Barbadans apply latex or leaves to rheumatic pains or swelling (JFM).
• Colombians consider the latex antisyphilitic, diaphoretic, emetic, vermifuge, and insert 
it into aching teeth (JFM)
• Curacaons use fresh leaves, upper surface out, for headaches, and for sprains and sw-ell
ings, especially when a cold is coming on (JFM).
• Egyptian Bedouins use fresh leaf cataplasm for sunstroke, the latex for scabies in camels 
and goats; they apply the latex to loosen them or alleviate toothache (BOU).
• Lebanese use latex as abortifacient, fungicide, vulnerary, for arthrosis, dermatosis, 
dropsy, earache, headache, venereal disease, and wounds (HJP).
• North Africans smoke dry leaves for asthma (BOU).
• North Africans use stomachic sudoric fi root bark for dysentery, elephantiasis, and syph-i
litic ulcers (BOU).
• Omani oil painful spots on back or joints and then apply heatedC alotropis leaves (GHA).
• Pathans use the root as a toothbrush, hoping to cure toothache (KAB).
• Venezuelans use the latex to treat dermatoses and leprosy (JFM).
• Yemeni use dry leaf/twig decoction for breathing difcfi ulties (GHA).
d ow Nsides : (g ia Nt milkweed ):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). Dangerous plant. 
Very high doses may cause death (PH2), following bradycardia, convulsion, diarrhea, and vo-mit
ing (PH2). Traditional use in India may cause severe bullous dermatosis, leading occasionally to 
hypertrophic scars. Perkins and Payne note convulsions, diarrhea, vomiting, slowed but stronger 
heartbeat, labored respiration, increased blood pressure, and possible death (CRC).
extra Cts (g ia Nt milkweed ):
Calotropine effective in vitro against epidermoid tissue cultures of the rhinopharynx (PH2). Many 
extract activities listed in HDN.
CApeR BUsh (cA ppAris spinos A L.) +++ CAppARACeAe
syNo Nyms :
 Capparis rupestris Sm. fide USN
Notes (Caper bus H):
Also when they shall be afraid of that which is high, and fears shall be in the way, and the almond 
tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail: because man 
goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets.
Ecclesiastes 12:5 (KJV)
They are afraid also of what is high, and terrors are in the way; the almond tree blossoms, the 
grasshopper drags itself along and desire fails; because man goes to his eternal home, and the 
mourners go about the streets.
Ecclesiastes 12:5 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Caper Bush (Capparis spinosa).
Also they have become afraid merely at what is high, and there are terrors in the way. And the almond 
tree carries blossoms, and the grasshopper drags itself along and the caper berry bursts; because 
man is walking to his long- lasting house, and the wailers have marched around in the street.
Ecclesiastes 12:5 (NWT)
While KJV and RSV call it “desire,” the NWT graciously, and I hope accurately, calls it caper. I 
know that the capers of commerce belong to two taxonomic species: Capparis decidua (Scn. = 
karira, AH2) and Capparis spinosa (Scn. = caper bush, AH2; the biblical desire, ZOH), both of 
which occur in the Holy Land. The karira is almost leaefl ss, like a broom, with corymbose red 
ofl wers, while the caper bush is a leafy clambering shrub with white ofl wers solitary or in fascicles 
of two or three (KAB; ZOH). Sharing some of the healthy virtures with the mustard family (Bras-
sicaceae), this might be considered another healthy component of the Mediterranean diet.
Commo N Names (Caper bus H):
Abiyonah (Heb.; BI2); Alcaparra (Por.; USN); Alcaparro (Sp.; EFS; USN); Amseilih (Ber.; BOU); 
Asef (Arab.; BOU); Assaaf (Arab.; BOU); Avionah (Heb.; ZOH); Azuf (Arab.; KAB); Bandar 
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(Pun.; KAB); Barar (Pun.; KAB); Barari (Pun.; KAB); Bassar (Pun.; KAB); Bauri (Jaunsar; Pun.; 
KAB); Belachem (Ber.; BOU); Ber (Hindi; Pun.; KAB); Bussar Ultakanta (Kum.; KAB); Cabriola 
(Sp.; EFS); Caper (Eng.; CR2); Caper Bush (Eng.; Scn.; AH2); Cappara (Malta; KAB); Capparo 
(It.; KAB); Cappero (It.; TAN); Câprier (Fr.; BOU; USN); Câprier Commun (Fr.; BOU); Câprier 
Epineux (Fr.; BOU); Common Caper (Eng.; HJP); Edible Caper (Eng.; DEP); El Azaf (Arab.; ZOH); 
Ezov (Heb.; KAB; ZOH); Fakouha (Arab.; GHA); Felfel el-djebel (Arab.; BOU); Kabar (Arab.; 
Bom.; Iran; Syria; Urdu; DEP; KAB); Kabar Karak (Iran; EFS); Kabarish (Tur.; KAB); Kabarit 
el Weli (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kabarra (Pun.; KAB); Kabawa (Afg.; KAB); Kabbar (Arab.; BI2; 
BOU); Kabbara (Afg.; KAB); Kabra (Hindi; India; Lad.; Pun.; Tibet; EFS; KAB; MKK); Kabur 
(Arab.; KAB); Kachra (India; EFS); Kakadani (Sanskrit; EFS); Kakri (Pun.; KAB); Kalo Kantharo 
(Guj.; WO2); Kalvari (Sin.; KAB); Kander (Pun.; KAB); Kantharo (Guj.; WO2); Kaparis (Greek; 
KAB); Kapernbaum (Ger.; USN); Kapernstrauch (Ger.; USN); Kapersovyi Kust (Rus.; KAB); Kap-
ertjessstruik (Dutch; EFS); Kapperboom (Dutch; KAB); Karika (Sanskrit; EFS); Katrimullinag-
idda (Kan.; WO2); Kaur (Pun.; KAB); Kebir (Iran; KAB); Kebre (Tur.; EFS); Keri (Pun.; KAB); 
Khafkhander (Jhalawan; KAB); Khakandir (Jhalawan; KAB); Khawarg (Bal.; KAB); Kiabara 
(Arab.; EFS); Kiari (Jaunsar; Pun.; KAB); Kirap (Las Bela; Ormara; KAB); Kokilakshamu (Tel.; 
KAB; WO2); Krap (Las Bela; Ormara; KAB); Kronbeiser (Arab.; BOU); Kulvari (Sin.; DEP); 
Kurak (Iran; KAB); Lasafa (Arab.; BI2; GHA); Lassaf (Arab.; BOU; ZOH); Marattamaggu (Kan.; 
WO2); Mullukattari (Kan.; KAB); Ouailoulou (Ber.; BOU); Pahinro (Diwana; Las Bela; KAB); 
Panetero (Las Bela; KAB); Qabbar (Arab.; Mali; UPW); Ouailoulou (Ber.; BOU); Shafallah (Arab.; 
Oman; Qatar; Saudi; GHA); Shalem (Arab.; BOU); Shwak el Hhimâr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Tailou-
out (Ber.; BOU); Taker (Pun.; KAB); Taparera (Cat.; KAB); Tapenier (Fr.; KAB); Taybout (Ber.; 
BOU); Tsailaloul (Ber.; BOU); Ul A¸saf (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ulta Kanta (Kum.; DEP).
a Ctivities (Caper bus H):
Alterative (f; EFS); Analgesic (f; BIB; SKJ); Anthelmintic (f1; BIB); Antiallergic (1; X15799005); 
Anticystic (1; WO2); Antidote (Beryllium) (f; WO2); Antierythemic (1; X15799005); Antihista-
minic (1; X15799005); Antiparalytic (f; HAD); Antiseptic (f; BOU); Antiviral (1; WO2); Aphrod-i
siac (f; BIB; BOU); Astringent (f; EFS; WO2); Bactericide (1; BIB; WO2); Capillariprotective (f; 
BOW); Deobstruent (f; DEP); Diuretic (f; EFS; SKJ; WO2); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; DEP); Expec-
torant (f; BIB; EFS; GHA; WO2); Fungicide (1; BIB; WO2); Hemostat (f1; WO2); Molluscicide (1; 
X15287187); Orexigenic (f; BIB; BOU; HOS; WO2); Purgative (f; HAD); Stimulant (f; BIB; EFS); 
Tonic (f; EFS; GHA; SKJ).
iNdi Catio Ns (Caper bus H):
Adenopathy (f; BIB; JLH); Aging (f; BIB); Allergy (1; X15799005); Amenorrhea (f; DEP); Arte-
riosclerosis (f; BIB; BOU); Arthrosis (f; BIB); Bleeding (f; BOW); Cancer (f1; BIB); Cancer, abd-o
men (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, groin 
(f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, head (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cataract (f; BIB); Chill (f; BIB; BOU); Cirrhosis (f; WO2); Cold (f; BIB); Conjunctivosis (f; 
BOW); Cough (f; BOW; GHA); Cramp (1; HOS); Cystosis (f; JLH); Dengue (f; BIB; HJP); Diabetes 
(f; GHA); Diarrhea (f; BOW; BOU); Dropsy (f; BIB; BOU; DEP); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dysmenor-
rhea (f; BIB); Earache (f; BI2; GHA); Enterosis (f; BOW); Erythema (1; X15799005); Fever (f; 
BOU); Fracture (f; BIB); Ganglion (f; BOU); Gastrosis (f; BOW; GHA); Gout (f; DEP; SKJ; WO2); 
Headache (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f1; JLH; HOS; WO2); Hyperacidity (f; MKK); Impotence (f; BOU); 
Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; BOW; BOU); Infertility (f; BIB; BOU); Inafl mmation (f1; HOS); 
Malaria (f; BIB; HJP); Malta Fever (f; BIB); Nephrosis (f; BOU; JLH; WO2); Ophthalmia (f; BIB; 
BOU); Otosis (f; BIB); Pain (f; BIB); Palsy (f; DEP); Paralysis (f; HAD); Rheumatism (f; HJP; 
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WO2); Sclerosis (f; BIB); Sciatica (f; BIB); Scrofula (f; BIB; BOU); Scurvy (f1; DEP; WO2); Snak-e
bite (f; BIB); Sore (f; DEP); Splenomegaly (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; BIB; BOU; WO2); Toothache (f; 
BIB); Tuberculosis (f1; BIB; WO2); Tumors (f1; BIB; HOS); Ulcer (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; JLH); Wart 
(f; BIB; JLH); Worm (f; GHA).
d osages (Caper bus H):
FNFF = !!
Food farmacy. Young pickled buds, the capers of commerce, imparted the biblical “desire” or relish 
to food. Mediterranean capers are gathered and steeped in vinegar for an appetizer. Flower buds 
used to afl vor canapes, gravies, salads, and sauces, after being cooked and pickled. Raw capers are 
all but unpalatable and much improved in the pickling process. Bay leaves, black pepper, and/or t-ar
ragon are good in the pickling vinegar. Some favor capers pickled in sea salt. Some French sauces 
graced with capers include ravigote, remoulade, tartare, and some vinaigrettes. Sprouts sometimes 
eaten like asparagus, as well as the buds and shoots. Pickled fruits eaten in Arabia, in Cyprus, and 
Punjab; branch tips are also pickled (FAC; HOS; TAD; TAN).
• Algerians boil whole plant in oil as a puerperal hydragogue (HOS).
• Arabians use leaves with leaves of Rhazya stricta for diabetes (GHA).
• Arabians use powdered leaves in cooking oil as eardrops for earache (GHA).
• Asian Indians apply the expressed caper juice to earache (BI2).
• Asian Indians use capers for burns, pulmonosis, sores, tuberculosis, and wounds (BI2).
• Bedouins use, with Teucrium pilosum, as a cold inhalant; they boil chopped or pow-
dered leaves, inhaling the vapors for headache; they apply decoction in cloth poultices to 
arthritic pains; barren women are covered with ground leaves oCf apparis and Tamarix 
to inhale the vapors (HOS).
• Hoggar use the plant to treat rheumatism (UPW).
• Iranians use the plant for intermittent fever and rheumatism (HOS).
• Latinos take brandy, honey, or wine decoctions for liver ailments (JLH).
• Lebanese take plant decoction for dengue, malaria, and Malta fever, regarding the root 
specic ffi or malaria or splenomegaly following malaria (HJP),
• North Africans use flower buds in compresses for the eyes (BOU).
• Spaniards think eating capers staves off old age (BI2).
• Unani consider the root bark aperient, analgesic, emmenagogue, expectorant, and verm- i
fuge, using it in adenopathy, paralysis, rheumatism, splenomegaly, and toothache; they 
use the juice to kill worms (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Caper bus H):
Isothiocyanates in overdose can cause problems.
Natural History (Caper bus H):
Leaves and fruits are favored foods of goats and sheep (DEP). The nocturnal ofl wers are pollinated 
by hawk moths, and the seeds are disseminated by birds (ZOH).
extra Cts (Caper bus H):
Stachydrine, in animals, hastens coagulation. Shirwaikar et al. (1996) found antihepatotoxic act- iv
ity in alcoholic, ether, ethyl acetate, and petrol extracts of root bark. All reduced elevated serum 
transaminases (orally in rats up to 2000 mg/kg with no evident toxicity) (FT67(3):200).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
sAFFLo WeR (cA rth Amus tinctorius L.) +++ Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
 Cnicus indicus fide EFS
Notes (sa FFlower ):
Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard, 
Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes, 
with all the chief spices:
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (KJV)
Your shoots are an orchard of pomegranates with all choicest fruits, henna with nard, nard and 
saffron, calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense, myrrh and aloes, with all chief spices.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (RSV)
Your skin is a paradise of pomegranates, with the choicest fruits, henna plants along with spike-
nard plants; spikenard and saffron, cane and cinnamon, along with all sorts of trees of frankin-
cense, myrrh and aloes, along with all the finest perfumes.
Song of Solomon 4:13- 14 (NWT)
Israeli authors such as Zohary, more familiar with the Israeli Flora and the Holy Land than am I, 
should be better equipped to speculate as to which herbs were really meant in some elusive pas-
sages. I am both pleased and displeased to note that Zohary, too, leaves a few problems unresolved, 
including one involving two major medicinal plants (saffron and turmeric) and one minor medicinal 
(safofl wer), all sources of yellow dyes. All three can be grown in the warmer regions of Israel, but 
the turmeric would be difcfi ult. Saffron and safofl wer would both be easy to grow. Here are points 
that Zohary makes: “Saffron (in Hebrew, karkom) is mentioned only once in the Bible.” (ZOH) 
Some commentators identify it with turmeric, which “was never grown” (ZOH) in Israel, others 
with saffron, which was probably grown but only in postbiblical times. There is linguistic support 
for both possibilities. “There is no doubt that the sown karkom efi lds mentioned in the Mishnah (of 
the Talmud) refer to Crocus sativus.” (ZOH) More data he presents point “to the identicfi ation of 
biblical karkom as turmeric and not as crocus…. But doubt arises when one considers another widely 
cultivated annual yielding numerous heads of orange ofl wers” (ZOH) (safofl wer, Carthamus tincto-
rius). Zohary notes that safofl wer was cultivated in Egypt as early as 3500b .c., first for its ofl wers and 
dyes, later for its oilseed potential. Where does this leave me? Should I include just one or all three 
candidates for the one mention of saffron in the Bible? From the medicinal point of view, turmeric 
seems even more important than saffron, which appears even more important than safofl wer. Ditto 
from the likelihood point of view, based on the views of Zohary. In reading Zohary, I think he would 
place his bets first on safofl wer, then on turmeric, and finally on crocus, as the biblical saffron.
Commo N Names (sa FFlower ):
Açafrão (Mad.; Por.; EFS; PST); Açafrão Bastardo (Por.; USN); African Saffron (Eng.; KAB); 
Agnishikha (Sanskrit; KAB); Agnisikha (Tel.; KAB); Akhariza (Arab.; KAB); Alazar (Sp.; EFS); 
Alazor (Spain; VAD); American Saffron (Eng.; EFS); Azafrán (Sp.; Ven.; JLH); Azafrán e la Tierra 
(Pi.; KAB); Azafrán Romí (Sp.; KAB; EFS); Barre (Hindi; Nwp.; DEP; KAB); Bastard Safran (Ger.; 
EFS); Bastard Saffron (Eng.; HJP); Basterd Saffraan (Dutch; KAB); Biri (Tag.; KAB); Brandusa 
de Tvvamna (Rom.; KAB); Bundi (Rajputana; KAB); Cachumba (Pam.; KAB); Cartamo (It.; EFS); 
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FIGURe . Safofl wer ( Carthamus tinctorius).
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Cártamo (Sp.; EFS; USN); Carthame des Teinturiers (Fr.; EFS); Carthamine Dye (Eng.; DEP); 
Casabha (Vis.; KAB); Chendurukam (Tam.; KAB); Cnigue (Fr.; KAB); Croco Bastardo (It.; EFS); 
Croco Hortense (It.; KAB); Crocus (Eng.; JLH); Daccam (Ic.; KAB); Dyer Saffron (Eng.; ZOH); 
Farberdistel (Ger.; EFS); Farber Saofl r (Ger.; EFS); Faux Safran (Fr.; EFS); Galapmachu (Manipur; 
KAB); Gartensafran (Ger.; KAB); Ghosfor (Malta; KAB); Graine de Perroquet (Fr.; EFS); Grano de 
Perrouget (Lan.; KAB); Gulekafshah (Iran; KAB); Habb et Quirthim (Arab.; JLH); Heboo (Burma; 
KAB); Hong Fah (Malaya; KAB); Hong Hua (China; Pin.; AH2; EFS); Hong Lang Hoa (China; 
KAB); Ihhrid (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kadaya (Mar.; KAB); Kagireh (India; EFS); Kajirah (Beng.; 
KAB); Kamalottara (Sanskrit; DEP; EFS); Kar (Hindi; Nwp.; DEP; KAB); Karada (Guj.; KAB); 
Kardai (Bom.; DEP; KAB); Karha (Urdu; KAB); Karkom? (Heb.; ZOH); Kartam (Tur.; EFS); Ka-s
embar (India; EFS); Kasumba (Malaya; EFS); Kazhirah (Iran; DEP); Kazirah (Iran; EFS); K-es
umba (Malaya; EFS); Khasaddana (Iran; EFS); Khoinbo (Sin.; KAB); Knikos (Greek; KAB); Kurdi 
(Mar.; DEP); Kurtam (Pun.; DEP); Kurthum (Arab.; EFS); Kurtim (Egypt; KAB); Kusambe (Kan.; 
KAB); Kusanbe (Kan.; DEP); Kusbo (Kon.; KAB); Kushumba Vittulu (Tel.; DEP); Kusum (Beng.; 
DEP); Kusumba (Cutch; India; DEP; EFS); Kusumbha (Ayu.; AH2); Mexican Saffron (Eng.; FAC); 
Parrot Seed (Eng.; HJP); Powari Jo Bij (Sin.; DEP); Qirtim (Arab.; DEP); Qurtum (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Safefl r (Swe.; KAB); Safofl er (Dutch; EFS); Safofl wer (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; HJP; USN; ZOH); 
Safir (Pun.; KAB); Saofl r (Rus.; KAB); Safra Bort Saafrano (Cat.; KAB); Safran Bâtard (Fr.; DEP; 
EFS); Sendurgam (Tam.; DEP); Su (Burma; DEP); Usfar (Arab.; EFS); ‘Usfur (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Wilder Safran (Ger.; EFS); Wilde Saffraan (Dutch; EFS); Wild Saffron (Eng.; EFS); Za’farân 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Zafferano Falso (It.; EFS).
a Ctivities (sa FFlower ):
Abortifacient (AHP; HHB; PH2); Analgesic (f1; EFS; WO3); Anodyne (f; EFS); Antiacne (1; 
JAR12:99); Antiaggregant (1; AHP; PNC); Antiaging (f; KAB); Antiedemic (1; WO3); Antifertility 
(f; DAA); Antihydrotic (f; HHB; PH2); Antiinafl mmatory (1; PNC; WO3; X8987908); Antiischemic 
(1; X8425843; X12802724); Antimelanogenic (1; X15577216); Antimelanomic (1; X15577216); 
Antioxidant (1; X15706901); Antipyretic (f; PED); Antitumor (1; PH2; X8604239); Aphrodisiac (f; 
KAB); Bactericide (1; WO2); Bechic (f; KAB); Bitter (PED); Calcium Blocker (1; WO3; X8281577); 
Cardiotonic (1; WO3); Carminative (f; KAB); Cathartic (1; WO2); Cytotoxic (1; X11090999); 
Decongestant (f; DAA); Diaphoretic (f; DAA; HJP; PED); Diuretic (f; KAB; PNC); Emmenagogue 
(f1; AHP; EFS; HHB; PH2; WO2); Expectorant (f; HHB; PH2); Febrifuge (f; DAA); Fungicide 
(1; DAA; VAD); Hypocholesterolemic (1; HHB); Hypoglycemic (f1; VAD); Laxative (f1; DEP; 
HHB; HJP; PH2; PNC; WO2); Lipolytic (f; VAD); Nematicide (1; VAD; WO2); Neuroprotective (1; 
X8425843; X12802724); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Phototoxic (f; DAA); Purgative (f; EFS; PH2); Seda-
tive (f1; KAB; WO2); Stimulant (f1; HHB; PH2; WO2); Teratogenic (1; X11090999); Thrombolytic 
(1; X15806964); Tyrosinase Inhibitor (1; X15577216); Uterotonic (1; AHP; X7646782); Vermifuge 
(f; DAA).
iNdi Catio Ns (sa FFlower ):
Acne (1; JAR12:99); Amenorrhea (f1; AHP; DAA; DEP; PH2); Anorexia (f; KAB); Arteriosclerosis 
(f; VAD); Arthrosis (f; HJP; PH2); Bacteria (1; DAA); Boil (f; DAA); Bronchosis (f; KAB; PH2); 
Bruises (f; PNC); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; PH2; X8604239); Ca-n
cer, stomach (f; PH2); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Candida (1; DAA); Cardiopathy (f; PNC); Catarrh (f; 
KAB); Chickenpox (f; PED); Childbirth (f; DAA; DEP); Cold (f; KAB); Comedon (1; JAR12:99); 
Congestion (f; DAA); Constipation (f; DEP; HJP; VAD); Cough (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; KAB; 
PNC; VAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAA; PNC); Dystocia (f; DAA); Dysuria (f; KAB); Edema (1; 
WO3); Embolism (f1; VAD; X15806964); Enterosis (f; VAD); Escherichia (1; DAA); Fever (f; DAA; 
PNC); Fungus (f1; DAA; KAB; VAD); Hepatosis (f; JLH; KAB; PED); High Cholesterol (f; VAD); 
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Impotence (f; KAB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; DAA; VAD); Inafl mmation (1; JLH; WO3); 
Insomnia (1; WO3); Ischemia (1; X8425843); Itch (f; KAB); Jaundice (f; DEP; KAB); Leprosy (f; 
KAB); Leukoderma (f; KAB); Measles (f; DEP; KAB; PNC); Metrorrhagia (f; HHB); Mycosis (f1; 
DAA; KAB; VAD); Neurosis (1; X8425843); Ophthalmia (f; KAB); Pain (f1; PH2; VAD; WO3); 
Paralysis (f; DEP; HHB); Parasite (f; VAD); Pemphigus (f; DAA); Pneumonia (f; DAA; HHB; PH2); 
Pulmonosis (f; KAB); Rheumatism (f; DEP; HHB); Ringworm (f; KAB); Scabies (f; KAB; PH2); 
Scarlatina (f; DEP; KAB); Sore (f; DEP; KAB); Sore Throat (f; KAB); Sprain (f; HJP); Strangury 
(f; KAB); Swelling (1; WO3); Thrombosis (f1; VAD; X11243195); Uterosis (f; DAA; DEP); Wound 
(f; DAA; PH2; PNC); Yeast (1; DAA).
d osages (sa FFlower ):
FNFF = !!
Seeds roasted and eaten as vegetable; leaves cooked like spinach; ofl wers used as poor man’s sa-f
fron, often cooked with rice or used as food dye; seed oil commercially available in the United 
States (DEP; FAC); 1 g in tea; to 3 ×/day (HHB); 1–2 tsp fresh ofl wer (PED); 2–3 g dry ofl wer 
(PED); 3 g dry flower:15 ml alcohol/15 ml water (PED); 10 g achene/day as laxative (VAD).
• Ayurvedics suggest laxative ofl wers for leprosy, strangury; seeds aphrodisiac; leaves 
diuretic, laxative, orexigenic, for dysuria and ophthalmia (KAB).
• Bengali apply seed oil, three to six applications, for itch (KAB).
• Indochinese use flowers as emmenagogue and tonic, for dysmenorrhea and paralysis 
(KAB),
• Iranians use seed oil in salves for rheumatism and sprains (HJP).
• Jamaicans mash the seed in sweet water as laxative, flowers for jaundice (DEP).
• Lebanese often give children the diaphoretic laxative floral tea (HJP).
• Lebanese use safofl wer oil in liniments (e.g., for rheumatism) (HJP).
• Philippinos use flowers to treat jaundice (KAB).
• Unani view ofl wers as diuretic, expectorant, hepatotonic, hypnotic, for boils, bronchitis, 
complexion, leukoderma, piles, ringworm, scabies; the seeds or seed oil good for old 
folk, analgesic, aphrodisiac, bechic, carminative, purgative, for arthrosis, catarrh, he-pa
tosis, leukoderma, scabies, sore throat (KAB).
• Venezuelans apply the plant in cataplasms to tumors (JLH).
d ow Nsides (sa FFlower ):
Class 2b-2d. Contraindicated in patients with hemorrhagic disease or peptic ulcers. Reportedly 
abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterotonic. May prolong blood coagulation time (AHP). No health 
hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2).
Natural History (sa FFlower ):
Safofl wer is self-pollinated with some cross-pollination. Pollen and nectaries are abundant with 
insects working the ofl wers. Safofl wer is attacked by many fungi: Alternaria carthami (leaf spot 
and bud rot), A. zinniae, Bremia lactucae, Cercospora carthami, Cercosporella carthami, Chae-
tomium globosum, Collectorichum capsici, Corticium solani, Ectoctroma carthami, Epicoccum 
nigrum, Erysiphe cichoracearum, Fusarium acuminatum, F. solani, Gloeosporium carthami, 
Glomerella cingulata, Leveillula compositarum, L. taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Macro-
sporium carthami, Marsonia carthami, Oidium carthami, Oidiopsis taurica, Phyllosticta car-
thami, Phytophthora drechsleri (root rot), Ph. palmivora, Ph. parasitica, Puccinia carthami (rust), 
Pythium debaryanum, P. oligandrum, Ramularia carthami, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Septoria 
carthami, Verticillium albo-atrum (wilt). It is parasitized by Orobanche cernua and Striga lutea, 
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and is attacked by the Chilli mosaic and Cucumber mosaic virusesP. seudomonas solanacearum, 
a bacterium, attacks it. Among the nematodes, the following have been isolated from safofl wer: 
Meliodogyne incognita acrita, M. javanica. Insect pests include Lygus bugs, wireworms, aphids, 
leaf hoppers, thrips, and sunofl wer moth larvae (HOE).
CeDAR o F LeBANo N (c edrus lib Ani A. RICh.) ++ p INACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cedrus cedrus Huth.; C. libanotica Link; C. libanitica (Trew) Pilger; C. libanensis Juss. ex Mirb.; 
C. patula K. Koch, Larix cedrus fide CJE and EFS
Notes (Cedar o F l eba No N):
Let fire come out of the bramble, and devour the cedars of Lebannon.
Judges 9 (KJV)
This marvelous handsome tree once forested many slopes of Lebanon, but many were cut because 
of their excellent qualities. Both the First and the Second Temples in Jerusalem were made of cedar. 
Biblical scholars (e.g., Moldenke and Moldenke) lament the “history of the Holy Land,” which has 
been transformed from a land of palms, ofl wing with milk and honey, to its present inhospitable 
desert condition. How ironic that this plundering of the forests was begun by men who wanted to 
build a temple to God, a place where men might worship their Creator. William Cullen Bryant 
beautifully praised the cedars, clearly predicting my sentiments:
“The groves were God’s first temples,
Ere man learned
To hew the shaft …”
Solomon, in one of the first recorded “botany lectures,” spoke of trees “from the cedar that is in 
Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall.” Ironically, he is one of the first recorded 
plunderers of the forest as well. He is said to have raised a group of 30,000 Israelites and sent them in 
turns, some 10,000 a month, to fell the trees, with the assistance of 150,000 slaves, under the superv-i
sion of 3300 ofcfi ers. They labored seven years to build a “temple for the glory of God” and thirteen 
more to build the fabulous House of the Forest of Lebanon that so impressed the Queen of Sheba. 
Adding conservational insult to injury, goats were permitted to browse the deforested slopes, finish-
ing off the once moist forests, converting it to “one of the most impoverished” areas in the world. The 
cedar exudes a balsam that makes the durable wood very aromatic. Resistant to decay and insects, 
the timber is excellent for such building. Lebanese correctly believe the tree puriefi s the air (BIB).
Commo N Names (Cedar o F l eba No N):
Arz (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Arz Libnan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Arz ur Rabb (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Cedar (Eng.; 
ZOH); Cedar of Lebanon (Eng.; CJE; CR2; HJP); Ceder van de Libanon (Dutch; EFS); Cèdre du Liban 
(Fr.; EFS); Cedro del Libano (It.; Sp.; EFS); Doedar (India; EFS); Devadaru (Sanskrit; EFS); Erez (Heb.; 
ZOH); Glory of Lebanon (Eng.; ZOH); Ibhûl (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kedros (Greek; JLH); Lebanese Cedar 
(Eng.; CJE), Libanon Zeder (Dutch; EFS); Sanobar i Hind (Iran; EFS); Stnûb (Arab.; Syria; HJP).
a Ctivities (Cedar o F l eba No N):
Antiseptic (1; X11962214); Bactericide (1; X10548751); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS); Expectorant (1; 
HHB; PH2); Fungicide (1; FNF); Insecticide (f; BIB).
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FIGURe .0 Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cedar o F l eba No N):
Asthma (f; BIB; HJP); Bacteria (1; X10548751); Bacillus (1; X10548751); Blenorrhagia (f; BIB); 
Boil (f; BIB; HJP); Bronchosis (f; BIB); Burn (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer (f; BIB; JLH); Catarrh (1; PH2); 
Cough (1; FNF; HHB); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Enterobacter (1; X10548751); Fungus (1; FNF); Gastro-
sis (f1; × 1047317)5; Helicobacter (1; X10473175); Induration (f; BIB; JLH); Infection (f1; BIB; HJP; 
X11962214); Klebsiella (1; X10548751); Listeria (1; X10548751); Mycobacterium (1; X10548751); 
Phthisis (f; BIB); Proteus (1; X10548751); Pseudomonas (1; X10548751); Pulmonosis (f; HJP); Rash 
(f; BIB); Respirosis (f; BIB; HJP); Staphylococcus (1; X10548751); Tuberculosis (1; BIB; HHB).
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d osages (Cedar o F l eba No N):
FNFF = ?
Tree sometimes produces an edible manna (TAN).
• Algerians use deodar cedar pitch for boils and dislocations (HJP).
• Egyptians use sap or oil from the wood for burns, cancer, and indurations (JLH).
• Lebanese inhale the smoke from burning branches for asthma-like pulmonary difcfi ul -
ties (HJP).
• Lebanese use the pitch and ashes in salves to poultice onto deep infections (HJP).
• Turks use the cones, active againstH elicobacter, for various stomach ailments (X10473175).
d ow Nsides (Cedar o F l eba No N):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (not given) (PH2).
extra Cts (Cedar o F l eba No N):
Essential oil fungitoxic at 1000 ppms (FFJ4(1):1).
pURpLe st AR th Ist Le (c ent Aure A c Alcitr ApA l .) + + Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Calcitrapa stellata Lam.
Notes (purple star t Histle ):
Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee.
Genesis 3 (KJV)
Worst of weeds, some species head high, some thistles are said to make nutritious vegetables, po-t
herbs, and depuratives. Back in 1929, Temple, a London writer, in his Flowers and Trees of Pales-
tine, said, probably of thistles in general, “Many of these thistles, which grow from 10 to 15 feet 
high (C. calcitrapa rarely attains 1 m in height; MPG), and briers are decided obstructionists to 
travelers who leave the beaten track, and are consequently described as noxious thorny plants.” 
(Temple, 1929). Zohary does not specicafi lly mention this species nor is it reported in the Flora of 
Palestine (FP3; ZOH). Hence, I fear I may have been too eager to accept earlier suggestions that this 
is one of the “thistles” of the Holy Land. I will bet it is there in Israel, if not mentioned in the Bible. 
Zohary, who surely would know more about the matter than I, suggests Centaurea iberica instead.
Commo N Names (purple star t Histle ):
Aboujoulj (Ber.; BOU); Abre Puño (Arg.; Sp.; EFS); Abrojo (Sp.; EFS); Aceb (Ber.; BOU); Ad 
Dardarriyah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Aourmela (Ber.; BOU); Bou Neggar (Arab.; BOU); Bou Shweika 
(Arab.; BOU); Calcatreppolo (It.; EFS); Calcitrapa (Por.; EFS; MPG); Caltrops (Eng.; BOU); Cardo 
Estrelado (Por.; EFS); Cardo Estrellado (Por.; Sp.; EFS; MPG; VAD); Ceceprete (It.; EFS); Centa-u
rée Chausse-Trape (Fr.; USN); Chardon Étoilé (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Chaussetrape (Fr.; BOU); Common 
Star Thistle (Eng.; EFS; HJP); Corn Flower (Eng.; HOC); Garnanzos del Cura (Sp.; EFS); Hassak 
(Arab.; BOU); Ippofesto (It.; EFS); Kalketrap (Dutch; EFS); Mouse Thorn (Eng.; BOU); Murrâr 
(Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Murrayr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Nowar Bellaremj (Arab.; BOU); Purple 
Star Thistle (Eng.; USN); Red Star Thistle (Eng.; USN); Star Thistle (Eng.; USN); Stern-Flocken-
blume (Ger.; USN); Stern-Flodkenblume (Ger.; EFS); Trepa Caballos (Sp.; EFS).
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FIGURe . Purple Star Thistle (Centaurea calcitrapa).
a Ctivities (purple star t Histle ):
Antioxidant (1; X12203269); Antiseptic (1; MPG); Aperitive (f; VAD); Bactericide (1; MPG); Cho-
lagogue (f; BIB); Choleretic (f; VAD); Cytostatic (1; MPG); Depurative (f; BIB); Digestive (f; VAD); 
Diuretic (f; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; BOU); Febrifuge (f; EFS; VAD); Hypoglycemic (f1; MPG; 
VAD); Hypotensive (1; MPG); Orexigenic (f; BOU; VAD); Stimulant (f; EFS); Stomachic (f; BOU); 
Sudoric (fi f; BIB; EFS); Tonic (f; BIB; EFS); Vermifuge (f; BOU); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
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iNdi Catio Ns (purple star t Histle ):
Amenorrhea (f; BOU); Anorexia (f; BOU; VAD); Bacteria (1; MPG); Brucella (1; MPG); Cancer 
(f; BIB; JLH); Cold (f; VAD); Corns (f; JLH); Diabetes (f1; MPG; VAD); Dyskinesia (f; VAD); 
Fever (f; BIB; EFS); Fistula (f; BIB; WO2); Flu (f; VAD); Gallstone (f; HJP); Gravel (f; BIB; WO2); 
Headache (f; BOU); High Blood Pressure (1; MPG); Hyperglycemia (f; VAD); Infection (1; MPG); 
Jaundice (f; BIB); Kidney stone (f; HJP); Malaria (f; BOU); Mycobacterium (1; MPG); Nephrosis (f; 
BOU; HJP); Ophthalmia (f; BOU); Pain (f; BOU); Pseudomonas (1; MPG); Salmonella (1; MPG); 
Staphylococcus (1; MPG); Stone (f; BIB; BOU; WO2); Wound (f; BOU); Worm (f; BOU).
d osages (purple star t Histle ):
FNFF = !
Young shoots consumed raw in Egypt, as a potherb elsewhere (e.g., among Albanians in North Italy) 
(X12203269). Bedouins harvest the oleiferous seed and grind it for food (HJP). Fresh plant suspe-n
sion 125–600 g per day (VAD). 20–40 g herbs infused 10 minutes per liter of water, 3–5 cups/day 
(VAD). Decoction of 30 g plant per liter of water, 3–5 cups/day (MPG; VAD).
• Argentines use the juice to treat corns (JLH).
• Europeans take seed powder in wine for stones (WO2).
• Europeans use powdered roots for fistula and gravel (WO2).
• Lebanese eat boiled stems for jaundice (HJP).
• Lebanese take (with dilating herbs such as belladonna) to help pass gall and kidney stones 
(HJP).
• North Africans consider the seeds anodyne, antilithic, febrifuge, and vulnerary, using the 
whole plant for malaria and ophthalmia, and the leaves for headache (BOU).
• Portuguese use ofl wers and leaves as febrifuge and vulnerary, and the roots and fruits as 
diuretics (MPG).
• Spaniards suggest the plant for anorexia, cold, diabetes, hepatobiliary dyspepsia, hyp-er
glycemia, hyposecretory dyspepsia, flu, and wounds (VAD).
d ow Nsides (purple star t Histle ):
Contraindicated in pregnant and lactating women (VAD). Diabetics should watch insulin levels (VAD).
Natural History (purple star t Histle ):
Although grazed by animals, it can produce intoxication (e.g., encephalomalacia in horses that 
consume it) (VAD).
spANIsh th Ist Le (c ent Aure A iberic A spReNG.) ++ Aste RACeAe
Notes (s pa Nis H t Histle ):
Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (KJV)
Thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall eat the plants of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (RSV)
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And thorns and thistles it will grow for you; and you must eat the vegetation of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (NWT)
Thorn and thistles shall grow up on their altars.
Hosea 10:8 (RSV)
Zohary notes that the word dardar shows up only twice in some versions of the Bible. He suggests 
that dardar may refer to species of Centaurea, possibly C. iberica, called dardar by the Arabs in 
the Holy Land. Even Zohary is not sure that C. iberica was intended in the Bible, especially the cita-
tion in Genesis 3:18. (See Silybum for my equally weak second opinion.) Nowhere does C. iberica 
occur as a weed in the efi lds. These Arab and Hebrew names may mean potherb in general rather 
than Centaurea specicafi lly. This type of thistle is distinguished from other thistles and thorns by 
the atfl , whorled rosette hugging the ground in winter. The Arabs gather the Iberian dardar (mean-
ing whorls), also called murrier (merorim in Hebrew). These terms may mean potherb in general 
rather than Centaurea specicafi lly. In India, the flower heads are used for eczema.
Commo N Names (s pa Nis H t Histle ):
Dardar (Arab.; ZOH); Dardur (Arab.; ZOH); Iberian Knapweed (Eng.; GOO); Iberian Star Thistle 
(Eng.; USN); Merorim (Heb.; ZOH); Mureir (Heb.; ZOH); Spanish Thistle (Eng.; ZOH); Thistle 
(Eng.; BIB).
a Ctivities (s pa Nis H t Histle ):
Antidiabetic (1; X14750205); Insulinogenic (1; X14750205).
iNdi Catio Ns (s pa Nis H t Histle ):
Diabetes (1; X14750205); Eczema (f; BIB).
d osages (s pa Nis H t Histle ):
FNFF = !
Arabs gather the leaves of young plants of this and several other species as a potherb.
sy RIAN sCABIo Us (c eph Al Ari A syri Ac A (L.) 
Roe M. & sCh ULt.) + DI psACACeAe
Notes (syria N s Cabious ):
The kingdom of heaven may be compared to a man who sowed good seed in his field; but while 
men were sleeping, his enemy came and sowed weeds among the wheat, and went away.
Matthew 13: 24–5 (RSV)
Zohary equates this with sowing weed seeds that resemble the seeds of the crops. “Darnels and sca-bi
ous are both noxious weeds that grow only among crops, and damage them. … The Syrian scabious 
resembles wheat only by virtue of its seed”, (ZOH) while the darnel plant and seed alike resemble 
wheat. Its grains are closely associated with certain wheat varieties and are harvested acc-iden
tally with the wheat. As a result, the weed seeds are sown with the following wheat crop, in some 
cases overwhelming the crop, in others contributing their bitterness to the resultant ofl ur. I gather 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
from Zohary’s conclusion that the seed must be somewhat edible. “Sometimes the weed overwhelms the 
wheat, so that the farmer is forced to harvest it instead of the sown plant.” (ZOH) According to the USDA 
Nomenclature Database, the seeds are human food (valued in Georgia, previously of the USSR, but not 
elsewhere, when contaminating wheat and ground into ofl ur for specially afl vored bread) (USN).
Commo N Names (syria N s Cabious ):
Abrepuños (Sp.; USN); Céphalaire de Syrie (Fr.; USN); Escabiosilla (Sp.; USN); Makhobeli (Rus.; 
USN); Taradan Shalam (Arab.; ZOH); Zuwan Aswad (Arab.; ZOH).
d osages (syria N s Cabious ):
FNFF = !
Grown as an oilseed in Russia (FP3); sometimes made into wheat ofl ur as the seeds are threshed 
with the wheat in which it is a weed.
CARo B (c er Atoni A siliqu A L.) +++ FABACeAe (CAesALpINIACeAe)
Notes (Carob ):
John had his raiment of camels hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins; and his meat was 
locusts and wild honey.
Matthew 3:4 (KJV)
This is one of the most important tree species in the Middle Eastern vegetation type known as 
maquis, with Pistacia. Arab proverbs hint that the carob tree is cursed, and one should not sleep 
under it. And yet, carob is widely cultivated for its fruit and seeds, both high in sugar and calcium, 
low in protein and fats. It is used in “health foods” as a chocolate substitute. A single carob tree 
may yield 800 pounds of fruit. The seeds are said to be the ancient weight used by goldsmiths, and 
instituted from early times as carat weight. Seeds commanded a high price; singers imagined they 
cleared the voice. Carob is also used in textile printing, synthetic resins, insecticides, and fungicides. 
American imports were mostly used in tobacco afl vorings and cosmetics, but have now moved into 
the health food arena. In the Prodigal Son story, the younger son asked for his inheritance, which he 
then spent quickly and unwisely. When he had no money or food left, he hired out as a swine tender. 
Because he had no bread, he wanted to eat the carob pods being fed to swine. On April 25, 1982, in 
Burtonsville, Maryland, carob-coated walnuts sold for $2.89 a pound, more tfi ting for a profligate 
son. The price is more than twice that today.
Commo N Names (Carob ):
Abernid (Ber.; BOU); Albero della Carroba (It.; HH3); Alfarrobeira (Mad.; Por.; JAD; KAB); 
Algaroba; (Sp.; DEP); Algarroba; (Sp.; Peru; EGG; RAR; VAD); Algarroba del Libano (Sp.; EFS); 
Algarroba Europeo (Sp.; EFS); Algarrobeira (Por.; USN); Bockshornbaum (Ger.; HH3); Bread 
Bean (Eng.; KAB); Carob (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Carob Bean (Eng.; HH3); Carob Tree (Eng.; 
BOU); Caroba (Sp.; USN); Carobe (It.; KAB); Carobo (It.; KAB); Carobole (It.; KAB); Caroube 
(Fr.; USN); Caroubier (Fr.; BOU; EFS; KAB); Caroubier a Siliques (Fr.; TAN); Carouge (Fr.; HH3; 
KAB); Caruba (Ger.; KAB); Carrubio (It.; DEP; KAB); Carrubo (It.; Malta; EFS; KAB); Ceratonia 
(Peru; EGG); Chechire Gum (Eng.; HH3); Curenecillo (Sp.; SOU); Garrofe (Cat.; KAB); Garrofero 
(Sp.; EFS; KAB); Goma de Garrofín (Sp.; VAD); Guainella (It.; HH3; KAB); Hansbrod (Den.; 
EFS); Harruba (Malta; KAB); Haruv (Heb.; ZOH); Haruvim (Heb.; ZOH); Ikidou (Ber.; BOU); 
Inago Mame (Japan; TAN); Jans Broodboom (Dutch; KAB); Johannisbrod (Swe.; KAB); Joha-n
nisbrotbaum (Ger.; KAB; USN); Johannisbrotkehrmehl (Ger.; HH3); Johnsbread Tree (Enf.; EFS); 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
FIGURe . Carob (Ceratonia siliqua).
Karobbaum (Ger.; KAB); Karobenbaum (Ger.; HH3); Karobenboom (Dutch; KAB); Keciboynuzu 
agaci (Tur.; EFS); Keratia (Greek; KAB); Keration (Heb.; BI2); Keratonia (Greek; KAB); Kh-ar
nub (Arab.; Pun.; BOU; DEP; KAB); Kharnub Nupti (Arab.; Pun.; DEP); Kharnub Shami (Arab.; 
DEP); Kharroub (Arab.; BOU); Kharrouba (Arab.; BOU); Kharrub (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kharruh 
(Arab.; BI2); Khirnub (Arab.; KAB); Locust Bean (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; WO2); Locust Tree (Eng.; 
BOU; WO2); Meccaniamli (Pun.; WO2); Pain de Jean Baptiste (Fr.; EFS); Pane di Santo Giovanni 
(It.; HH3); Qarmatit (Yemen; GHA); Ribba (Arab.; BOU); Rojkovvi (Rus.; KAB); Roscov (Rom.; 
KAB); Selarwa (Ber.; BOU); Sodbrodbaum (Ger.; KAB); St. John’s Bean (Eng.; SKJ; ZOH); St. 
John’s Bread (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BOU; SKJ); Tikherroubt (Ber.; BOU); Tikida (Ber.; BOU); Tikidat 
(Ber.; BOU); Tikidit (Ber.; BOU); Tisliwha (Ber.; BOU).
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a Ctivities (Carob ):
Antacid (f; DEP; KAB); Antibacterial (12; SKY; WO2); Anticancer (f1; X12490228); Anticarcinoma 
(f1; X12490228); Anticoagulant (1; PH2); Antiexudative (1; HH3; PH2); Antioxidant (1; X11782210); 
Antiproliferant (1; X12490228); Antiseptic (f1; WO2); Antitoxic (f1; SKY); Antitussive (f; BIB); Anti-
viral (1; HH3; PH2); Apoptotic (1; X12490228); Astringent (f1; BOU; SKY; WO2); Bechic (f; BOU); 
Caspase-3 Inducer (1; X12490228); Demulcent (f; BIB); Digestive (f1; PH2); Diuretic (f; BOU); Fun-
gicide (f; VAD); Hemolytic (1; WO2); Hypocholesterolemic (1; BIB; LAF); Hypoglycemic (1; HH3; 
LAF); Hypoinsulemic (1; LAF); Hypolipidemic (1; PH2); Laxative (f; BOU; LAF); Pancreatonic (1; 
HH3); Pectoral (f; BIB; DEP; EFS); Purgative (f; BIB; DEP; EFS); Resolvent (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Carob ):
Asthma (f; BIB); Atherosclerosis (f; VAD); Cancer (f1; X12490228); Carcinoma (f1; X12490228); 
Catarrh (f; BIB; IED; PNC); Celiac (f; PH2); Childbirth (f; PH2); Colitis (f; PH2); Constipation (f; 
IED; HJP); Cough (f; BIB; DEP; HHB; PH2; WO2); Dehydration (f; WO2); Diabetes (f1; LAF; 
VAD; WO2); Diarrhea (f12; GHA; HHB; SKY); Duodenosis (f; VAD); Dyspepsia (f12; SKY; WO2); 
Enterosis (f; PH2); Gastrosis (f; VAD); Heartburn (f1; SKY); Hepatosis (1; X12490228); High 
Cholesterol (1; BIB; LAF); Hyperglycemia (1; LAF); Hyperlipemia (f; VAD); Hyperperistalsis (f; 
WO2); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; VAD); Mononucleosis (f; IED); Mycosis (f; VAD); Obesity 
(f1; LAF; VAD); Sprue (f; PH2); Steatorrhea (f; HHB); Ulcer (f; VAD); Voice (f; PNC); Vomiting (f; 
PH2); Wart (f; JLH).
d osages (Carob ):
FNFF = !!!
The fruit, food for the poor in Jewish folklore, also appears in the Christian tradition as “St. John’s 
Bread,” eaten by St. John the Baptist in the wilderness. Powdered pulp used as chocolate substitute; 
ripe fruits made into molasses like dibs (e.g., in Palestine); scorched seeds a coffee substitute; trag-a
sol, a gum extracted from the seeds, is used in dressings, ice cream, pickles, and sauces. Alcoholic 
beverages are made from the pods (BIB; FAC; FP2; TAN). One story in the Talmud tells that the 
Jewish sage Rabbi Shimeon Bar Yohai, hiding from the Romans in Galilean caves with his son, 
sustained life with carob alone for 12 years (ZOH). In Cyprus, a brittle candy known as “pasteli” is 
made from the pods (BIB). 15–20 g carob mixed in applesauce (SKY); 50 drops ufl id extract (1:1) 
goma garrofin 3 ×/day (VAD); 500–1500 mg capsule 1/2 hour before meal, with plenty of juice or 
water (VAD).
• Arabians take the dry seed kernels with sugar for diarrhea (GHA).
• Egyptians apply carob to warts (JLH).
• Lebanese grind pods into a laxative treacle called “dibbis kharub” (HJP).
• Southern Europeans used the pods for asthma and cough (BIB).
• Spaniards take the ofl ur for diarrhea, gastritis, gastroduodenal ulcers, and infantile na-u
sea (VAD).
• Spaniards take the seed starch as a laxative, and to help obesity and prevent atheros-cle
rosis (VAD).
• Spaniards use green fruit as a fungicide (VAD).
d ow Nsides (Carob ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages 
(PH2). Infant diarrhea must be monitored by a professional to ensure proper hydration with high 
electrolyte ufl id during acute diarrhea (SKY, 1998). Avoid with intestinal obstructions or stenoses 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
(VAD). Best to monitor insulin in diabetics (VAD). Can interfere with intestinal absorption of other 
medicines (e.g., penicillin and lithium salts) (VAD).
extra Cts (Carob ):
Papagiannopoulos et al .(2004) quantiefi d the polyphenols in carob fruits, reporting 41 individual 
phenolics (448 mg/kg extractable polyphenols comprising gallic acid, hydrolyzable and condensed 
tannins, afl vonol-glycosides, and traces of isoafl vonoids) (X15186098). While no clear competitor 
with green tea, carob should share in many of the purported health benetfi s of green tea in the major 
killers, cancer, cardiopathy, and diabetes. Carob tannins inactivate toxins by binding with them; 
inhibit bacteria (SKY; X14170956). I suspect that is why I was given carob when I suffered salmonella 
in Panama nearly half a century ago. By making stomach contents more viscous, bfi ers and sugars 
may interfere with acid reufl x in the esophagus (SKY). Rats fed a bfi er -free diet containing 1% choles-
terol exhibited a small increase in serum cholesterol and a vfi efold increase in liver cholesterol. Add-i
tion of 10% pectin or 10% locust bean gum kept the increase in liver cholesterol down (BIB). LD50 
(Carob gum) = 9100 mg/kg orl dog HH3; LD50 (Carob gum) = 10,000 mg/kg orl hamster HH3; LD50 
(Carob gum) = 13,000 mg/kg orl mus HH3; LD50 (Carob gum) = 13,000 mg/kg orl rat HH3.
JUDAs t Ree (c ercis siliqu Astrum L.) ++ FABACeAe
Notes (Judas t ree):
And he cast down the pieces of silver in the temple, and departed, and went and hanged himself.
Matthew 27:5 (KJV)
A handsome ornamental tree, most probably not the tree on which Judas hanged himself — if he 
hanged himself at all. Tradition, more than 200 years old, has it that the red color of the ofl wers 
results from the trees blushing or burning with shame when Judas selected it. Because Zohary 
does not mention it in his plants of the Bible, I suppose he doubts that Judas hanged himself on the 
Judas tree. But he does illustrate it well in the Flora of the Palestine (FP2). Hence, it is certainly a 
handsome tree of the Holy Land although not mentioned per se in the Bible. Other authors (GMH) 
think Judas hanged himself on an elderberry, Sambucus (GMH), but there are no elderberries listed 
for the native Flora of Palestine. Sambucus nigra is cultivated in that part of the world and could 
support the weight of a hanging man. I saw a substantiaSl ambucus nigra tree near Hildegarde von 
Bingen’s. The Judas tree of Palestine is also said to be an ornamental timber tree, the ofl wer buds of 
which are pickled and eaten (FP2).
Commo N Names (Judas t ree):
Albero di Guida (It.; EFS); Arból de Amor (Sp.; EFS); Arból de Judea (Sp.; EFS); Arbre de Judie 
(Fr.; EFS); Arjorán (Sp.; EFS); Ching P’i (China; EFS); Echter Judasbaum (Ger.; EFS); Erguvan 
(Tur.; EFS); Gainier (Fr.; EFS); Judas Boom (Dutch; EFS); Judas Tree (Eng.; USN); Love Tree 
(Eng.; USN); Namdumbu (Sp.; EFS); Olaia (Por.; EFS); Siliquastro (It.; EFS); Tzu Ching (China; 
EFS); Arból de Judea (Sp.; EFS).
a Ctivities (Judas t ree):
Aromatic (f; EFS); Bitter (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (Judas t ree):
Catarrh (f; EFS); Headache (f; EFS).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
d osages (Judas t ree):
FNFF = !
Flowers used in pickles and salads (BIB; FP2).
Ch ICKpeA (c icer A rietinum L.) +++ FABACeAe
Notes (CHiCkpea ):
The oxen likewise and the young asses that ear the ground shall eat clean provender, which hath 
been winnowed with the shovel and with the fan.
Isaiah 30:24 (KJV)
And the oxen and the asses that till the ground will eat salted provender, which has been win-
nowed with shovel and fork.
Isaiah 30:24 (RSV)
And the cattle and the full- grown asses cultivating the ground will eat fodder seasoned with 
sorrel, which was winnowed with the shovel and with the fork.
Isaiah 30:24 (NWT)
Provender, perhaps a mistranslation, was mentioned six times in the Bible (KJV). In my first Medic-
inal Plants of the Bible, I did not include the chickpea; none of the scholars I had read seemed to 
stress that as a possibility. Since then, however, I have read that the word provender of the Bible 
might better have been translated as hummus, and indeed may have been the chickpea. And yes, the 
leaves of the provender are eaten, more by animals than by humans. But humans do ingest cooked 
young leaves like spinach. According to Zohary, the biblicahl amitz, cognate with the Arabic humus 
and the Aramaic himtza, means chickpea, and today himtza is modern Hebrew for chickpea (“The 
RSV translation as ‘provender’ is mistaken.”)(ZOH). I will accept Zohary’s conclusions and include 
chickpea. But there are still version variations; it is “clean” in KJV, it is “salted” in RSV, and “s-ea
soned with sorrel” in NWT (Zohary did not index Rumex = sorrel in ZOH, but lists more than 
15 varieties and species of Rumex in FP1). Chickpea, apparently, was originally domesticated in 
Turkey and some neighboring countries. It has been found in pre-pottery Neolithic levels of some 
prehistoric sites, in Early Bronze Age deposits of Jericho, in Iraq, as well as elsewhere. Earliest 
records are from Turkey “dating from 5000 BC” (ZOH). Allegedly, the cicer of the Romans, Horace 
referred to parched seed as food for the poor. Supposedly cultivated in Egypt since the earliest times 
of the Christian era, it was perhaps considered common and/or unclean (DEP). Today, I believe that 
chickpea was one of several pulses, including Pisum, Vicia, even Trigonella (if you consider that a 
pulse) already cultivated in the biblical world in biblical times, more than 2000 years ago.
Commo N Names (CHiCkpea ):
Badam (Mooshar; NPM); Bagolyborsó (Hun.; POR); Balabhaishajya (Sanskrit; KAB); Balabhoyja 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Becudo (Lan.; KAB); Beiqa (Arab.; BOU); Bengal Gram (Eng.; KAB; MPI); 
Black Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Black Desi (Eng.; POR); Blac-kseeded Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Booto 
(Oriya; WO2); Bukkeert (Nor.; POR); But (Beng.; Hindi; San.; Urdu; KAB; WO2); Butakala (Beng.; 
POR); Butkalai (Beng.; KAB; NAD); Butma (Assam; POR; WO2); Cabuli (Nwp.; DEP); Café Fra-n
cais (Fr.; KAB); Cana (Nepal; POR); Canaa (Nepal; POR); Cece (It.; DEP; KAB); Ceci (It.; TAN); 
Ceseron (Fr.; KAB); Ceze (Lan.; KAB); Cezerous (Lan.; KAB); Cezes (Lan.; KAB); Chahna (Sin.; 
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KAB); Chana (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Kas.; Pun.; Urdu; KAB; MPI; WO2); Chanaa (Guj.; POR); Ch-a
naabatulaa (Beng.; POR); Chanabartula (Beng.; POR); Chanaka (Sanskrit; MPI; WO2); Chan-aka
mulu (Tel.; NAD); Chania (Guj.; KAB; WO2); Chaniaa (Guj.; POR); Chano (Kon.; MPI); Chenna 
(Dec.; KAB); Chennuka (Sanskrit; DEP); Chickpea (Eng.; CR2); Chola (Beng.; Iran; Pun.; DEP; 
KAB; NAD; WO2); Chole (Hindi; Pun.; WO2); Chono (Kon.; KAB); Chot Abut (Beng.; MPI); 
Chotobata (Beng.; POR); Chotobut (Beng.; POR); Chunna (Hindi; DEP; KAB); Chunnaa (Hindi; 
POR); Cicer (Roman; DEP); Cicérole (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Cicerolle (Fr.; KAB); Cicri (Malta; KAB); 
Ciecierzyca Pospolita (Pol.; POR); Ciserole (Fr.; KAB); Ciseron (Fr.; KAB); Cizrna Beraní (Czech; 
POR); Common Gram (Eng.; IHB; KAB); Csicseri borsó (Hun.; POR); Da Zi Ji Dou (China; POR); 
Djelbane (Ber.; BOU); Dhal (India; LEG); Echte Kicher (Ger.; POR); Ee Chip T’eu Kong (Korea; 
POR); Erebinthos (Greek; DEP); Ervanço (Por.; KAB; POR); Gairance (Fr.; BOU); Gairoutte (Fr.; 
KAB); Garavance (Malta; KAB); Garbance (Fr.; KAB); Garbanzo (Eng.; Sp.; KAB; LEG; POR); 
Garbanzos (Dr.; Sp.; AHL; DEP); Garoutte (Fr.; KAB); Garvance (Fr.; KAB); Garvane (Belgium; 
Fr.; JLH; KAB); Gram (Eng.; CR2); Grno de Bico (Por.; KAB; POR; USN); Grno Gravanço (Por.; 
POR); Grauwe Erwt (Dutch; POR); Hamaz (Ber.; BOU); Harbara (Bom.; Mar.; KAB; MPI; WO2); 
Harbarchana (Bom.; NAD); Harimandhakam (Tel.; DEP; KAB); Harimandhakama (Tel.; POR); 
Harimantha (Sanskrit; KAB; POR; WO2); Hei Xiao Zi Ji Dou (China; POR); Hei Zi Ji Dou (China; 
POR); Hhimmass (Arab.; POR); Himtza (Aramaic; Heb.; ZOH); Hiyoko-Mame (Japan; POR; 
TAN); Hommos (Arab.; BOU; POR); Hommos Malana (Arab.; POR); Homos (Egypt.; DEP; KAB); 
Horse Bean (Eng.; IHB); Hui Hui Dou (China; POR); Humug (Arab.; NAD); Humus (Arab.; ZOH); 
Ikiker (Ber.; BOU); I Chip T’eu Kong (Korea; POR); Ji Dou (China; POR); Ji Tou Dou (China; 
POR); Jivana (Sanskrit; KAB); Jumez (Arab.; KAB; WOI); Kabuli Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Kachang 
Arab (Malaya; POR); Kachang Kuda (Dei.; Malaya; IHB; POR); Kadala (Kan.; Mal.; MPI; WO2); 
Kadalai (Tam.; POR; WO2); Kadalakka (Mal.; WO2); Kadale (Kan.; MPI; WO2); Kadle (Tel.; 
NAD); Kadli (Carnatic; KAB); Kaffeärt (Swe.; POR); Kahviherne (Fin.; POR); KalabPh. (Burma; 
POR); Kalai (Beng.; DEP; WOI); Kalapai (Burma; DEP; KAB); Kanchuki (Sanskrit; KAB); Ka-ri
kadale (Kan.; KAB; POR); Katala (Mal.; MPI); Keker (Dutch; KAB; POR); Kempukadale (Kan.; 
KAB); Kichererbse (Ger.; KAB; POR); Kichererbsen (Ger.; POR); KikFrt (Den.; POR); Kikärt 
(Swe.; POR); KikerFrt (Den.; POR); Kodala (Sin.; POR); Kondakkadala (Sin.; Tam.; KAB; MPI); 
Kondi (Sin.; POR); Kreukerwt (Dutch; POR); Krishnachanchuka (Sanskrit; KAB); Kudole (Kan.; 
KAB); Kulopan (Burma; NAD); Large-seeded Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Makhud (Punj.; MPI); May 
Bu Ri Kong (Korea; POR); Moroejang (Mun.; KAB); Morujang (Mun.; WO2); Nakhud (Iran; Pun.; 
DEP; NAD); Naut (Rom.; KAB); Nahot (Rom.; KAB); Nochut (Tur.; POR); Nohud (Tur.; POR); 
Nohut (Tur.; EB54:155); Nut Baranii (Rus.; POR); Ovetche Harokh (Rus.; KAB); Pajito (Mad.; Por.; 
JAD); Pesette (Fr.; KAB); Pisello Cece (It.; POR); Pisello Cornuto (It.; POR); Poischi (Fr.; NAD); 
Pois Becu (Fr.; KAB); Pois Blanc (Fr.; KAB); Pois Chiche (Fr.; BOU; MPI; TAN); Pois ciche (Fr.; 
KAB); Pois Cornu (Fr.; KAB); Pois Gris (Fr.; KAB); Pois Pointu (Fr.; KAB); Provender (Bib.; Eng.; 
BIB; ZOH); Ram’s Head Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Revithi (Greek; POR); Revithia (Greek; POR); 
Sakalapriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Salealpriya (Sanskrit; POR); Sanagalu (Tel.; WO2); Sannaagalu (Tel.; 
DEP); Sanuagalu (Tel.; KAB); Senagalu (Tel.; MPI); Sigro (Cat.; KAB); Sisér (Arm.; POR); Sisiér 
(Arm.; POR); Sissererwt (Dutch; POR); Sissererwten (Dutch; POR); Sisyr (Arm.; POR); Siuro 
(Cat.; KAB); Smooth-seeded Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Sugandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Tete de bellier 
(Fr.; KAB); Thua Hua Chaang (Thai; POR); Turetskii Gorokh (Rus.; POR); Vajibhakshya (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Vajimantha (Sanskrit; KAB; POR); Wrinkled-seeded Chickpea (Eng.; POR); Xiao Zi Ji Dou 
(China; POR); Ying Zui Dou (China; POR); Zweigerbse (Ger.; MPI).
a Ctivities (CHiCkpea ):
Allergenic (1; X15662964); Anthelmintic (f; KAB; WO2); Antianemic (1; FNF); Antiatherogenic 
(1; MPI); Antibilious (f; DEP; MPI); Anticervisotic (1; FNF); Anticheilitic (1; FNF); Anticoronary 
(1; FNF); Antidementic (1; FNF); Antidepressant (1; FNF); Antigingivitic (1; FNF); Antiglossitic 
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(1; FNF); Antigout (1; FNF); Antihyperlipidemic (1; WO3); Antiinfertility (1; FNF); Antiinafl m -
matory (f; KAB); Antileukemic (1; WO3); Antimetaplastic (1; FNF); Antimyelotoxic (1; FNF); 
Antineuropathic (1; FNF); Antiperiodontotic (1; FNF); Antiplaque (1; FNF); Antipolyp (preven-
tive) (1; FNF); Antipsychotic (1; FNF); Anti-spina-bidfi a (1; FNF); Antistress (1; WO3); Antivi -
ral (1; X11848297); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU; DEP; MPI; WO2); Astringent (f; WO2); Bidfi ogenic (1; 
X15850967); Cardioprotective (1; WO3); Depurative (f; KAB); Diuretic (1; WO2); Estrogenic (f; 
WO2); Flatugenic (f; KAB); Fungicide (1; WO2; X12895650); Hematopoietic (1; FNF); Hypocho-
lesterolemic (2; MPI; WO2); Hypolipidemic (1; WO2); Immunostimulant (1; FNF); Lactagogue 
(f; LEG); Laxative (f; MPI); Lipolytic (2; MPI); Mitogenic (1; X11848297); Orexigenic (f; KAB); 
Proteolytic (1; X11791480); Refrigerant (f; WO2); Reverse-Transciptase Inhibitor (1; X11848297); 
Soporic fi (f; LEG); Stimulant (f; WO2); Stomachic (f; MPI); Tonic (f; DEP; WO2); Trypsin Inhibitor 
(1; X11791480); Xanthine-Oxidase Inhibitor (1; FNF); Uricosuric (1; FNF).
iNdi Catio Ns (CHiCkpea ):
Alactea (f; JAD); Anemia (1; FNF); Anorexia (f; KAB); Atheroclerosis (1; MPI; WO3); Biliousness 
(f; DEP; MPI; WO2); Bite (f; DEP; SKJ); Blood (f; KAB); Bronchosis (f; DEP; WO2); Calculus (f; 
KAB); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH; X15517915; X15298756); Cancer, penis (f; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; 
JLH); Cardiopathy (1; MPI; WO3); Catarrh (f; DEP); Cervicosis (1; FNF); Cheilosis (1; FNF); Cho-l
era (f; JAD); Cirrhosis (1; FNF); Constipation (f; SKJ); Cough (f; WO2); Cutamenia (f; DEP; LEG); 
Dandruff (f; WO2); Dementia (1; FNF); Depression (1; FNF); Dermatosis (f; BOU; WO2); Diarrhea 
(f; NAD; WO2); Dislocation (f; NAD; WO2); Dysentery (f; WO2); Dysmenorrhea (f; KAB; NAD); 
Dyspepsia (f; DEP; WO2); Edema (f; WO2); Fever (f; NAD); Fracture (f; WO2); Fungus (1; WO2); 
Gas (1; JAD; NAD); Gingivosis (1; FNF); Glossosis (1; FNF); Gout (1; FNF); Headache (f; WO2); 
Hepatosis (1; FNF); High Cholesterol (2; MPI; WO2); HIV (1; X11848297); Impotence (f; DEP; 
KAB; WO2); Infection (1; WO2; X12895650); Infertility (1; FNF); Inafl mmation (f; KAB); Itch (f; 
BOU); Leprosy (f; BOU; DEP; WO2); Mycosis (1; WO2; X12895650); Nausea (f; DEP); Neuropathy 
(1; FNF); Obesity (1; WO2; WO3); Orchosis (f; JLH); Ozoena (f; KAB); Pain (f; KAB); Periodonto-
sis (1; FNF); Pharyngosis (f; KAB; WO2); Plaque (1; FNF); Polyp (1; FNF); Pulmonosis (f; KAB); 
Smallpox (f; BOU); Snakebite (f; DEP; KAB; SKJ); Sore Throat (f; WO2); Spina Bidfi a (1; FNF); 
Splenosis (f; DEP); Sprain (f; NAD; WO2); Stress (1; WO3); Stroke (f; DEP; SKJ); Thirst (f; KAB); 
Toothache (f; WO2); Vomiting (f; DEP); Wart (f; JAD); Worms (f; KAB).
d osages (CHiCkpea ):
FNFF = !!!
Food farmacy at its best (JAD). Seeds, sprouts, young pods, young leaves, and the vinegar off the 
leaves are all eaten by humans. Great for the heart (say I) is hummus with plenty of garlic and olive 
oil; sesame and parsley optional but good. Let us hope the Tibetans are right, “Skinny people will 
gain weight, while fat people will lose weight when consuming sesame oil” (TIB). Juice of fresh 
leaves is used as hair tonic (NPM).
• Ayurevedics, deeming the seeds aphrodisiac, atfl ugenic, orexigenic, stimulant, and tonic, 
use them for bronchitis, dermatosis, fever, leprosy, ozoena, pharyngosis, thirst, and 
worms (KAB).
• Ayurvedics deem the tart leaves astringent, atfl ugenic, orexigenic, using for bronchitis 
and enterosis (KAB).
• Ayurvedics use the acid leaf exudate for constipation and dyspepsia (KAB).
• Belgians and Italians applied in cataplasm to testicular cancers (JLH).
• Deccanese with dysmenorrhea sit over a steaming decoction of the plant (KAB).
• French applied the plant to warts (JLH).
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• North Africans use decoction (seed?) for itch, leposy, and smallpox (BOU).
• Unani, deeming the seeds anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, and tonic, use for fever, halitosis, 
hepatosis, inafl mmation, otitis, pharyngosis, pulmonosis, and splenosis (KAB).
d ow Nsides (CHiCkpea ):
The oxalic acid may be contraindicated in people with calculus (DEP). Boulos notes that in-ad
equately cooked chickpeas can cause paralysis, like lathyrus peas can cause lathyrism (BOU).
extra Cts (CHiCkpea ):
Queiroz-Monici et al. (2005) found chickpea and pea better as bidfi ogenics than beans and lentils. 
Chickpea-fed groups consumed more food and showed better food conversion efcfi iency. Animals fed 
leguminous diets showed higher counts of Bidfi obacterium, and lower Enterobacter and Bacteroides 
(X15850967). It also seems to be as “health-giving” and “heart-friendly” as soy without the high fat. 
The germinated seeds (“sprouts”) contain the afl vonoids, daidzein, formononetin, pratensin, liquirit-
genin, isoliquiritigenin, and its 4'-glucoside, 4',7-dihydroxyafl vonol, garbanzol, biochanin-7-glucoside, 
and p-coumaric acid. Kaufman et al. (1997) reported 45 ppm genistein in chickpea seeds; cf. 25 for 
soy in comparing circa 75 legume accessions for isoafl vone content (X9395689). In USA Patent No. 
6599536, “Premenopausal Uses of Clover-Derived Isoafl vones” claimed uses for the composition are 
for treatment or amelioration of premenopausal, benign disorders associated with an abnormally high 
activity of steroidal estrogen, for example, cyclical acne, endometriosis and endometrial hyperplasia, 
mastalgia, ovarian cysts, polycystic ovarian disease, and uterine bfi roids. The patent cites specic fi
“clovers (Trifolium spp.)” and “chick peas” as sources of isoafl vones. Remember, my reader, that being 
cited in a patent does not necessarily make chickpea good for these ailments, but were I suffering any, 
I might increase my intake of hummus and/or chickpeas [USA Patent No. 6599536 (2003)].
eNDIve (c ichorium endivi A L.) +++ Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cichorium divaricatum Schousb.; Cichorium endivia subsp. divaricatum (Schousb.) P.D. Sell; 
Cichorium intybus subsp. pumilum (Jacq.) Ball; Cichorium pumilum Jacq.
Notes (eNdive ):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day in the evening they shall keep it; they shall eat it with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (RSV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day between the two evenings, they should prepare it. 
Together with unfermented cakes and bitter greens they should eat it.
Numbers 9:11 (NWT)
Some scholars regard endive as the bitter herb of Moses. Apparently Zohary does not (ZOH), more 
convinced thatC . pumilum Jacq. was the bitter herb. Not to worry; that is just a variety or subspecies 
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FIGURe . Endive (Cichorium endivia).
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of endive. The Flora of Palestine, not noted for including alien cultivars, lists neither endive nor 
chicory but does list the dwarf chicory (which see). Jane Philips (HJP) implies that the uses of the 
three pertinent taxa are interchangeable medicinally, at least in Lebanon. The chemistry and syn-on
ymy reported in Hager’s Handbook (HH2) seem to support Philips’s implications. I accept the HH2 
and USN view, acceptingC . pumilum and C. endivia as subspecies of the same species, C. endivia.
Zohary does comment that the dwarf chicory, like several of the nine Mediterranean species 
of Cichorium, is eaten by cattle and humans alike. A weedy progenitor is more likely to have been 
eaten by biblical peasants than the cultivated chicory or endive, which Zohary excludes from his 
account. However, neither Zohary or I now can guarantee that any or all species were or were not 
eaten in the biblical setting. I will wager that all that occurred there in those days served as bitter 
herbs. Zohary notes that chicory (and Reichardia) are only possible representatives of a large group 
of so-called edible bitter herbs in the Middle East, almost like our spring tonic greens down South. 
Not necessarily chicory, nor dandelion, nor endive, nor fenugreek were necessarily the most impo-r
tant of the biblical merorim (Arabic mureir), a general term to embrace many different species of 
bitter edible herbs.
Commo N Names (eNdive ):
Achicoria (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Andijvie (Dutch; EFS); Chicorée des Jardins (Fr.; EFS; HH2); Chicorée 
Frisée (Fr.; EFS); Chiccoria (Por.; EFS); Endive (Eng.; Fr.; CR2; EFS); Endive Chicory (Eng.; HJP); 
Endivia (It.; Sp.; EFS); Endivia Sallat (Swe.; EFS); Endivie (Ger.; Den.; EFS); Escarola (Peru; Sp.; 
EFS; EGG); Escarolla (Por.; HH2); Handabah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Hindiba (Tur.; EFS); Garden 
Endive (Eng.; WOI); Induba (Arab.; EFS); Kashini (Hindi; WO2); Kasini (Hindi; WO2); Kasni 
Virai (Tam.; WO2); Kassin (Beng.; WO2); Koshae Vittulu (Tel.; WO2); Koshi (Tel.; WO2); Ku Chü 
(China; EFS); Memorim (Heb.; ZOH); Mureir (Arab.; ZOH); Radicchio (It.; Sp.; EGG); Scariola 
(It.; EFS); Shikuryah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Winterendivie (Ger.; HH2).
a Ctivities (eNdive ):
Allergenic (f1; FNF); Antibilious (f; BIB; DEP; EFS); Antioxidant (1; FAH; X12137499); Antira-
dicular (1; X12137499); Aphrodisiac (f; HJP); Bitter (f; BIB); Carminative (f; BIB; EFS); Choleretic 
(f; BIB); Decongestant (f; HJP); Emetic (f; HJP); Gout (f; HJP); Demulcent (f; BIB); Depurative (f; 
HJP); Gout (f; HJP); Digestive (f; HJP); Diuretic (f; BIB); Febrifuge (f; DEP; WO2); Laxative (f; 
BIB); Orexigenic (f; HJP); Refrigerant (f; BIB); Resolvent (f; BIB); Sedative (f; HJP); Stimulant (f; 
DEP; EFS); Tonic (f; BIB; HJP); Vermifuge (f; HJP); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (eNdive ):
Anorexia (f; HJP); Biliousness (f; WOI); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; 
JLH); Cancer, throat (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Catarrh (f; HJP); Cramp (f; HJP); Diarrhea 
(f; HJP); Dropsy (f; BIB; HJP); Dyspepsia (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; HJP); Fever (f; BIB; WO2); Gastro-
sis (f; HJP); Gout (f; HJP); Headache (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid (f; HJP); Hepatosis (f; BIB); Impotence 
(f; HJP); Induration (f; BIB); Inafl mmation (f; JLH); Jaundice (f; BIB); Pharyngosis (f; BIB); Pulm -
onosis (f; HJP); Splenosis (f; BIB); Swelling (f; JLH); Toothache (f; HJP); Uterosis (f; BIB); Wart (f; 
HJP); Water (f; BIB); Worm (f; HJP); Wound (f; HJP).
d osages (eNdive ):
FNFF = !!!
Food farmacy (JAD); now widely available and about as increasingly boring as head lettuce; i-nter
preted by some as one of the bitter herbs of the Bible. Leaves eaten raw in salads or as a potherb. 
Javans pickle the leaves. Seeds are used in sherbets. The Jews of Alexandria, who translated the 
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00 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Pentateuch, would have known better than I which herbs were eaten with the Paschal Lamb. Fresh 
endive leaves smell bitter but full-grown, blanched leaves are pleasant. To blanch, tie the outer 
leaves in a cone, or place a big ofl wer pot over each plant to curb the light. Blanching takes about 3 
weeks (BIB; FAC; KAB; WO2).
• Lebanese used endive as choleretic and in the same way as their many uses for chicory 
(HJP).
extra Cts (eNdive ):
Those activities and indications of chicory based on cichoric acid or inulin also might apply to the 
endive, if it has as much of the same compounds.
Ch ICo Ry (c ichorium intybus L.) +++ Aste RACeAe
Notes (CHiCory ):
And they shall eat the flesh in that night, roast with fire, and unleavened breads; and with bitter 
herbs they shall eat it.
Exodus 12:8
The children of Israel may have learned to eat bitter herbs from the Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians 
used to place healthy green herbs on the table, mixed with mustard, and then dunk their healthy 
whole-grain bread in the mixture, like my dad and I used to dunk cornbread in turnip green broth. 
Moldenke and Moldenke believed thatC ichorium endivia, Cichorium intybus, Lactuca sativa, Nas-
turtium officinale, Rumex acetosella , and Taraxacum officinale were among the green herbs of the 
Bible. By contrast, local Israeli botanist Michael Zohary lists none of these in hiPsl ants of the Bible 
(ZOH), and only the watercress is listed as occurring in theF lora of Palestine. Zohary gfi ures instead 
that chicory and the poppy-leavedR eichardia (which looks like dandelion) as more promising cand-i
dates. Regarding bitter herbs, Zohary says, “Many plants, especially those belonging to the Mustard 
and Daisy families, are frequently collected and used as potherbs and salad plants” (ZOH).
Commo N Names (CHiCory ):
Achicoria (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Achicoria Amarga (Sp.; EFS); Achicoria Para Ensalada (Sp.; EFS); 
Almeirão (Por.; EFS; HH2); Almiron Amarga (Sp.; EFS); Ambuboia (Iran; NAD); Arhilon (Ber.; 
BOU); Barbe de Capucin (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Basarula (Arab.; NAD); Bitterste Cichory (Dutch; 
KAB); Blaue Wegwarte (Ger.; EFS); Blausamenwirbel (Ger.; KAB); Bois de Corde (Fr.; KAB); 
Brussel Witloof (Eng.; TAN); Bunk (Eng.; KAB); Camaroja (Cat.; KAB); Camarroya (Sp.; EFS); 
Cheveux de paysan (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Chicorea Brava (Por.; KAB); Chicoree (Fr.; BOU); Chicoree 
Amere (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Chicorée Sauvage (Fr.; EFS; KAB; TAN); Chicória (Por.; HH2); Chicória 
Brava (Por.; HH2); Chicoria do Café (Por.; EFS); Chicory (Eng.; CR2; HH2); Chicourey (Arab.; 
GMH); Cichorei (Dutch; EFS); Cicoare (Rom.; KAB); Cicorea (It.; KAB); Cicoria (It.; Malta; 
HH2; KAB); Cicoria Radicchio (It.; EFS); Cicoureio (Provence; KAB); Cicueira (Malta; KAB); 
Cikoria (Swe.; EFS); Cikorie (Den.; EFS); Citlik (Tur.; EB54:155); Djouldjoulan (Arab.; BOU); 
Ecoubette (Fr.; KAB); Gewöhliche Wegwarte (Ger.; HH2); Gul (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Hand (Pun.; 
KAB); Handhiposh (Kas.; MKK); Hendiban (Arab.; Saudi; GHA); Hendibeh (Arab.; GMH); Herbe 
a Café (Fr.; KAB); Herbe Amere (Fr.; KAB); Hindeg (Ger.; KAB); Hindiba (Arab.; DEP; GHA); 
Hinduba (Beng.; Bom.; Guj.; Hindi; NAD; WO2); Hindubar (Arab.; KAB); Indian Endive (Eng.; 
DEP); Indyba (Arab.; KAB); Inthybe (Fr.; KAB); Ju Qu (Pin.; Jule Salat (Den.; EFS); DAA); 
Kasani (Guj.; Iran; Urdu; DEP; KAB); Kashin (Loralai; KAB); Kashini (Tam.; KAB); Kashini 
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FIGURe . Chicory (Cichorium intybus).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Virai (Tam.; DEP); Kasini (Tel.; KAB); Kasini Virai (Tam.; NAD); Kasini Vittilu (Tel.; DEP); 
Kasni (Beng.; Iran; Hindi; Mal.; Pun.; DEP; EFS; KAB; WO2); Kichora (Greek; KAB); Kikori 
(Greek; KAB); Kikorion (Greek; KAB); Kiku Nigana (Japan; TAN); Ku Ku (China; NAD); Ku Tsai 
(China; NAD); Lishkan (Jammu; WO2); Memorim (Heb.; ZOH); Mersag (Ber.; BOU); Munnchatti 
Kizhangu (Mal.; WO2); Mureir (Arab.; ZOH); Peewortel-plant (Dutch; EFS); Podroznik (Pol.; 
KAB); Radicchio (It.; Malta; HH2; KAB); Radicheta (Sp.; EFS); Ragged sailor (Eng.; KAB); Rau 
Di’ep Dang (Vn.; TAN); Seris (Arab.; BOU); Seris Picris (Greek; KAB); Shikoriah (Arab.; NAD); 
Shikouria (Arab.; BOU); Succory (Eng.; ERS; HH2; TAN); Suchal (Pun.; KAB); Suikerij (Dutch; 
EFS); Tilfaf (Arab.; BOU); Timerzouga (Ber.; BOU); Timizagt (Ber.; BOU); Tsalina (Ber.; BOU); 
Tsikorie (Rus.; KAB); Tukhm-e-kasani (Iran; EFS); Verufl chte Jungfer (Ger.; KAB); Waegwarda 
(Swe.; KAB); Wegenwachter (Dutch; EFS); Weglunge (Ger.; KAB); Wegwarte (Ger.; KAB); Weg-
weisse (Ger.; KAB); Wild Bachelor’s Button (Eng.; KAB); Wild Chicory (Eng.; BOU); Wild Endive 
(Ger.; KAB); Wild Succory (Eng.; EFS); Wilde Cichory (Dutch; KAB); Wilde Zichorie (Ger.; EFS; 
HH2); Witloof (Dutch; EFS); Xicoina (Cat.; KAB); Xicoira (Cat.; KAB); Yabani Hindiba (Tur.; 
EB54:155); Zichorie (Ger.; KAB; HH2); Zikorifa (Rus.; EFS); Zral (Bal.; KAB).
a Ctivities (CHiCory ):
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Allergenic (f1; FAH; WO3); Alterative (f; NAD); Analgesic (f; KAB); Antibilious 
(f; WO2); Antiexudative (1; HH2; PHR; PH2); Antifeedant (1; WO3); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; APA; 
FAD; PNC; X15649409); Antilipogenic (f1; ORAFTI9); Antimalarial (f1; X15507374); Antimetastatic 
(1; X15877900); Antimutagenic (1; APA); Antioxidant (1; FAH; X12137499; X15800389); Antiradicu-
lar (1; X12137499); Antiseptic (1; FAD); Antispermatogenic (1; WO2); Antisteatotic (1; ORAFTI9); 
Bactericide (1; FAD; WO2; X15567253); Bidfi ogenic (1; FNF); Bitter (f1; FAH; HHB); Bradycardic 
(1; WO2); Cerebroprotective (1; X16218660); Cardiodepressant (1; FAD; PNC); Cardiotonic (1; FAD); 
Carminative (f; DEP; WO2); Cerebrotonic (f; WO2); Chemopreventive (1; X15877900); Cholagogue 
(f1; BOU; PHR; PH2; VVG; WO2); Choleretic (f12; ABA; BOU; KOM; PH2; VVG); COX-2 Inhibi-
tor (1; X15649409); Decongestant (f; DEP); Demulcent (f; DEP; GHA; WBB); Depurative (f; BOU; 
EGG; HHB; VVG); Digestive (f1; APA; FAH; NAD; WBB; WO2); Diuretic (f1; BOU; FAD; FAH; 
PNC; VVG; WO2); Emmenagogue (f; DEP; KAB; WBB; WO2); Febrifuge (f; BOU; GHA); Hepato-
protective (1; APA; VVG; WO2); Hypocholesterolemic (1; FAH; PHR; PH2); Hypoglycemic (1; FAD); 
Hypotensive (1; VAD); Laxative (f1; APA; BOU; FAD; FAH; GHA; PNC); Lipolytic (f1; FAH); Nega-
tive Chronotropic (1; PH2); Negative Inotropic (1; PH2); Nervine (f; DEM; FAH); Neuroprotective 
(1; X16218660); Orexigenic (f1; APA; BOU; FAH; VAG; VVG); Peristaltic (1; WO2); Phytoalexin (1; 
WO3); Prebiotic (1; X15649409); Refrigerant (f; DEP); Sedative (f1; APA; FAD; GMH); Stomachic (f; 
HHB; WO2); Syndrome X (1; ORAFTI9); Tonic (f; APA; BOU; FAH; PNC; VVG); Xanthine-Oxidase 
Inhibitor (1; X12203269).
iNdi Catio Ns (CHiCory ):
Acne (f; WO2); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Ague (f; GMH); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; X15649409); Amen-
orrhea (f; DEP; KAB); Anorexia (f12; APA; BOU; FAD; FAH; KOM; PH2; VVG); Arrhythmia 
(1; APA); Arthrosis (f1; COX; KAB; X15649409); Asthma (f; WO2); Atony (f; BOU); Bacteria (1; 
FAD; X15567253; X15567253); Biliousness (f; HJP; KAB; WBB); Cancer (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, 
breast (f1; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; COX; X15649409; X15877900); Cancer, face (f1; JLH); Cancer, 
gum (f1; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; JLH); Cancer, lung (f1; X7569446); Cancer, mouth (f1; JLH); Can-
cer, spleen (f1; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; JLH); Cancer, tongue (f1; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; JLH); 
Cardiopathy (1; APA; FAD); Catarrh (f; HHB; HJP; WBB); Chancre (f1; DEM); Cholecystosis (2; 
HHB; PHR); Conjunctivosis (f; GMH); Constipation (f1; FNF); Cramp (f; JHP; PH2); Cystosis (f; 
VAD); Deafness (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; APA; FAD; PH2); Diabetes (1; FAD); Diarrhea (f; PH2; 
WO2); Dropsy (f; NAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; WBB; WO2); Dyspepsia (f12; APA; BOU; FAD; GHA; 
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KOM; PH2; VVG); Edema (f; VAD); Enterosis (f; PH2); Epilepsy (f; WO3); Fever (f; BOU; DEP; 
DEM; FAD; GHA; WO2); Gallstone (f; FAD; FAH); Gastrosis (f; HHB; JLH; WBB); Gingivosis 
(f; JLH); Glossosis (f; JLH); Gout (f1; PNC; WO2; X12203269); Gravel (f; GMH; NAD); Headache 
(f; GHA; PH2; WO2); Heartburn (f; GAZ); Hemorrhoid (f; HJP; PH2; WBB); Hepatosis (f12; DEP; 
FAD; FAH; JLH; PHR; PNC; VVG); High Blood Pressure (1; VAD); Hypercholesterolemia (1; 
FAH; PHR); Hyperglycemia (1; FAD); Hypertriglyceridemia (1; ORAFTI9); Induration (f; JLH); 
Infection (1; FAD); Inafl mmation (f1; APA; FAD; GMH; WO2; X15649409); Insomnia (f; GMH); 
Jaundice (f; FAD; GHA; GMH; VVG; WO2); Lachrymosis (f; JLH); Lumbago (f; KAB); Malaria 
(f1; X15507374); Melancholy (f; PH2); Nausea (f; DEP; WBB); Nephrosis (f; VAD; VVG); Obesity 
(f1; FAH; VAD); Oliguria (f; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; DEM); Pain (f; KAB); Pharyngosis (f; WO2); 
Pseudomonas (1; X15567253); Pulmonosis (f; GMH); Pyelonephrosis (f; VAD); Respirosis (f; HHB); 
Rash (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; GMH; PNC; WO2); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; DEM); Sore Throat 
(f; PH2; WO2); Splenomegaly (f; NAD; WO2); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stone (f; VAD); Swelling (f1; 
APA; GMH); Tachycardia (1; APA); Toothache (f; HJP); Tuberculosis (f; GMH; PH2); Urethrosis 
(f; VAD); Urolithiasis (f; VAD); Uterosis (f; JLH); Vomiting (f; PH2; WO2); Wart (f; JLH); Worm 
(f; HJP); Wound (f; HJP).
d osages (CHiCory ):
FNFF = !!!
Long eaten, for example, by the Romans as vegetable or salad, as mentioned by Horace, Ovid, 
Pliny, and Virgil (GMH). Leaves grown as vegetable; roots eaten as vegetable or roasted as coffee 
substitute; ofl wers eaten fresh, pickled, or in broth; Turks prepare a chewing gum ( dagsakizi) from 
the latex (EGG; FAC; TAN). 3 g root (KOM); 3–5g powdered root (PHR); 2–4 g /150–250 ml water 
PH2.; 30–0 drops ufl id extract, 1–3 ×/day, before or after meals (VAD); 50–100 drops 1:1 tincture 
1–3 ×/day (VAD).
• Arabians eat the leaves or take decoction to lower fever (GHA).
• Arabians eat the seeds for headache, or take decoction for jaundice (GHA).
• Asian Indians use for acne, diarrhea, fever, ophthalmia, pharyngitis, splenomegaly, and 
vomiting (WO2).
• Egyptians value the root for tachycardia (BIB).
• Iranians take as a refrigerant, resolvent, medicines, for biliousness (HJP).
• Lebanese, considering the plant aphrodisiac, calmative, choleretic, depurative, laxative, 
and tonic, take it for dyspepsia and jaundice (HJP).
• Peruvians suggest eating the leaves or taking the plant juice to purify the blood (EGG).
• Ukranians take the plant for catarrh, diarrhea, enterosis, gastrosis, hemorrhoids, pul-m
onosis, and worms (HJP).
• Unani use the wild bitter type for asthma, biliousness, and inafl mmation (BIB).
d ow Nsides (CHiCory ):
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). 
Commission E reports contraindications of hypersensitivity to chicory and other Asteraceae and 
adverse effects of rare allergic skin reactions. Patients with bi-lsetones or gallstones should first 
consult a physician (AEH; KOM). Cadot et al. (1996) report a first case of occupational allergy to 
chicory (Cichorium intybus) in a vegetable wholesaler. Symptoms occurred after oral, cutaneous, 
or inhalatory exposure. The patient also reported reactions after ingestion of botanically related 
endive (Cichorium endivia) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa). They identiefi d the responsible allergen by 
SDS-PAGE and immunoblot to be a 48-kDa protein, confined to the nonilluminated parts of the plants. 
No cross-reactivity was found with mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), ryegrass (Lolium perenne), or 
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birch (Betula verrucosa) pollen, which suggests that the vegetable is the primary allergenic material. 
Carcinogens, viz. 1,2-benzoperylene; 3,4,benzopyrone; and ofl ranthene occur in chicory, increasing 
on roasting, especially above 175 F° (WOI). Ingestion of 100 g may cause slight bradycardia.
extra Cts (CHiCory ):
Industrial source of fructose, inulin, oligofructose, and the sugar enhancer, maltol (APA; JAD). 
Cichoric acid was recently heralded as very important in immunomodulation and antiviral activity, 
even anti-HIV. The compound lactucin and to a lesser extent lactucopicrin are CN-sSedative and can 
antagonize the stimulation of caffeine (BIB). Lactucin and lactucopicrin proved to be antimalarial 
compounds in chicory, folklorically regarded for malaria in Afghanistan (X15507374). The guaia-no
lide 8-deoxylactucin is a key inhibitor of COX-2 expression (X15649409). Italians are producing circa 
250,000 tons of red chicories a year, 100-g servings of which can provide as much as 130 mg anth-o
cyanins and 650 mg total phenolics, scavenging highly reactive oxidants in the stomach, benetfi ting 
age-associated oxidative stress, and improving neuronal and cognitive brain function (X16218660).
CAss IA (c inn Amomum A rom Aticum Nees) +++ LAURACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cinnamomum cassia Auct.; Cinnamomum obtusifolium var. cassia Perr. & Eb.; Laurus cassia 
Nees.; Laurus cinnamomum Andr. fide HH2
Notes (Cassia ):
Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh vfi e hundred shekels, and of sweet cin-
namon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and 
fifty shekels.
Exodus 30:23 (KJV)
And of cassia five hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, and of oil olive an hin.
Exodus 30:24 (KJV)
and of cassia five hundred, according to the shekel of the sanctuary, and of olive oil a hin.
Exodus 30:24 (RSV)
and cassia five hundred units, by the shekel of the holy place, and olive oil a hin.
Exodus 30:24 (NWT)
It is nice to see that all versions cite the cassia, and most scholars agree that it is the cassia of today’s 
spice trade. Although the spice trade tends to lump cassia and cinnamon in the same spice jar, 
Israeli botanist Michael Zohary and the Bible itself treat them as separate items. Although both are 
mentioned many times in the Bible, nowhere are they both mentioned in the same verse; but it is 
very close in the case quoted above, where cinnamon was mentioned in verse 23 and cassia in verse 
24. Of the cassia, citing Exodus 30:24, Job 42:14, and Psalms 45:7–8, Zohary says, “In the quoted 
passages, the Hebrew ketziah and kiddah are translated as ‘cassia’; the former is also applied as a 
personal name. The question as to whether ketziah and kiddah are synonymous or refer to different 
plants or drugs will never be resolved” (ZOH). Moses and Solomon probably obtained cassia, via 
trade, from Sri Lanka, where it is only cultivated or more possibly from China, where it is native 
(BIB; USN).
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FIGURe . Cassia (Cinnamomum aromaticum).
Commo N Names (Cassia ):
Bastard Cinnamon (Eng.; EFS); Bunga Lawang (Java; IHB); Canécfi ier (Fr.; EFS); Canela de China 
(Cuba; RyM); Canela de la China (Sp.; USN); Canelero Chino (Sp.; USN); Canella de Coromandel 
(It.; HH2); Canella di China (It.; KAB); Canelle de Chine (Fr.; EFS); Canelle de Cochinchine (Fr.; 
USN); Cannelier Casse (Fr.; USN); Casia (Sp.; EFS); Casse Ligneux (Fr.; EFS); Cassia (Eng.; It.; 
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Scn.; AH2; CR2; EFS); Cássia (Por.; USN); Cassia Lignea (It.; HH2); Cassis (Fr.; EFS); Chinazimpt 
(Ger.; USN); Chinese Cassia (Eng.; BIB); Chinese Cassiaboom (Dutch; EFS); Chinese Cinnamon 
(Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BIB); Chinese Kaneelboom (Dutch; EFS); Chinesischer Kassia (Ger.; EFS); 
Chinesischer Zimptbaum (Ger.; EFS; HH2); Chinesischer Zimtstrauch (Ger.; HH2); Ch’ün Kuei 
(China; EFS; KAB); Çin Tarçini (Tur.; EFS); Dalchini (India; EFS); Darasini (Arab.; EGS); Fahej 
(Hun.; KAB); Gudatvak (Sanskrit; EFS); Gui Zhi (Pin.; AH2); Holzkassia (Ger.; EFS); Holzzimpt 
(Ger.; EFS); Hout Cassia (Dutch; EFS); Kanel Kassia (Den.; EFS); Kashia Keihi (Japan; USN); 
Kassienzimpt (Ger.; EFS); Kayu Manis China (Malaya; EFS; IHB); Ketziah (Heb.; ZOH); Kiddah 
(Heb.; ZOH); Kitaiskaya Koritsa (Rus.; KAB); Koritsa (Rus.; KAB); Koui Chou (China; KAB); 
Kuei (China; EFS); Kulit Manis (Malaya; EFS); Kwa P’i (China; EFS); Kwai Phee (China; EFS); 
Laurier Casse (Fr.; EFS); Lauro Cassia (It.; EFS); Malabar Leaf (Eng.; JLH); Malabathron (Greek; 
JLH); Mou Kuei (China; EFS); Rou Gui (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Saila Myah (Iran; EFS); Salikha (Arab.; 
KAB); Taj (Iran; Urdu; KAB); Zimtbaum (Ger.; HH2); Zimtkassie (Ger.; EFS; HH2); Zimtstrauch 
(Ger.; HH2).
a Ctivities (Cassia ):
Aldose-Reductase Inhibitor (1; X12553890); Analgesic (f; WO2); Anesthetic (f1; DAA; WO2); 
Antiaging (f; DAA); Antiaggregant (1; CAN); Antiallergic (1; WO2); Anticomplement (1; CAN); 
Antidiarrheic (f1; CAN); Antidote (f; WO2); Antiemetic (f1; CAN); Antifertility (f1; DAA); Anti-
inafl mmatory (f1; X15710356); Antimutagenic (1; X11506812); Antioxidant (1; X12916067); Anti -
proteinuric (1; WO2); Antipyretic (f; WO2); Antiseptic (f1; CAN; DAA; WO2); Antispasmodic (f1; 
CAN); Antitumor (f1; CAN); Antiulcer (1; BGB; CAN; PH2; WO2); Antiviral (1; BGB; DAA; 
LAF); Apoptotic (1; X14587878); Astringent (f1; AHP; WO2); Bactericide (1; BGB; LAF; PH2; 
X12423924); Cardiotonic (f1; DAA; WO2); Carminative (f1; BGB; CAN; DAA; WO2); COX-2 
Inhibitor (1; X12413723); Diaphoretic (f; AHP); Digestive (f; BGB); Diuretic (f; WO2); Expecto-
rant (f; WO2); Febrifuge (f1; DAA); Fungicide (1; BGB; HH2; LAF; PH2); Hepatotonic (f; WO2); 
Hypotensive (1; DAA; WO2); Immunostimulant (1; PH2); Insectifuge (1; X15264623); Larvicide 
(1; BGB; LAF; X15796573); Metalloproteinase-9 Inhibitor (1; X15652283); Mosquitofuge (1; 
X15264623); NF-kappa B Inhibitor (1; X15710356); NO Inhibitor (1; X15710356); iNOS Inhibitor 
(1; X12475291); Parasiticide (1; X12847923); Purgative (f; WO2); Sedative (f1; DAA; WO2); St-o
machic (f; AHP; BGB); Tranquilizer (f; WO2); Vasodilator (1; KC2); Xanthine-Oxidase Inhibitor 
(1; X11025157).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cassia ):
Allergy (1; WO2); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; X12413723); Amenorrhea (f1; DAA; PH2; WO2); Anes-
thetic (f1; WO2); Anorexia (12; BGB; KOM; PH2); Arthrosis (f1; COX; DAA; X12413723); Asci-
tes (f; WO2); Asthenia (f; BGB); Asthma (1; BGB; WO2); Bacillus (1; X12423924); Bacteria 
(1; X12423924); Bloating (2; BGB; KOM); Bronchosis (1; BGB); Cancer (f1; JLH; X15652283; 
X12860272); Cancer, bladder (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, colon (f1; COX; JLH; X12413723); 
Cancer, diaphragm (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, kidney (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, liver (f1; 
JLH; X15652283); Cancer, rectum (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, spleen (f1; JLH; X15652283); 
Cancer, stomach (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, vagina (f1; JLH; X15652283); Cancer, uterus (f1; 
JLH; X15652283); Chills (f; DAA); Circulosis (f; X15796573); Cold (f; BGB; CAN); Colic (f1; 
BGB; CAN; DAA; PH2); Condyloma (f; JLH); Cough (f; BGB; DAA); Cramps (f1; BGB); Cystosis 
(f; JLH); Diabetes (f; DAA); Diaphragmosis (f; JLH); Diarrhea (f1; BGB; CAN; DAA; PH2); Dy-s
menorrhea (f; DAA); Dyspepsia (f12; BGB; CAN; KOM; PH2); Dysuria (f; DAA; WO2); Edema (f; 
WO2); Enteralgia (f; BGB); Enterosis (f; BGB; PH2; WO2); Enuresis (f; PH2); Epilepsy (f; WO2); 
Escherichia (1; X12423924); Exhaustion (f; PH2); Fever (f1; BGB; DAA; WO2; X15796573); Fun-
gus (1; HH2); Gas (f1; BGB; PH2); Gastrosis (f; BGB; DAA; PH2; WO2); Goiter (f; DAA); Gout 
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(1; X11025157); Gray Hair (f; WO2); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hernia (f; PH2); Impotence (f; PH2); 
Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; HH2; X15796573); Inafl mmation (f1; X15710356; X15796573); 
Insomnia (f; DAA); Jaundice (f; DAA); Listeria (1; X12423924); Lumbago (f; DAA); Menopause (f; 
PH2); Mycosis (1; HH2); Nephrosis (1; BGB; WO2); Neuralgia (f1; WO2); Neurasthenia (f; PH2); 
Ophthalmia (1; WO2); Orchosis (f; PH2); Pain (f1; WO2); Parasite (1; X12847923); Pharyngosis 
(f; WO2); Salmonella (1; X12423924); Sore (f; JLH); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomachache (f; DAA); 
Staphylococcus (1; X12423924); Streptococcus (1; HH2); Tracheosis (1; WO2); Trypanosoma (1; 
X15567249); Urethrosis (f; WO2); Uterosis (f; WO2); Vaginosis (f; JLH); Vertigo (f; DAA); Vomit-
ing (f; PH2); Wart (f; JLH).
d osages (Cassia ):
FNFF = !!!
Dried green fruits are the cassia buds of commerce, which resemble cloves. Cassia bark is also 
an important spice. All parts of the plant possess an essence, cinnamic aldehyde, which may be 
distilled for export. Buds of the tree are used in place of cloves to season dishes (BIB; FAC; TAN). 
2–4 g ground bark/day (BGB; PH2); 0.7–1.3 g bark in 150 ml water 3 ×/day (BGB); 0.5–1 g bark, as 
tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.05–0.2 ml cassia oil 3 ×/day (CAN); 0.3–1.2 ml ofl wer tincture (1:5 in 90% 
ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN).
• Chinese suggest that prolonged use improves the complexion, making it more youthful 
(DAA).
• Chinese use the plant for amenorrhea, arthritis, cancer, chills, cold, colic, cough, dia-be
tes, diarrhea, dizziness, dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, dysuria, fever, goiter, headache, ja-un
dice, lumbago, rheumatism, and stomachache (DAA).
• Egyptians use the leaves for cancer of the womb, the “grains” for condylomata, vaginosis, 
and warts (JLH).
• Indonesians use the plant for tumors (JLH).
• Iranians use bark tea for excessive salivation (BIB).
• Javan brides must drink a potion containing two Bunga Lawang (cassia buds) (IHB).
• Malayans use the imported bark in decoction with other herbs for chest complaints and 
cough (IHB).
• Unani, considering the bark carminative, emmenagogue, hematotonic, and tonic, use it 
for headache, inafl mmation, piles, and pregnancy (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Cassia ):
Class 2b, reportedly abortifacient (AHP, 1997). Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson (1996) caution 
that the cinnamaldehyde in the volatile oil is allergenic and an irritant (CAN). May interfere with 
absorption of tetracycline (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper ther-a
peutic dosages (PH2). Prolonged use of the essential oil should be restricted during pregnancy (AHP, 
1997). Commission E reports contraindications for bark; hypersensitivity to cinnamon or Peruvian 
balsam; pregnancy, and adverse effects often allergic reactions of skin and mucosae. Flower not 
permitted for therapeutic use. Contraindications for hypersensitivity to cinnamon or Peruvian ba-l
sam, pregnancy, and adverse effects allergic skin reactions and mucosal reactions (AEH).
extra Cts (Cassia ):
He et al. (2005) note that cinnamaldehyde (83% or bark essential oil, 65% or twig essential oil) has a-nti
fungal, antioxidant, antipyretic, antiseptic, cytotoxic, and larvicidal activities, inhibiting the production 
of lymphocytes and modulating T-cell differentiation. In TCM, cassia is used for circulatory disorders, 
dyspepsia, gastritis, and inflammation (X15796573). EO LD50 = 320 mg/kg dermal (CAN) (should 
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not be used on skin at levels >0.2%); Aqueous extracts of cassia deemed as effective as cimetidine in 
preventing ulcers (BGB; WO2). Trans-cinnamaldehyde (IC50 = 3 µg/ml) and weakly cinnamyl alcohol, 
trans-cinnamic acid, and eugenol inhibited aldose reductase (but quercitrin was 6 times more potent 
than cinnamaldehyde) (X12553890).C innamomum cassia inhibited epimastigote forms of Trypano-
soma cruzi, (IC50 = 3.9 µg/ml) (X15567249). Butanol extracts inhibit metalloproteinase-9 (IC  >  90 
= 100 µg/ml) (X15652283); LD50 (cinnamaldehyde) = 2200–3350 mg/kg orl rat HH2; LD50 (cin-
namaldehyde) = 200 mg/kg ipr mus HH2; LD50 (cinnamaldehyde) = 132 mg/kg ivn mus HH2; LD50 
(cinnamaldehyde) = 2225 mg/kg orl mus HH2; LD50 (EO) = 5200 mg/kg orl rat HH2.
CINNAMo N (c inn Amomum verum J. pResL) +++ LAURACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume; Laurus cinnamomum L.
Notes (CiNNamo N):
And the merchants of the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man buyeth their … cin-
namon, and odours, and ointments.
Revelation 18 (KJV)
And on a more romantic tone:
I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. Come, let us take our fill of love until the 
morning: let us solace ourselves with loves. For the goodman is not at home, he is gone a long journey.
Proverbs 7:17–19 (KJV)
I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. Come, let us take our fill of love till morn -
ing; let us delight ourselves with love. For my husband is not at home; he has gone on a long journey.
Proverbs 7:17–19 (RSV)
I have besprinkled my bed with myrrh, aloes, and cinnamon. Do come, let us drink our fill of love 
until the morning; do let us enjoy each other with love expressions. For my husband is not in his 
house; he has gone traveling on a way of some distance.
Proverbs 7:17–19 (NWT)
There is near unanimity in the version regarding the intended use of these aromatic spices. And 
they are consistent in translating them as myrrh, aloes (in this case Aquilaria), and cinnamon, the 
latter more appealing to my olfactories. Zohary confirms that the long-discussed identicatfi ion of 
the biblical kinnamon as Cinnamomum has been confirmed by various scholars. Alien to the Holy 
Land, and native to Sri Lanka and coastal India, it must have followed the old trade routes for drugs, 
incenses, perfumes, and spices.
Commo N Names (CiNNamo N):
Like spice dealers, I once aggregated cinnamon and cassia, so many of the common names, acti-vi
ties, and indications below could well apply to either species. I would not hesitate to use one or the 
other for the indication of one or the other. Many of the reported studies were, in fact, performed on 
purchased materials that may have been one or the other or a mixture of the two. Who really knows 
which they studied if the material they studied had already been reduced to powdered bark (JAD).
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FIGURe . Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum).
Aakerpatri (Tel.; WO2); Arbol de la Canela (Sp.; KAB); Bahugandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Bois de 
Cannelle (Fr.; KAB); Bojevar (Bom.; KAB); Canalleira da India (Por.; AVP); Canela (Cr.; Sp.; AVP; 
USN); Canela de Ceilán (Cuba; Dr.; Sp.; AVP); Canela de Ceylán (Sp.; AVP); Canela de Ceylán (Cuba; 
RyM); Canela de India (Por.; AVP); Canaleiro (Por.; USN); Canelero de Ceilán (Sp.; USN); Canelo 
(Sp.; AVP); Cannalavangapattai (Tam.; KAB; WOI); Cannelier (Guad.; Seychelles; AVP; KAB); 
Cannelier de Ceylan (Fr.; USN); Cannella (It.; EFS); Cannella di Ceylon (It.; KAB); Cannelle (Fwi.; 
Haiti; AVP); Cannelle de Ceylan (Fr.; EFS); Cannelle Aromatique (Guad.; AVP); Ceylonzimt (Ger.; 
USN); Ceylonzimtbaum (Ger.; USN); Ceylon Cinnamon (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; EFS); Ceylon Kaneel 
(Dutch; EFS); Ceylon Kanel (Den.; Swe.; EFS; KAB); Ceylon Cimtbaum (Ger.; EFS); Ceylonzimt 
(Ger.; KAB); Cheriyilaivannam (Mal.; DEP); Chinese Cassia (Eng.; MPI); Chitari (Peru; Shipibo/
Conibo; EGG); Cinnamon (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; VOD); Cirfah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Cynamon (Pol.; 
HH2); Daichini (Guj.; DEP); Dalachini (Kan.; DEP); Dalchini (Beng.; Dec.; Hindi; Mar.; Nepal; DEP; 
SUW); Dalochini (Oriya; WO2); Darachini (Mar.; KAB); Darchini (Urdu; KAB); Darasini (Arab.; 
NAD); Darchini (Pun.; DEP); Darchinisailaniyah (Iran; KAB); Darsini (Arab.; Syria; DEP; HJP); 
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Daruchini (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Kan.; Kas.; Mah.; NAD); Darushila (Sanskrit; SKJ); Dasamchakkaluk 
(Tel.; MPI); Echter Ceylonzimt (Ger.; USN); Gudatvak (Sanskrit; DEP); Gudatwoko (Oriya; KAB); 
Hmanthin (Burma; KAB); Ijin (Tulu; KAB); Ilayanngam (Tam.; WO2); Kalphah (Bom.; NAD); 
Kanèl (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Kanèl dès Indes (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Karitsa (Rus.; KAB); Karruwa 
(Tam.; DEP); Kaya Manis (Malaya; EFS); Kevei (China; NAD); Kinnamomum (Greek; NAD); Ki-n
namon (Bib.; ZOH); Kirfa (Pun.; KAB; NAD); Korica (Rus.; HH2); Kukhi taj (Nepal; SUW); Kulit 
Manis (Malaya; NAD); Kurundo (Sin.; NAD); Kuruva (Sri.; KAB); Lavanga (Kadir; KAB); Lavanga 
Patta (Mal.; DEP); Lavangachakke (Kan.; KAB); Lowangapatta (Mal.; Tam.; Tel.; NAD); Lulingyaw 
(Burma; DEP); Malabar Leaf (Egypt; JLH); Qalamidarchini (Beng.; Dec.; Hindi; KAB); Qirfa-he
sailaniyah (Arab.; KAN); Qualami (Dec.; NAD); Rassu Kurundu (Singh.; DEP; KAB); Saila Myah 
(Iran; NAD); Salikhah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sanalinga (Tel.; DEP); Sannalavanga (Tel.; KAB); Sc-orti
soare (Rom.; KAB); Seylan Tarçina (Tur.; EFS); Skoricovnik Ceylonsky (Che.; HH2); Taj (Bom.; Guj.; 
DEP); Tali Khahe (Iran; DEP); Tamalapatra (Sanskrit; WOI); Tarcin (Tur.; KAB); Timbootikyoobo 
(Burma; NAD); Tiqui (Kon.; KAB); True Cinnamon (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; VOD); Tvach (India; JLH); 
Tvak (Ayu.; AH2); Twak (Sanskrit; MPI); Varangam (Sanskrit; NAD); Vazhana (Mal.; WO2); Zimmt 
(Ger.; NAD); Zimtbaum (Ger.; USN); Zimtlorbeerbaum (Ger.; EFS).
a Ctivities (CiNNamo N):
Adipogenic (1; X15468836); Allergenic (1; APA; X15186386); Analgesic (f1; APA; CAN; ZUL); Anes-
thetic (f1; APA; CAN; TRA; ZUL); Anthelmintic (f; LIB); Antiaggregant (1; X10632089); Anticonvu-l
sant (f1; LIB; TRA); Antidiarrheal (f1; CAN; TRA); Antiemetic (f1; HOS; WO2); Antifungal (f; CRC); 
Antihistamine (1; WHO); Antiinflammatory (f1; HOS; LIB); Antileukemic (1; TRA; WO2); Antilym -
phomic (1; WO2); Antimycobacterial (1; PR14:303); Antioxidant (1; CRC; X10641152; X14585184); 
Antipeptic (f1; HOS); Antiplatelet (1; X10632089); Antiprostaglandin (1; HH2; TRA); Antipyretic (f1; 
CRC; TRA); Antiseptic (f1; APA; CAN; TRA; WO2; ZUL); Antisialogogue (f; HOS); Antispasmodic 
(f1; CAN; MPI; TRA; WHO); Antitubercular (1; PR14:303); Antitussive (2; HOS); Antiulcer (f1; APA; 
WHO); Antiviral (1; APA; BGB; CAN; TRA); Aphrodisiac (f; LIB; KAB); Aromatic (f; CRC); Astrin-
gent (f1; CAN; TRA; ZUL); Bactericide (12; APA; KOM; PH2; TRA; WHO); Candidicide (1; APA; 
CAN; WO2; JAR12:83); Carminative (f1; APA; CAN; TRA; VOD; WHO); Choleretic (1; APA); Cir-
culostimulant (1; HOS); Cordial (f; CRC); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; HOS; X12444669); Cyclooxygenase 
Inhibitor (f; ZUL); Cytotoxic (1; CAN; TRA); Demulcent (f1; HOS); Depurative (f; APA); Diapho-
retic (f; AHP; LIB); Digestive (f; VOD); Emmenagogue (f; LIB); Emollient (f; JLH); Estrogenic (1; 
PHR; PH2; TRA); Expectorant (f1; WO2); Febrifuge (f; VOD); Fungicide (1; KOM; PH2; TRA; WHO; 
JAR12:83); Germicide (f; CRC); Gram(+)-icide (1; WO2); Gram(-)-icide (1; WO2); Hemostat (f; KAB; 
MPI); Hepatotonic (f; KAB); HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitor (1; X4585184); Hypocholesterolemic 
(12; X14633804; X14585184); Hypoglycemic (12; X14633804); Hypotensive (1; ZUL); Hypothermic 
(f; CRC); Hypotriglyceridemic (12; X14633804); Hypouricemic (1; X11025157); Immunostimulant (1; 
HOS); Insecticide (1; PHR; PH2; WO2); Insectifuge (1; TRA); Insulin Potentiator (1; JAF52:65); La-c
tagogue (f; LIB); Larvicide (1; APA; BGB; CAN; TRA); Lipolytic (1; APA; BGB; LAF; TRA; WO2); 
Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (f; HOS; ZUL); Mutagenic (1; TRA; WHO; WO2); Myorelaxant (1; TRA; 
WHO); Narcotic (f; NAD); Nematicide (1; TRA); Nervine (f; NAD); Neurotonic (f; MPI); Orexigenic (f; 
CAN; LIB); Refrigerant (f; CAN); Secretogogue (1; HOS); Sedative (f1; CRC; LIB; TRA); Sialogogue 
(1; APA); Spasmolytic (1; ZUL); Stimulant (f; CRC; WO2); Stomachic (f; AHP; MPI); Teratogenic (1; 
WHO); Tonic (f; IED); Tranquilizer (1; HOS); Uterorelaxant (f; APA); Uterotonic (f; APA); Vibriocide 
(1; WO2); Vulnerary (f1; X13680838); Xanthine-Oxidase Inhibitor (1; X11025157).
iNdi Catio Ns (CiNNamo N):
Adenopathy (1; HOS); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF; HOS); Amenorrhea (f1; CRC; KAB; WHO; WO2); 
Amnesia (f; ZUL); Anorexia (f12; CAN; GAZ; KOM; PH2; WHO); Aphonia (f; HOS); Arthrosis (f1; 
COX; CRC; HOS); Asthenia (1; BGB); Asthma (f; CRC; LIB); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (1; 
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WO2); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; KAB); Bloating (f1; BGB); Bronchosis (f12; CRC; KAB; 
PHR); Cancer (f1; COX; CRC; HOS); Cancer, abdomen (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f1; 
COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Ca-n
cer, diaphragm (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, ear (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, gum (f1; COX; 
HOS; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, 
mouth (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, neck (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f1; COX; HOS; 
JLH); Cancer, sinus (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, stomach 
(f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; COX; HOS; JLH); 
Candida (f1; CRC; LIB; JAR12:83); Cardiopathy (f1; EGG; KAB; LIB; X14633804); Cerebrosis (f; 
KAB); Childbirth (f; LIB); Chill (f; PHR; PH2); Cholera (f1; CRC; SKJ; WO2); Cold (f12; CAN; 
GAZ; PHR; ZUL); Colic (f1; APA; CAN; EGG; TRA); Condylomata (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; 
WHO); Convulsion (f; LIB); Cough (2; CRC; PHR); Cramp (f1; APA; DEP; VOD; ZUL); Dandruff 
(1; JAR12:83); Debility (f; LIB); Depression (f; LIB); Dermatosis (1; JAR12:83); Diabetes (f12; TGP; 
X14633804; JAF52:65); Diarrhea (f1; DEP; EGG; PHR; TRA; WHO); Dropsy (f; NAD); Dysentery 
(f; CRC; DEP; WO2); Dysmenorrhea (f1; APA; DEP; WHO); Dyspepsia (f12; CAN; IED; KOM; 
PH2; WHO); Dyspnea (f; WHO); Earache (f; LIB); Edema (f1; HOS); Enteralgia (f1; WHO); Enter-o
sis (f; JLH; VOD); Enterospasm (2; KOM; WHO); Epidermophyton (1; JAR12:83); Escherichia (1; 
CRC; X10548758); Exhaustion (f; LIB); Fatigue (f; GAZ); Fever (f12; AHP; PHR; TRA; VOD); Fis-
tula (f; CRC; SKJ); Flatulence (f12; KOM; VOD; WHO); Flu (f; PHR; PH2); Frigidity (f; LIB; WHO); 
Fungus (1; GAZ; LIB; X10548758); Gas (f1; APA; DEP; TRA; VOD); Gastrosis (f; DEP; HOS; 
VOD; WO2); Gastrospasm (f12; KOM; VOD); Gingivosis (f; JLH); Glossosis (f; DEP; HOS; WO2); 
Gonorrhea (f; LIB; NAD); Gout (1; X11025157); Halitosis (f; PH2); Headache (f1; DEP; WO2; ZUL); 
Heart (f; CRC); Hemorrhage (f1; APA); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB); Hepatosis (f; JLH; NAD); Hiccup 
(f; KAB); High Blood Pressure (f; LIB; ZUL); High Cholesterol (12; X14633804); Hydrocele (f; 
KAB); Hyperglycemia (f12; X4585184); Hypertriglyceridemia (f12; X4585184); Immunodepression 
(1; HOS); Impotence (f; LIB; WHO); Infection (2; PHR; WO2); Inafl mmation (f1; HH2; HOS; LIB); 
Itch (f; KAB); Leukemia (1; TRA; WO2); Leukorrhea (f; WHO); Listeria (1; X12380758); Lumbago 
(f; CRC); Lungs (f; CRC); Lupus (f; LIB); Lymphoma (1; WO2); Malassezia (1; JAR12:83); Mastosis 
(f; JLH); Melancholy (f; NAD); Menorrhagia (f; CRC; LIB); Mycosis (1; ZUL; JAR12:83); Nausea 
(f; CRC; EGG; TRA; ZUL); Nephrosis (f; CRC; LIB); Neuralgia (f; DEP; WHO; WO2); Obesity 
(12; X4585184); Oketsu Syndrome (f; LIB); Otosis (f; LIB); Pain (f1; KAB; WHO; WO2); Paralysis 
(f; DEP; HOS; WO2); Pharyngosis (2; PHR); Phthisis (f; CRC); Phymata (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; 
JLH; KAB); Prolapse (f; CRC; SKJ); Pseudomonas (1; HH2); Psoriasis (f; CRC); Rheumatism 
(f; APA; WHO; WO2; ZUL); Salmonella (1; WO2); Sinusosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; JLH); Spasm (f; 
CRC); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; CRC; HH2); Stomachache (f; EGG); Stomatosis (2; 
CRC; JLH; PHR); Stress (f; LIB); Syncope (f; WO2); Tension (f; LIB); Thirst (f; SKJ); Thrush (f1; 
LIB); Toothache (f; DEP; PH2; WHO); Tuberculosis (1; LIB; PR14:303); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); 
Typhoid (f; LIB; NAD); Ulcer (f1; HOS; WHO); Vaginosis (f; CRC; JLH; WHO); Venereal Disease 
(f; LIB); Virus (f; LIB); Vomiting (f; CRC; PH2); Wart (f; CRC; JLH); Wen (f; JLH); Worm (f; PHR; 
PH2); Wound (f1; PHR; PH2; WHO; X13680838); Xerostomia (f; KAB); Yeast (f1; APA; WO2; 
X10548758; JAR12:83).
d osages (CiNNamo N):
FNFF = !!!
The bark is one of the world’s premier spices. Cinnamon leaves used also as spice (e.g., in Jamaica’s 
jerked pork) (FAC). 1 tsp bark/cup water/2–3 ×/day with meals (APA); 0.5–1 g bark, as tea, 3× /day 
(CAN); 0.5–1.0 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 70% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–4 ml cinnamon tincture 
(CAN, PNC); 20 grains bark for dysentery (DEP); 2–4 g bark (KOM); .05–0.2 g EO (KOM); 0.05–0.2 
ml cinnamon oil (PNC); 0.3–1.2 ml spirit of cinnamon (PNC); 0.3–1 g powdered bark (PNC); 2–4 g 
bark/day (WHO); 0.05–0.2 g essential oil/day (WHO); 1 tsp bark/cup water 2–3× /day (WIC).
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• Asian Indians use the bark in bolmes, enemas, or ghees for abdominal cancers (JLH).
• Asian Indians use a spicy triad trijataka (cardamom, cinnamon, and “tejapatra,” possibly 
cassia) for lengual paralysis, stomach cramps, and toothache (HOS).
• Ayurvedics consider the bark aphrodisiac and tonic, using for biliousness, bronchitis, 
diarrhea, itch, parched mouth, worms, and cardiac, rectal, and urinary diseases (HOS).
• Belizeans for snoring suggest 1 cup of cinnamon tea with two teaspoons grated ginger 
and honey and milk added. Drink at bedtime each night until cured (or until death do us 
part!) (AAB).
• Caribbean Tramileños take the bark infusion for diarrhea and nausea (TRA).
• Dominicans take bark decoction, with or without cilantro, for enterosis and fever (VOD).
• Egyptians use the leaves for uterine cancer, the seeds for venereal warts (JLH).
• Haitians use the bark decoction as carminative, digestive, and febrifuge (VOD).
• Haitians use the essence topically for rheumatism, internally (dilute I presume) for enteric 
or gastric gas and spasms (VOD).
• Lebanese use cinnamon as a stimulant, for colds, rheumatism, halitosis, and slobbering 
(HJP; HOS).
• Pakistanis chew the bark for dysmenorrhea (DEP).
• Peruvians suggest the bark infusion for the heart, the decoction for colic (EGG).
• Ukrainians give raw grated carrots with cinnamon for anemia (HJP).
• Unani consider the oil carminative, emmenagogue, and as a tonic to the liver, using it for 
abdominal pains, bronchitis, head colds, and inafl mmation (HOS).
d ow Nsides (CiNNamo N):
Class 2b,2d; “Not for long-term use; do not exceed recommended dose (2–4 g bark/day; 50–200 mg 
essential oil daily). May overstimulate the vasomotor center” (AHP, 1997). Commission E reports 
bark contraindications: hypersensitivity to cinnamon or Peruvian balsam and adverse effects: often 
allergic reactions of skin and mucosae. Tramil warns against continued use because of mutagenicity 
(TRA). Other sources report contraindications: GI ulcer, pregnancy (AEH). Newall, Anderson, and 
Phillipson (1996) caution that the cinnamaldehyde in the volatile oil is allergenic and an irritant. The 
allergenic oil should not be taken internally (CAN). “There are no known problems with the use of 
cinnamon during pregnancy and lactation, provided that doses do not greatly exceed the amounts used 
in foods. … May cause some people to break out in a rash” (Castleman, 1996). Regrettably, I was unable 
to read the article on allergic contact dermatitis from cinnamon used as an od-noerutralizing agent 
in shoe insoles (X15186386). High doses caused vomiting in experiments with dogs, corresponding 
with reported side effects in humans. Cinnamaldehyde 5% in petrolatum is a skin irritant. Prolonged 
contact with cinnamon oil on skin may cause burns. Cinnamaldehyde in cosmetics or perfumes may 
cause allergic reactions. Allergic reactions (i.e., swollen lips or tongue, itching, burning sensation, 
blistering of the oral mucosa, and urticaria) reported from contact with ointments, toothpaste, mout-h
wash, or foods containing cinnamon oil or cinnamaldehyde (AEH1). Sensitized and sensitive justiafi ble 
chemophobes may develop dermatosis using mouthwash, perfume, soap, or toothpaste afl vored with 
camphor, cassia, or cinnamon (FNF; RIN). May reduce the activity of tetracycline (WHO). Extracts 
and cinnamaldehyde reported mutagenic in some studies, nonmutagenic in others.
Toxicity: Following ingestion of cinnamon, contact dermatosis may afl re up. Eugenol has been 
reported to be an irritant and a weak tumor promoter. Cinnamic aldehyde in perfumes can cause 
dermatosis. In toothpaste it can cause sensitivity (DAD).
extra Cts (CiNNamo N):
In a study by Park and Shin (2005), cinnamon and onion oil followed garlic and clove bud oils in 
lethality to the Japanese termite, Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe. Diallyl trisuldfi e was most toxic, then 
diallyl disuldfi e, eugenol, diallyl suldfi e, and beta -caryophyllene (X15913300). Chericoni et al. (2005) 
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found that eugenol was, by far, the most potent antioxidant in cinnamon’s essential oil, recounting its 
use as antioxidant, antiperoxidant, antiradicular, antiseptic, hepatoprotective, and sedative. Oral e-uge
nol is rapidly absorbed, reaching blood plasma levels of 5 µM, signicfi antly antioxidant levels, 2 hours 
after 150 mg of the eugenol, but almost completely excreted in the urine by 24 hours (X15941312). 
Pakistani scientists (X14633804) found that cinnamon improves glucose and lipids of type-2 diabe-t
ics. Cinnamon, consumed (1, 3, or 6 g/day) for 40 days followed by a 2-0day washout period, reduced 
mean fasting serum glucose (18–29%), triglyceride (23–30%), LDL cholesterol (7–27%), and total 
cholesterol (12–26%) levels; compared to placebo (X4585184). Korean scientists (Lee et al., 2003) 
showed that cinnamate, a phenolic in the bark, enhances hepatic lipid metabolism and antioxidant 
defense systems in high cholesterol–fed rats. Cinnamate supplementation resulted in higher catalase 
and glutathione peroxidase activities. Lee et al. (2003) suggested that dietary cinnamate inhibits 
hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activity, resulting in lower hepatic cholesterol (X14585184). LD50 (EO) 
= 690 mg/kg der (CAN); perhaps second only to some varieties of clove (up to 20% eugenol), cin-
namon (to 3.8%) is a major source of eugenol, which has all sorts of biological activities. Analgesic; 
anesthetic 200–400 ppm; antiaggregant IC50 = 0.3 µM (PR4:93); antiarachidonate; anticonvulsant; 
antiedemic, 100; antiinafl mmatory (11 µM); antimitotic; antimutagenic; antinitrosating; antioxidant, 
IC65 = 30 ppm; antiprostaglandin, 11 µM, IC50 = 9.2 mM; antiradicular, EC50 = 2 µl/l; antise-p
tic (3 ml/man/day); antithromboxane; antitumor; antiulcer; apifuge; bactericide, 500 ppm; calcium 
antagonist, IC50 = 224 µM; cancer preventive; candidicide; carminative; choleretic; CNS depressant; 
cytochrome-p450 inhibitor; enterorelaxant; febrifuge (3 ml/man/day); fungicide; hepatoprotective, 100 
ppm; larvicide; motor depressant; sedative; spasmolytic; trypsin enhancer; and vermifuge (FNF).
LADANUM (c istus creticus L.) + CIst ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cistus incanus auct.; Cistus incanus var. creticus; Cistus ladinifera; Cistus villosus L., Cistus 
villosus var. creticus. fide EFS
Notes (l ada Num ):
A company of Ishmeelites came from Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery and balm and myrrh.
Genesis 37 (KJV)
The generally recognized sources of ladanum have beenC istus creticus, C. cyprius, C. ladanifer, 
and C. monspeliensis. Some of the EFS data below may indeed apply to C. ladanifer. All VAD data 
below accrue to C. ladinifer. Because ladanum used to be combed from the fur of sheep, or the 
beards of goats that had been grazing the Rock Rose, it often represented a mixture of species. While 
I suspect goats and sheep are discriminating grazers, I doubt that they were restricted to grazing one 
of the many species in so many Mediterranean areas. It is doubtful that all ladanum has been sci-en
ticfi ally or taxonomically veriefi d, so the accumulated literature may apply to various species. The 
biblical ladanum was probably notC . ladaniferus, and more probably C. creticus or C. incanus.
Commo N Names (l ada Num ):
Ciste à Gomme (Fr.; EFS); Ciste de Crète (Fr.; EFS); Ciste d’Espagne (Fr.; EFS); Ciste Ladinifère 
(Fr.; EFS); Cisto Canescente (It.; EFS); Cisto di Creta (It.; EFS); Cisto di Spagno (It.; EFS); Cisto 
Ladinifero (It.; EFS); Cistus Ladon (Eng.; JLH); Cretan Rock Rose (Eng.; EFS); Girit Ladeni (Tur.; 
EFS); Gum Cistus (Eng.; JLH); Jara (Sp.; VAD); Kretische Cistrose (Ger.; EFS); Labdanum (Eng.; 
BIB); Ladanum (Dutch; Eng.; EFS; JLH; ZOH); Ladum (Eng.; JLH); Ledum (Eng.; JLH); Lot 
(Heb.?; ZOH); Manna de Hasta (Sp.; EFS); Rock Rose (Eng.; JLH); Spanische Cistrose (Ger.; EFS); 
Nscn.
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FIGURe . Ladanum (Cistus creticus).
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a Ctivities (l ada Num ):
Alanyl-aminopeptidase Inhibitor (1; X11801385) Allergenic (1; X3365959); Antiaggregant 
(1; X15325737); Antileukemic (1; X9581515); Antioxidant (1; X10917563); Antiperoxidant (1; 
X10917563); Antiproliferant (1; X11801385); Antiradicular (1; X10917563); Antiseptic (1; JAD; 
X8134413); Antiulcer (1; X7784302); Astringent (f; EFS); Bactericide (1; JAD; X8134413); Can-
didicide (1; JAD; X8134413); Cardioprotective (1; X15325737); Cytotoxic (1; X8134413); Dermo-
protective (1; X10917563); Dipeptidylpeptidase-IV Inhibitor (1; X11801385); Diuretic (f; JAD); 
Emmenagogue (f; GMH); Expectorant (f; GMH; ZOH); Fungicide (1; JAD); Gastroprotective (1; 
X7784302); Gram(+)-icide (1; X9342956); Gram(-)-icide (1; X9342956); Hemostat (f; EFS); Myor-
elaxant (1; X15138007); Nervine (f; EFS); Purgative (f; EFS); Revulsive (f; EFS); Sedative (f; VAD): 
Spasmolytic (1; X15138007); Stimulant (f; GMH; ZOH); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (l ada Num ):
Anxiety (f; VAD); Arthrosis (f; VAD); Asthma (f; BOU); Bacteria (1; JAD; X8134413); Broncho-
sis (f; JAD); Cancer, anus (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Candida (1; JAD); Cardiopathy (1; 
X15325737); Catarrh (f; BIB; BOU; ZOH); Corn (f; JLH); Diarrhea (f; JAD); Duodenosis (f; VAD); 
Dysentery (f; BIB; BOU; ZOH); Dyspnea (f; BIB); Escherichia (1; JAD); Fracture (f; JAD); Fungus 
(1; JAD); Gastrosis (f; JLH; VAD); Headache (f; VAD); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hernia (f; JAD); Hy-s
teria (f; BIB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; JAD; X8134413); Inafl mmation (f; VAD); Insomnia 
(f; VAD); Leukemia (1; X9581515); Leukorrhea (f; JAD); Myalgia (f; VAD); Mycosis (1; JAD); 
Neuralgia (f; VAD); Osteoarthritis (f; VAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Rhinosis (f; JLH); 
Sore (f; JLH); Spasm (1; X15138007); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; JAD); Ulcer (f; VAD); 
Uterosis (f; JLH).
d osages (l ada Num ):
FNFF = !
Labdanum gum, the oleoresin, essential oil, and absolute are used as GRAS food afl voring ele-
ments, usually at levels less than 10 to 20 ppm, and have also been used in cosmetics, creams, dete-r
gents, perfumes, and soaps. The absolute is reportedly used in levels up to 4000 ppm, the essential 
oil up to 8000 ppm but only in perfumery.
d ow Nsides (l ada Num ):
The oleoresin of C. ladanifer is described as hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and neurotoxic (VAD).
extra Cts (l ada Num ):
The essential oil and the resin are antibiotic againsCt andida, Escherichia, and Staphylococcus.
Co Lo CyNth ( c itrullus colocynthis (L.) sCh RAD.) x CUCURBIt ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cucumis colocynthis L.
Notes (Colo CyNt H):
Behold, I will feed them, even this people, with wormwood, and give them water of gall to drink.
Jeremiah 9:15 (KJV)
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Commo N Names (Colo CyNt H):
Abur (Ber.; BOU); Aferziz (Arab.; Mauritania; UPW); Ahlandal der Araber (Ger.; KAB); Alkat 
(Ber.; BOU); Atmaraksha (Sanskrit; KAB); Bitter Apple (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BOU; CR2); Bitter 
Cucumber (Eng.; KAB); Bitter Gourd (Eng.; BOU; CR2); Bitter Melon (Eng.; GHA); Calebasse de 
Serpent (Fr.; KAB); Castravete Amar (Rom.; KAB); Chicotin (Fr.; BOU); Chittipapara (Tel.; KAB); 
Cocomero Amaro (It.; KAB); Colocynth (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; BOU; CR2); Coloquinte (Fr.; BOU; EFS; 
UPW); Coloquintida (Por.; KAB); Coloquintide (It.; EFS); Corin M’bodi (Fulah; KAB); Darwawal 
(Las Bela; KAB); Dingel (Arab.; BOU); Donkey’s Melon (Eng.; GHA); Ebucehilkarpuzu (Tur.; 
EFS); Endrayani (?; Nepal); Ghorumba (Hindi; KAB); Gorkaya Tikva (Rus.; KAB); Habid (Arab.; 
BOU); Hadaj (Arab.; BOU); Hadaq (Arab.; BOU); Hadj (Arab.; Mali; UPW); Hadja (Arab.; BOU); 
Haguellet (Arab.; BOU); Handal (Arab.; Nig.; Oman; Qatar; BOU; GHA; UPW); Hanzal (Arab.; 
EFS); Hanzul (Arab.; EFS); Hedeg (Dho.; Oman; GHA); Hedej Lehmar (Arab.; BOU); Henzil (Dec.; 
KAB); Hindavanahetalkh (Iran; KAB); Indrak (Guj.; KAB): Indravaruni (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; 
JLH; KAB); Indrayan (Hindi; India; Urdu; FS; KAB); Kaddukankri (Bom.; HAB); Kharbuza-Talkt 
(Iran; Khiasi, Burma; KAB); Kolokvint (Den.; Nor.; Swe.; EFS; KAB); Kolokvinter (Den.; KAB); 
Kolokwint (Dutch; EFS); Koloquint (Ger.; EFS); Koron Mboddi (Fula; Guinea; UPW); Kurkushta 
(Bal.; KAB); Kwartowa (Hausa; UPW); Kwintappel (Dutch; KAB); Makhal (Beng.; KAB); Ma-ra
ghuna (Zhob.; KAB); Marghun (Sharug; KAB); Marghuni (Sibi; KAB); Marhoum (Arab.; BOU); 
Merraret el Sekhour (Arab.; BOU); Murrah (Oman; GHA); Pavamekkekayi (Kan.; KAB); Pey-k
kommaddi (Sri.; KAB); Peykkommutti (Mal.; KAB); Phidangourgia (Greek; JLH); Picrokolokun-
thia (Greek; JLH); Pikrangougia (Greek; JLH); Purgierparadiesapfel (Ger.; EFS); Qittat en Na’am 
(Arab.; BOU); Sartol (Hun.; KAB); Serere (Soussou; KAB); Shary (Qatar; GHA); Shetiputsa (Sin.; 
KAB); Sikya Pikra (Greek; KAB); Sise (Arab.; BOU); Sisigi (Diola; Sen.; UPW); Suri (Arab.; 
GHA); Tadjellet (Ber.; BOU); Taferzizt (Ber.; BOU); Thorliyindrayan (Mar.; KAB); Tifersit (Ber.; 
BOU); Trujogosht (Sin.; KAB); (Indi Tuera (Sp.; KAB); Ubruzi (Ber.; BOU); Verittumatti (Tam.; 
KAB); Vicala (India; JLH); Visala (India; JLH); Wild Gourd (Eng.; CR2).
a Ctivities (Colo CyNt H):
Abortifacient (f; CRC; EFS; WBB; X14430893); Acaricide (1; BIB); Alterative (f; KAP; MPI); Ana-l
gesic (f; GHA); Anthelmintic (f; WO2); Antiaggregant (1; WO2); Antiandrogenic (1; X12660478); 
Anticholinergic (1; MPI; WO2); Antifertility (1; X12660478); Antihistaminic (1; KAB; MPI; WO2); 
Antihyperglycemic (1; X10904181); Antioxidant (1; X12484560); Antiperoxidant (1; X12484560); 
Antiproliferant (f; X14732962); Antitumor (f; X14732962); Bactericide (1; WO2); Bitter (1; KAB); 
Carcinogenic (1; X6746706); Cardiodepressant (1 WO2); Carminative (f; CRC; KAB; WO2); 
Cathartic (1; CRC; MPI); Depurative (f; WO2); Diuretic (1; KAP; MPI; WO2); Ecbolic (f; BIB; 
CRC); Emetic (1; MPI); Emmenagogue (f; CRC; EFS; WBB); Expectorant (1; MPI; WO2); Febri-
fuge (f; BIB; CRC); Hepatoprotective (1; WO2; X12484560); Herbicide (1; WO2); Hydragogue (f; 
CRC); Hypoglycemic (1; WO2; X10904181); Immunostimulant (1; X12963136); Insecticide (1; BIB; 
KAP; WBB; WO2); Insulinotropic (1; X10909260); Irritant (1; PH2); Laxative (f1; GHA; PHR); 
Mucoirritant (1; PHR); Negative Chronotropic (1; MPI); Negative Inotropic (1; MPI); Nematicide (1; 
WO2); Poison (1; PHR); Protisticide (1; WO2); Purgative (1; CRC; MPI; PH2; WBB); Refrigerant (f; 
KAB); Repellant (f; CRC); Ribosome Inactivator (1; X2248976); Toxic (f; EFS); Uterorelaxant (1; 
WO2); Vermifuge (1; BIB; CRC).
iNdi Catio Ns (Colo CyNt H):
Adenopathy (f; CRC; JLH); Alopecia (f; WBB); Amenorrhea (f; BIB; CRC); Anemia (f; CRC; KAB); 
Arthrosis (f; CRC; GHA); Ascites (f; CRC; KAP; PH2; WBB); Asthma (f; CRC; KAB); Bacteria (1; 
WO2); Baldness (f; WBB); Biliousness (f; BIB; CRC; KAP); Bite (f; KAP; WBB); Blennorrhagia 
(f; UPW); Blood (f; WO2); Breast (f; CRC); Bronchosis (f; CRC; KAB); Cancer (f1; CRC; GHA; 
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KAB); Cancer, abdomen (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; CRC; 
JLH); Cancer, colon (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, eye (f; CRC); Cancer, liver (f; CRC); Cancer, sinew (f; 
CRC; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; CRC); Carcinoma (f; CRC); Catarrh (f; HHB); Cerebrosis (f; CRC); 
Childbirth (f; KAB; PH2); Cholecystosis (f; PHR; PH2); Colic (f; GHA; KAP); Constipation (f1; 
CRC; GHA; PHR); Corn (f; CRC; JLH); Cough (f; WO2); Cramp (f; HHB; WO2); Cystosis (f; HHB; 
JLH); Debility (f; CRC); Dermatosis (f; BOU; UPW); Diabetes (f1; BIB; BOU; WO2; X9324004); 
Dropsy (f; BIB; CRC; KAP); Dysmenorrhea (f; HHB); Dyspepsia (f; CRC; KAB); Dysuria (f; CRC; 
KAP; WBB); Elephantiasis (f; CRC; KAB; PH2); Endothelioma (f; CRC; JLH); Enterosis (f; KAP; 
WO2); Epilepsy (f; BOU; CRC; KAP; WBB); Epithelioma (f; JLH); Fetal Atrophy (f; CRC); Fever 
(f; BIB; CRC; WO2); Frostbite (f; BIB; CRC); Gangrene (f; BIB; CRC; WO2); Gargantosis (f; CRC; 
KAB); Glaucoma (f; KAP); Gonorrhea (f; BOU; UPW); Gray Hair (f; KAP; WO2); Headache (f; 
WO2); Hemicrania (f; CRC; KAB); Hemorrhoid (f; WO2); Hepatosis (f; KAP; PHR; PH2; WO2); 
Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; WBB); Inafl mmation (f; CRC; WO2); Itch (f; BOU); Jaundice (f; 
BIB; CRC; WBB); Leishmania (1; WO2); Leprosy (f; CRC); Leukemia (f; CRC; JLH); Leukoderma 
(f; BOU; CRC); Migraine (f; KAB; WO2); Nephrosis (f; HHB); Neuralgia (f; HHB; KAP; WO2); 
Neurosis (f; HHB); Ophthalmia (f; CRC; WO2); Pain (f; GHA; JLH); Paralysis (f; WO2); Parasite 
(f; KAP); Pediculosis (f; CRC); Protozoa (1; WO2); Rheumatism (f; BIB; CRC; KAB; KAP; WBB); 
Sarcoma (f; JLH); Sciatica (f; KAP); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Snakebite (f; BOU; CRC); Splenomegaly (f; 
CRC); Splenosis (f; JLH); Sting (f; WBB); Swelling (f; WO2); Throat (f; CRC); Tumors (f; CRC); 
Urogenitosis (f; BIB; WO2); Uterosis (f; CRC; KAB); Varicose Veins (f; BIB; CRC; WO2); Venereal 
Disease (f; UPW); Worm (1; WO2); Wounds (f; CRC; WO2).
d osages (Colo CyNt H):
FNFF = !
Barely food farmacy; fruits pickled after boiling in several changes of water to remove bitter e-le
ments. Seed, removed from the poisonous pulp, is eaten in Central Sahara. Seed kernels eaten with 
dried dates (BIB; TAN). 120–300 mg individually/day; up to 600 mg/day (HHB). 0.2–0.4 g root 
powder (KAP); 0.1–0.4 g fruit powder (KAP); 3–10 ml root tea (KAP). Homeopathic dilutions only 
(JAD); allopathic doses no longer defensible (PH2).
• Algerians use colocynth in gargles and mouthwash, and as a counterirritant in chest cold 
plasters. They poultice salted rind onto frostbite (BIB).
• Arabians apply crushed leaves with garlic to bites and stings (GHA).
• Arabians apply seeds crushed in water as hair-darkening shampoo (GHA).
• Arabians mix crushed fruits with oil to massage painful arthritis (GHA).
• Asian Indians use the seed oil for bites and stings and epilepsy, and to promote hair 
growth (UPW).
• Ayurvedics use the root for arthritic pain, breast inafl mmation, ophthalmia and uterine 
pain; and the fruit for adenopathy, anemia, ascites, asthma, bronchitis, constipation, d-ys
pepsia, elephantiasis, fetal atrophy, jaundice, leucoderma, splenomegaly, throat diseases, 
tubercular glands, tumors, ulcers, and urinary discharges (KAB).
• Bedouins tie a slice of fresh gourd onto the heel before retiring for rheumatism (in the 
Sinai, I was told that one tastes the bitter gourd in the morning as a result) (BIB).
• Guinea natives poultice the leaves onto migraine and neuralgia (KAB).
• Lebanese apply the pulp to open varicose veins, also using it for cancer, gangrene, and 
wounds (BIB; HJP).
• Mauritanians with gonorrhea insert the penis into cooked fruit for circa 1 hour to treat 
blenorrhagia (UPW).
• Mauritanians apply baked root powder in butter or camel’s milk to head lice (UPW).
• North Africans swallow one unchewed seed per day for 21 days for diabetes (BOU).
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• North Africans take root decoction with garlic for snakebite (BOU).
• Unani, considering the fruit abortifacient, carminative, and purgative, use it for brain 
disorders, epilepsy, hemicrania, inafl mmation, leprosy, ophthalmia, and weakness of the 
limbs (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Colo CyNt H):
“The purgative action is so drastic as to have caused fatalities. One woman who took 120 g to induce 
abortion died in 50 hours. In case of poisoning, stomach evacuation is recommended, followed by 
oral or rectal administration of tincture of opium, followed by stimulating and mucilaginous beve-r
ages” (CRC). Toxic doses (600–1000 mg) may cause colic, diarrhea, hematchezia, nephrosis, and 
vomiting; lethal doses (as low as 2 g) may cause convulsions, paralysis, and possibly death due to 
circulatory collapse (PH2).
Natural History (Colo CyNt H):
Despite the bitterness, the fruits are eaten by grazing animals and the seeds gathered by desert 
rodents. Hungry Bedouins may even eat the seed after soaking in water, able to survive nearly 
2 weeks on the seed (although probably with diarrhea). Goats and wild game eat the stem and 
leaves (BIB); the fruit is eaten only by donkeys, gazelles, and ostriches (UPW). The following fungi 
affect colocynth: Colletotrichum bryoniae, Erysiphe cichoracearum, E. polyphaga, E. semitec-
tum, Fusarium oxysporum, and Puccinis citrulli. The Bottle gourd mosaic virus and the nematode, 
Meloidogyne sp., also attack this plant (HOE).
extra Cts (Colo CyNt H):
Alpha-elaterin-2-d-glucopyranoside: anticholinergic (WO2); antihistaminic (WO2); cardiodepr-es
sant (WO2); purgative (WO2); uterorelaxant (WO2); toxic dose 0.5–1 g orl man; LDlo = 4000 mg orl 
man. Alpha-spinasterol signicafi ntly (circa 1000 X simvastin, a coenzyme-A inhibitor) modulates 
development and/or progression of diabetic nephropathy. It reduced signicafi ntly attendant increases 
of serum triglycerides, renal weight, and urinary protein excretion in diabetic mice (X15326549).
WAte RMeLo N (c itrullus l An Atus (t h UNB.) 
MAts UM. & NAKAI.) +++ CUCURBIt ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Citrullus caffer Schrad.; Citrullus edulis Spach.; Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai 
subsp. mucosospermus Fursa; Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.; Colocynthis citrullus (L.) O. Kuntze; 
Cucurbita citrullus L., Momordica lanata Thunb.
Notes (w atermelo N):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5–6 (KJV)
We remember the fish we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the 
onions, and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna 
to look at.
Numbers 11:5–6 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus).
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5- 6 (NWT)
Of the three versions, only NWT speciefi s watermelons. And it really is a life-sustaining treasure 
in the desert when you have lost your canteen. Many of the common names that follow were taken 
from Porcher’s excellent Australian database (http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au). Porcher’s 
team adopted the group names “Lanatus” for wild and semi wild African watermelons, “Vulgaris” 
to cover “edible” cultivars, and “Citroides” to cover the preserving melons and fodder cultivars, 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
deeming it a “sensible option” (POR). I have also taken at least one common name for each country 
from a large colloquial name collection presented in UPW. Noting that watermelon has been known 
from Egypt since the Bronze Age, Zohary speculates that watermelon was domesticated in Africa 
during the Neolithic Period.
Commo N Names (w atermelo N):
Anguria (It.; POR); Arbuz (Pol.; Rus.; POR); Arbuz Stolovyj (Rus.; POR); Arpuusi (Fin.; POR); Ava-
tiach (Heb.; POR); Avatiach Pashut. (Heb.; POR); Avatihim (Heb.; ZOH); Bateekh (Arab.; POR); Batia 
(Ma.; JFM); Battikh (Arab.; Syria; HJP; POR); Belancia (Por.; AVP); Belik Zichi (Arab.; EFS); Betteakh 
(Arab.; Egypt; POR); Chaya Pula (Sanskrit; EFS); Choei Koa (China; POR); Cimangko (Dwi.; POR); C-it
ron Melon (Eng.; POR); Cocomero (It.; AVP; POR); Coloquinte (Fr.; POR); Da Zi Gua Zi Xi Gua (China; 
POR); Dinia (Bul.; POR); Dua Do (Vn.; POR); Dua Hao (Vn.; POR); Dua Hao Ruoi Do (Vn.; POR); Dua 
Hao Ruoi Vang (Vn.; POR); Egusi Melon (Eng.; POR); Eguzui Suika (Japan; POR); Facé (Por.; AVP); 
Fodder Melon (Eng.; POR); Futtermelone (Ger.; POR); Gewöhnliche Wassermelone (Ger.; POR); Görög-
dinnye (Hun.; POR); Grosse Wasser Melon (Ger.; EFS); Grote Water Meloen (Dutch; EFS); Gua Zi Xi 
Gua (China; POR); Han Koa (China; POR); Han Kua (China; EFS); Hia Koa (China; POR); Hinduana 
(BAL; KAB); Hsi Kua (China; EFS); Jabas (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Jacé (Por.; AVP); Ka-bed (Tibet; NPM); 
Karpusi (Greek; POR); Karpouzia (Cyprus; POR); Karpusi (Greek; POR); Karpuz (Tur.; POR); Kavun 
(Ukraine; POR); Kawon (Pol.; POR); Kharbuza (Hindi; POR); Kharmuja (Hindi; POR); Lubenica (Cro-a
tia; Macedonia; POR); Lubenica Meloun (Czech.; POR); Lubenice (Slovenia; POR); Lubenitsa (Serbia; 
POR); Malancia (Por.; EFS); Matao (Thai; POR); Mehal (BAL; KAB); Melancia (Por.; JFM; POR); 
Melância (Mad.; Por.; POR); Melâo d’Agua (Por.; AVP; JFM); Melone d’Acqua (It.; POR); Melón de 
Agua (Cuba; Peru; Sp.; EFS; JFM; RyM; SOU); Melon d’Eau (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS); Melon Dlo (Creole; 
Haiti; AVP; VOD); Melon Fourrager (Fr.; POR); Mendikai (Malaya; POR); Môô (Laos; POR); Mtango 
(Swahili; POR); Mtikiti (Swahili; POR); Nzara (Sudan; EFS); ‘Öö’w Llök (Khmer; POR); Pakwan 
(Tag.; POR); Pastecca (It.; POR); Pastek (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Pastèque (Fr.; Fr. Guiana; AVP; JFM); 
Pastèque à Graine Rouge (Fr.; POR); Pastèque Fourragère (Fr.; POR); Patia (Ma.; JFM); Patilla (Dr.; 
Pr.; Ven.; AVP); Patille (Ven.; EFS; JFM); Pati Yache (Ma.; JFM); Pepene Verde (Rom.; POR); Popone 
(It.; AVP); Preserving Melon (Eng.; POR); Raqqi? (Iran; POR); Red-Seeded Citron (Eng.; POR); Red-
Seeded Preserving Melon (Eng.; POR); Samangka (Sunda; POR); Sandia (Bel.; Bol.; Mex.; Peru; BNA; 
EGG; JFM; SOU); Sandilla (Peru; RAR); Semangka (Malaya; POR); Shiryou Suika (Japan; POR); Shi 
Yong Xi Gua (China; POR); Shokuyou Suika (Japan; POR); Si koa (Canton; POR); Si Liao Xi Gua 
(China; POR); Soo Bahk (Korea; POR); Stock Melon (Eng.; POR); Su Bak (Korea; POR); Suika (Japan; 
POR); Taeng Chin (Thai; POR); Taeng Moh (Thai; POR); Tarabuja (Nepal; NPM; POR); Tarabuucha 
(Guj.; POR); Tarabuuja; (Mar.; Pun.; POR); Tarabuujaa (Nepal; POR); Tarabuuza (Hindi; POR); Tarbooz 
(Hindi; POR); Tarbuj (Hindi; POR); Tarbuz (Hindi; POR); Tarmuj (Hindi; POR); Taramuj (Beng.; POR); 
Tarbuz (India; EFS); Tèng mô (Laos; POR); Tembikai (Malaya; POR); Ts’ing Teng Koa (China; POR); 
Vandmelon (Den.; POR); Vannmelon (Nor.; POR); Vattenmelon (Swe.; POR); Vesimeloni (Fin.; POR); 
Waatlemoen (Afrikan; POR); Wasserkürbis (Ger.; AVP); Wassemelone (Ger.; POR); Wasserzitrulle (Ger.; 
POR); Watermeloen (Dutch; POR); Watermelon (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; NPM); Watesan (Java; POR); 
Wild Melon (Eng.; POR; USN); Xi Gua (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Xi Gua Pi (Pin.; AH2).
a Ctivities (w atermelo N):
Antemetic (f; VOD); Anthelmintic (1; HDN; WO2); Antiallergic (1; X8463793); Anticancer (1; 
FNF); Antioxidant (1; FNF; X15351703); Antiprostatitic (1; FNF); Antiseptic (f; BIB; EFS); Aphro-
disiac (f; KAB); Cerebrotonic (f; BIB); Chemopreventive (1; FNF); Curare (1; HDN); Demulcent (f; 
EFS; WO2); Diuretic (f1; JFM; VOD; WO2); Febrifuge (f; HJP; VOD; WO2); Hypocholesterolemic 
(1; FNF); Hypotensive (1; BIB; WO2); Litholytic (f1; AHL; VOD; WO2); Nephrotonic (f; HJP); 
Purgative (f; WO2); Snake Repellant (f; HDN); Vermifuge (f1; JFM; SOU).
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iNdi Catio Ns (w atermelo N):
Bite (f; HDN); BPH (1; FNF); Bronchosis (f; JFM); Cancer (1; FNF; WO2); Catarrh (f; BIB); Cy-s
tosis (1; BIB; JFM); Depression (1; BIB; FNF); Dermatosis (f; HDN); Diarrhea (f; BIB; WO2); 
Dyspepsia (f; BIB); Dysuria (f; BIB; JLH; MAX; WO2); Fever (f; BIB; HDN; VOD); Gas (f; JFM); 
Gonorrhea (f; BIB); Headache (f; JFM); Hepatosis (f; JFM); High Blood Pressure (1; JFM); Infe-c
tion (f; WO2); Inafl mmation (f; BIB); Kidney stone (f1; VOD; WO2); Maculitis (1; FNF); Malaria (f; 
HDN; JFM); Nephrosis (f; BIB; WO2); Pulmonosis (f; JFM); Sinusitis (f; BIB); Sore (f; BIB; WO2); 
Sore Throat (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f; BIB); Stone (f1; VOD; WO2); Strangury (f; WO2); Roundworm 
(1; WO2); Tapeworm (1; WO2); Typhus (f; BIB); Urethrosis (f; MAX); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Venereal 
Disease (f; BIB); Worm (f1; HDN; JFM; RAR; WO2).
d osages (w atermelo N):
FNFF = !!!
Fruit pulp edible; seeds edible, raw or toasted; toasted seeds served as coffee substitute; pickled 
young fruits and rinds edible; leaves used as potherb (EGG; FAC).
• Bahamans decoct bruised seeds and drink as diuretic 3 ×/day (JFM).
• Cherokee have adopted the seeds for kidney ailments and enuresis, Cheyenne take seed 
as diuretic, Chickasaw take seed for bloody urine, Iroquois use them for oliguria, and the 
Rappahannock take seed infusions for gravel or kidney stones, in men or horses (DEM).
• Curacao Natives bind the rind around head for headache (JFM).
• Haitians, believing the fruit juice diuretic and febrifuge, drink it for kidney stones (VOD).
• Haitians ingest leaves for respiratory problems and nausea (VOD).
• Latinos express 5 to 8 g juice from fresh seeds in 1 cup water for worms (JFM; SOU).
• Mexicans take leaf decoction for malaria (JFM).
• Puerto Ricans eat the diuretic, tonic fruit for bronchitis, catarrh, gas, and lung problems 
(JFM).
• Venezuelans poultice mashed rind onto liver problems (JFM).
d ow Nsides (w atermelo N):
“Eating unripe watermelons causes serious illness, even death” (JFM).
extra Cts (w atermelo N):
Citrin (cucurbocitrin) hypotensive. Mandel et al. (2005), after finding citrullinaemia and high argi-
nine in a 19-month-old girl with developmental delay, learned she had consumed large quantities 
of watermelon, a fruit rich in free citrulline and arginine. Then they fed watermelon to six healthy 
adults. All developed elevated plasma citrulline (386–1069 µmol/l) and moderately elevated plasma 
arginine (128–251 µmol/l). Citrullinaemia, new to me, is indicated by elevated plasma citrulline and 
arginine, in the absence of orotic or arginosuccinic aciduria or hyperammonaemia (X15902549).
CIt Ro N (c itrus medic A L.) ++ RUt ACeAe
Notes (Citro N):
And ye shall take you on the first day the boughs of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and the 
boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the LORD your God 
seven days.
Leviticus 23:40 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Citron (Citrus medica).
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And you shall take on the first day the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, and boughs 
of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice before the LORD your God seven 
days.
Leviticus 23:40 (RSV)
And you must take for yourselves on the first day the fruit of splendid trees, the fronds of palm 
trees, and the boughs of branchy trees, and poplars of the torrent valley; and you must rejoice 
before Jehovah your God seven days.
Leviticus 23:40 (NWT)
Most translators and exegetes agree that the Hebrew ethrog and the “goodly trees” (etz hadar) of 
KJV and RSV (and I assume the splendid trees of NWT) above represent Citrus medica and that 
it grew in Israel at the time of the Bible. Even Moldenke agreed that etz hadar was Citrus medica. 
However, some scholars argue that it was not a specic fi tree at all. I will agree with Moldenke and 
Zohary, and include the citron among my biblical species and try to find a hardy one for the garden. 
Until then, I will let my Poncirus substitute for the ethrog when giving my biblical tours of the 
garden. Supposedly the first Citrus “liberated” from Asia, probably India, citron relics are found in 
Babylonian excavations of the Sumerian epoch, 4000 b.c. It is thought to have reached the Medite-r
ranean 300 years before Christ, perhaps with Alexander’s armies returning from India (ZOH).
Commo N Names (Citro N):
Adam’s Apple (Eng.; KAB); Amlakeshara (Sanskrit; KAB); Bajauri (Pun.; KAB); Bajauri Nimbu 
(Pun.; NAD); Balank (Guj.; KAB; NAD); Bara Nimbu (Beng.; Hindi; KAB; WOI); Begpura (Beng.; 
WOI); Bija Pura (Bom.; KAB); Bijaura (Hindi; KAB; WOI); Bijoru (Guj.; WOI); Bijoura (Guj.; 
NAD); Bil-ba (Tibet; NPM); Bimara (Tamang; NPM); Bimbiri (Nepal; KAB); Bimiro (Danuwar, 
Nepal; NPM); Cederno (It.; KAB); Cedraten (Ger.; KAB); Buyag (Tag.; KAB); Céédratier (Fr.; 
KAB; USN); Chholongo Nebu (Beng.; NAD); Chu Yuan (China; KAB); Cidra (Por.; Sp.; EGG; 
KAB; USN); Cidraero (Sp.; EGG); Cidreira (Mad.; Por.; KAB); Cidro (Sp.; USN); Citrat (Malta; 
KAB); Citroenboom (Dutch; KAB); Citron (Eng.; Scn.; Swe.; AH2; KAB; NPM; USN); Citron 
Lemon (Eng.; HJP); Cytryna (Pol.; KAB); Ethrog (Heb.; HOC); Etrog (Isr.; AH2; BIB); Etz Hadar 
(Heb. [= Goodly trees]; ZOH); Gilam (Mal.; KAB; WOI); Gou Yuan (Pin.; AH2); Gou Yuan (Pin.; 
AH2); I-Lemura (Sen.; UPW); Jrako (Ivo.; UPW); Kachchhe (Lepcha; NPM); Kachikung (Lepcha; 
KAB); Kadaranarathai (Tam.; WOI); Kagdi limbu (Mah.; NAD); Karuna (Sanskrit; NAD); Kitrea 
(Greek; KAB); Kogilachim (Tam.; KAB); Lamain (Rom.; KAB); Lanagi (Tharu; NPM); Lan-g
kok (Magar; NPM); Lebu (Beng.; KAB); Leemáám Máásar (Hausa; Nig.; UPW); Lemun (Sokoto; 
KAB); Lemuna (Guinea; UPW); Limon (Pi.; KAB); Limonnow Dyerevo (Rus.; KAB); Lungamu 
(Tel.; KAB; WOI); Madala (Kan.; WOI); Madalada hannu (Kan.; NAD); Madalanarakam (Mal.; 
NAD); Madeephalamu (Tel.; NAD); Mahalung (Mah.; NAD); Mahalunga (Mar.; Sanskrit; NAD; 
WOI); Mahaphala (Kan.; WOI); Mangsai (Chepang; NPM); Mapala (Tulu; KAB); Maphal (Hindi; 
NAD); Mary Bushukan (Japan; TAN); Matalanarakam (Mal.; WOI); Matulang (Sanskrit; NAD); 
Matulungga (Ayu.; AH2); Mauling (Kon.; KAB); Mavalinga (Kon.; NAD); Mavalung (Mar.; KAB; 
WOI); Medischer Apfel (Ger.; USN); Melon Lime (Eng.; KAB); Narotte (Madras; KAB); Punseme 
(Cat.; KAB); Ruranj (Iran; KAB); Rusaka (Kan.; WOI); Rusakam (Mal.; WOI); Sedaran (Sin.; 
KAB); Shauktakera (Burma; KAB); Soippa (Limbu; NPM); Sunpekawa (Rai; NPM); Tasi (Newari; 
NPM); Toronja (Sp.; USN); Trunj (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Turanj (Guj.; Hindi; Kotra; KAB; WOI); 
Turin (Mach; Rindli; KAB); Utraj (Arab.; KAB); Voamandina (Betsimisaraka; KAB); Voasaty 
(Malagasy; KAB); Xiang Yuan (Pin.; AH2); Zitronazitrone (Ger.; USN).
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a Ctivities (Citro N):
Analgesic (f; WO2); Antidote (f; NAD); Antiinafl mmatory (f; NAD); Antiscorbutic (f; WO2); Anti -
septic (f1; HJP); Antispasmodic (f; EGG); Aphrodisiac (f; KAB); Astringent (f; WOI); Bronchopro-
tective (1; X15598576); Cardiotonic (f; WO2); Digestive (f; NPM); Hypotensive (1; WO2); Laxative 
(f; EGG); Orexigenic (f; NAD); Refrigerant (f; WOI); Sedative (f; EGG; KAB); Stimulant (f; DAD; 
EGG); Stomachic (f; WO2); Tonic (f; DAD); Vermifuge (f; EGG; HOC).
iNdi Catio Ns (Citro N):
Anorexia (f; NAD); Asthma (f1; DAD; X15598576); Biliousness (f; NAD); Bronchosis (f; BIB); Ca-l
culus (f; KAB); Cancer (f1; DAD; JLH); Caries (f; KAB); Colic (f; DAD); Constipation (f; EGG); 
Cough (f; DAD); Cramp (f; EGG); Diarrhea (f; DAD); Dysentery (f; NPM; WOI); Dyspepsia (f; 
EGG; NAD); Dysuria (f; KAB); Earache (f; KAB); Enterosis (f; DAD); Fever (f; NAD); Gastrosis 
(f; DAD); Halitosis (f; KAB); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB); Hiccough (f; KAB); High Blood Pressure (1; 
WO2); Impotence (f; KAB); Infection (f; HJP); Inafl mmation (f1; NAD; X15598576); Intoxication 
(f; KAB); Jaundice (f; DAD); Leprosy (f; KAB); Lumbago (f; BIB); Nausea (f; NAD); Odontosis (f; 
KAB); Ophthalmia (f; HJP); Otosis (f; KAB); Palpitation (f; WO2); Pharyngosis (f; KAB); Rheuma-
tism (f; UPW); Sclerosis (f; DAD); Seasickness (f; BIB); Snakebite (f; NAD); Sore Throat (f; EGG; 
KAB); Splenosis (f; DAD); Sting (f; NAD); Stomatosis (f; EGG; UPW); Stomachache (f; DAD; 
HOC); Stomatosis (f; EGG; UPW); Syphilis (f; DAD); Thirst (f; NAD); Tumor (f; DAD); Venereal 
Disease (f; DAD); Worm (f; EGG).
d osages (Citro N):
FNFF = !!
Diamante citron was the first citrus known to European civilization, and is still cultivated in Ca-l
abria, Corsica, Crete, and Israel. The variety “Etrog” is the ofcfi ial citron in the Jewish Feast of the 
Tabernacle ritual, the entire fruit being eaten. Thick rind used in fruit cakes, salads, sweet rolls, etc. 
(FAC). The main products are candies and liqueurs, the oil used in afl voring beverages and sweets. 
Peel candied (TAN).
• Africans deemed the fruits useful in rheumatism and sore mouth (UPW).
• Ayurvedics view the rind as an aphrodisiac, the stimulant tonic seeds as useful for b-il
iousness, hemorrhoids, and inafl mmation (KAB).
• Ayurvedics view the ripe fruits as stimulant and tonic and good for asthma, cough, e-ar
ache, hiccup, leprosy, and sore throat (KAB).
• Ayurvedics view the root as anthelmintic, laxative, and useful in calculus, cancer, caries, 
colic, dysuria, nausea, the ofl wer buds astringent and orexigenic and good for asthma, 
cough, enterosis, hiccup, intoxication, and nausea (KAB).
• Lebanese use citron, much as did the Choco Indians of Panama use lemon, as pediatric 
ophthalmic eyedrops (HJP).
• Nepalese use the fruits as a digestive for dysentery (NPM).
• Peruvians use bark tea for cramps, dyspepsia, and distraught nerves, the ofl ral/foliar tea 
for sore mouth and throat (EGG).
• Peruvians use distilled floral water as antispasmodic (EGG).
• Peruvians regard the seed infusion as laxative and vermifuge (EGG).
• Peruvians suggest the floral tincture as a stimulant (EGG).
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d ow Nsides (Citro N):
I view it as a primitive citrus, less water, more phytochemicals (hence quite possibly relatively 
more medicinal).
Natural History (Citro N):
This species is being crossed with lemon seeking resistance to the mal secco disease, Phoma tra-
cheiphila fungus that lives in vessels in the wood, causing typical tracheomycosis, most serious 
disease of orchard lemons, affecting up to 100% of orchards of susceptible cultivars (X15941331).
extra Cts (Citro N):
For those with no other citrus, this species, like my Poncirus, can provide many of the phyto-
nutrients common to many citrus species; my Poncirus fruits hang on late into autumn. Verzera 
et al. (2005) analyzed the oil of cultivar “Diamante,” reporting 55 components, with the important 
anticancer compound limonene constituting circa 52% of the oil, gamma-terpinene at 27.7%, circa 
2% ocimene, circa 2% alpha-pinene, circa 2% beta-pinene, 1.7% neral, and 2.8% geranial and 
perillaldehyde. Most of the other compounds were well below 2%, many below 0.1% (X15941331). 
I think limonene is a signicfi ant contribution from citrus. Israeli scientists (Keinan et al., 2005) 
suggest that limonene (constitutes more than 50% of citron’s essential oil) might help asthmatics, 
especially those aggravated by ozone pollution. Could poor children in our inner cities, where 
asthma is increasing dramatically, reduce asthma attacks and/or symptoms (especially around 
ozone pollution, as on school buses in inner cities) by squeezing citrus peels (apparently all contain 
limonene) and inhaling the pleasant aroma periodically. Because the sedative antiinafl mmatory 
limonene is also absorbed through the skin, rather rapidly I might add, I would also consider ad-d
ing crushed citrus peels to bath water, which might help at the end of the day’s commute. Keinan’s 
group predicted that electron-rich olefins, known ozone scavengers, could be used to prevent asth-
matic episodes. Volatile, unsaturated monoterpenes, like limonene, could saturate the pulmonary 
membranes, equipping airways with local chemical protection against ozone. In Keinan’s exper-i
mental rats, limonene inhalation signicfi antly prevented bronchial obstruction (eucalyptol, alias 
cineole, saturated and inert to ozone, did not) (X15598576). I doubt I can convince our government 
to compare citrus inhalation in clinical trials as a third arm against placebo and some expensive 
pharmaceuticals. (As a gray-haired botanist, I cannot and do not prescribe. But if I had a hundred 
asthmatic grandchildren, you could bet some of them would be trying citrus peel and others would 
not, followed by a vice versa crossover, recording the frequency and severity of their attacks for 
old grandpa.) Faith-based types might best be praying too, and using the peel of the citron, called 
ethrog or etrog in some versions of the Bible. Without praying to improve my odds, I will still 
bet the citrus peel would score well along side the pharmaceuticals. I know it would be cheaper 
and bet it would be safer. That asthmatic possibility is relatively new; it has been known for a 
decade that limonene can also prevent cancers. Mondello et al. (1995) found that limonene was 
the most frequent monoterpene component in the citrus oils they examined, (from 50% in lime oil 
to circa 97% in grapefruit; about 52% in the etrog (X10554196). d-Limonene works in preclinical 
models of breast cancer, causing more than 80% of carcinomas to regress with little host toxi-c
ity (Crowell et al., 1994). Tsuda et al. (2004) singled out promising chemopreventive anticancer 
phytochemicals: vitamin derivatives, phenolic and afl vonoid agents, fatty acids, organic sulfur 
compounds, isothiocyanates, curcumins, and d-limonene (X15499193). Those last four suggest a 
biblical chutney: the garlic and onion for organic sulfur compounds, watercress and horseradish 
for isothiocyanates, turmeric for curcumin, and citrus peels for limonene. Lu et al. (2003) showed 
that d-limonene exerts a cytotoxic effect on gastric cancer by inducing apoptosis (X12921557). 
Parija and Das (2003) and Kaji et al. (2001) reiterate the well-known anticarcinogenic activity 
of d-limonene, mentioning also its chemopreventive nature in hepatocarcinogenesis (X12688534; 
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X11433412). And during the month that we focused on lung cancer, PubMed only had 11 cit-a
tions regarding limonene and lung cancer. If I were diagnosed with lung cancer today, I would be 
ingesting more garlic and more citrus too. I might even be inhaling limonene-containing essential 
oils as I squeezed citrus peels. Raphael and Kuttan (2003) note that several naturally occurring 
monoterpenes, such as carvone, limonene, and perillic acid, inhibit experimental lung metastasis. 
(Limonene at 100 µM/kg body weight, 10 doses ipr, remarkably reduced metastatic tumor nod-
ule formation.) Limonene and perillic acid just might even inhibit the metastatic progression of 
melanoma cells (X14582701). I doubt that Witschi (2000) would join me in judiciously inhaling 
citrus essential oils. Under the catchy title, “Successful and Not So Successful Chemoprevention 
of Tobacco Smoke-Induced Lung Tumors,” Witschi notes that none of the following “chemopre-
ventive” agents — green tea, phenethyl isothiocyanate, acetylsalicylic acid, N-acetylcysteine, 1,4-
phenylenebis[methylene]selenocyanate, and the d-limonene — reduced lung tumor multiplicity or 
incidence (X11195468). I would still be eating my garlic, eating my Brazil nuts, and inhaling my 
citrus, although no clinical trials have indicated their safety or efcfi acy. I suspect they will do as much 
good and will do less harm at a much lower cost — economically, mentally, and physically — than 
the chemotherapeutic cocktails being offered by the allopaths and their covert sponsors, the pha-r
maceutical firms. Many people believe more in the faith-based botanical herbs than they do in the 
ACS and NCI poisons. Me too! Such people have a better chance of being helped by these safer 
food farmacy items, also improving their odds against the other diseases of modern man, card-i
opathy and diabetes and iatrogenesis.
AFRICAN MyRRh (c ommiphor A Afric An A 
(A. RICh.) eNGL . ++ BURseRACeAe
Notes (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
 … there is bdellium and the onyx stone
Genesis 2:12 (KJV)
Bdellium is just another variant on the many myrrhs. The tree that provides the aromatic gum 
known as bdellium grew in the territory east of Persia. When the bark was incised, gum would 
ooze out “the bigness of a white olive.” Gum removed from the bark of the tree would soon harden, 
become transparent and waxlike, and resemble a pearl. In Tabore and Ugugo, Africa, the gum was 
melted with butter as a perfume. Egyptian women carried pouches of bdellium, for a delightful 
perfume. In West Africa, the resin is used as an insecticide believed to repel termites. The wood is 
used for beads, the stems as a chewstick (BIB). Bdellium is a folk cancer remedy for indurations of 
the liver and sinews, tumors of the spleen, polyps, carcinomata, and scirrhus. In tropical Africa, the 
resinous exudate is sometimes applied as a plaster for fever and spasms. Washed bark, mixed with 
salt is used for snakebite. Pounded leaves with millet are taken with milk as a stomachic. Ronga use 
the remedy for stomach troubles. The plant is regarded as a stomachic and collyrium. West Africans 
hold their face over the steaming pot for eye inafl mmations (BIB). Because of its readiness to strike 
root from cuttings, many ethnic groups associate the tree and the myrrh with immortality. For 
example, African Tuaregs consider the plant a symbol of immortality (UPW).
Commo N Names (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
I find it confusing that AHP designated myrrh as the Standardized Common Name for Commiph-
ora africana, Commiphora erythracea, Commiphora madagascariensis, Commiphora molmol, 
Commiphora myrrha, and Commiphora schimperi, while Zohary says myrrh is identical with 
Commiphora abyssinica, which the USDA Nomenclature database equates withC ommiphora 
habessinica.
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FIGURe .0 African Myrrh (Commiphora Africana).
Adras (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Adres (Arab.; Mali; Mauritania; UPW); African Bdellium (Eng.; 
UPW); African Myrrh (Eng.; UPW); Badadi (Fula; Mali; UPW); Barakanti (Bambara; Upper Volta; 
UPW); Bdellium (Eng.; JLH); Bdellium d’Afrique (Fr.; UPW); Gafal (Arab.; Niger; UPW); Kuénu 
(Togo; UPW); Kussum (Chamba; Nig.; UPW); Myrrh Africaine (Fr.; UPW); Narga (Ghana; UPW).
a Ctivities (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
Antiseptic (f; UPW); Collyrium (f; BIB); Emmenagogue (f; UPW); Hemostat (f; UPW); Insecticide 
(f1; UPW); Purgative (f; UPW); Sedative (f; UPW); Soporic fi (f; UPW); Stomachic (f; UPW); Tae-
nicide (f; UPW); Termitifuge (f; UPW); Vermifuge (f; UPW).
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iNdi Catio Ns (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
Arthrosis (f; JLH); Bleeding (f; UPW); Cancer (f; JLH); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Childbirth (f; UPW); Chill 
(f; UPW); Conjunctivosis (f; UPW); Dermatosis (f; UPW); Diarrhea (f; UPW); Fatigue (f; UPW); Gastr-o
sis (f; UPW); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; UPW); Insanity (f; UPW); Insomnia 
(f; UPW); Leprosy (f; UPW); Obesity (f; UPW); Ophthalmia (f; UPW); Pain (f; UPW); Polyp (f; JLH); 
Respirosis (f; UPW); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Snakebite (f; UPW); Sore (f; UPW); Splenosis (f; JLH); Sterility 
(f; UPW); Stiffness (f; UPW); Sting (f; UPW); Stomachache (f; UPW); Tumor (f; JLH); Worm (f; UPW).
d osages (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
FNFF = !
Roots are dug and consumed raw in parts of Africa; fruit pulp also eaten.
• Africans chew the stems to cleanse the teeth (BIB).
• Ivory Coastals and Upper Voltans take the decoction for male sterility (UPW).
• Kenyans use the fruit as an oral hemostat and styptic (UPW).
• Nigerians use root decoction as taenicide (60 g powdered seed in water for tapeworm); 
Nigerian Fula use decoction for insanity (UPW).
• Ronga use the remedy for stomach troubles (UPW).
• Tanganyikans poultice stiff neck caused by chills with root decoction, and take the root dec-oc
tion for childbirth, diarrhea, and stomachache; they eat pounded bark for malaria (UPW).
• Tropical Africans apply the resinous exudate as a plaster for fever and spasms (BIB).
• West Africans hold their face over the steaming pot for eye inafl mmations (BIB).
Natural History (a Fri Ca N myrr H):
Foliage readily grazed by cattle, goats, and sheep (UPW).
BALM o F GILeAD (c ommiphor A gile Adensis (L.) C. Ch R.) + BURseRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Amyris gileadensis L.; Amyris opobalsamum L. Commiphora opobalsamum (L.) Engl.; Commiph-
ora opobalsamum var. gileadensis Engl.
Notes (balm o F g ilead ):
[T]hey traded in thy market wheat of Minnith, and Pannag, and honey, and oil, and balm.
Ezekiel 27:17 (KJV)
Balm is the gum or thickened juice exuding from the balsam tree, once prolic fi in Judea, and some -
times called balm of Gilead, an emblem of Palestine. Cultivated shrubs were protected by guards. 
The tree, native to Yemen, was believed to have been introduced to Palestine by the Queen of Sheba 
on her famous visit to King Solomon. It was later cultivated in Palestine, mostly around Jericho, 
where it still existed during the Roman conquest. The soldiers carried balm branches back to Rome 
as symbols of their having defeated the Hebrews.
Commo N Names (balm o F g ilead ):
Balasan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Balm of Gilead (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; HJP); Balsam (Eng.; HJP); Balsam 
Makkah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Gilead Balsam (Eng.; HOC); Jibbali (HOC); Mecca Balsam (Eng.; 
Ocn.; AH2); Mecca Myrrh (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Opobalsamum (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Sukof (Arab.; 
Dho.; GHA).
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FIGURe . Balm of Gilead (Commiphora gileadensis).
a Ctivities (balm o F g ilead ):
Antioxidant (1; X15702514); Antiseptic (f; BIB); Antiulcer (1; X15814261); Astringent (f; BIB; EFS); 
Bradycardic (1; X9292417); Carminative (f; DAW; HJP); Demulcent (f; EFS); Digestive (f; DAW); 
Diuretic (f; EFS); Febrifuge (f; HOC); Fumitory (f; HJP); Gastroprotective (1; X15814261); Hepa-
toprotective (1; X15702514); Hypotensive (1; X9292417); Sudoric fi (f; EFS); Urogenital (f; EFS); 
Vulnerary (f; EFS; X15814261).
iNdi Catio Ns (balm o F g ilead ):
Bite (f; GHA); Cacoethes (f; BIB); Cancer, bladder (f; BIB); Cancer, breast (f; BIB); Cancer, eye (f; 
BIB); Cancer, gum (f; BIB); Cancer, kidney (f; BIB); Cancer, liver (f; BIB); Cancer, mouth (f; BIB); 
Cancer, rectum (f; BIB); Cancer, stomach (f; BIB); Cancer, uterus (f; BIB); Cancer, vagina (f; BIB); 
Carcinoma (f; BIB; JLH); Cardiopathy (1; X9292417); Cold (f; BIB); Cystosis (f; BIB); Dermato-
sis (f; HOC); Dyspepsia (f; HOC); Eczema (f; HOC); Fever (f; HOC); Flu (f; HJP); Gas (f; HOC); 
Gastrosis (f1; HJP; X15814261); Gonorrhea (f; EFS); Hepatosis (f1; JLH; X15702514); High Blood 
Pressure (1; X9292417); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; BIB); Infertility (f; HOC); Mastosis (f; 
BIB); Nephrosis (f; BIB); Plague (f; HOC); Proctosis (f; BIB); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Shingle (f; HOC); 
Shivering (f; BIB); Sore (f; HOC); Splenosis (f; BIB); Ulcer (1; X15814261); Urogenitosis (f; EFS); 
Uterosis (f; BIB); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Wound (f; EFS; HJP; X15814261).
d osages (balm o F g ilead ):
FNFF = !
Stem juice sweet when chewed; ripe fruits edible; leaves used for fodder; underbark used as tea 
substitute (GHA; HOC).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Christians dissolved bits of myrrh in wine as a digestive (BIB).
• Dhofari Arabs rub the resin over the body as a deodorant (GHA).
• Dhofari Arabians use the bark and resin as a cosmetic, and a soothing agent for dogbite 
(GHA).
• Dhofari Arabs use water from boiled bark to lighten skin color (GHA).
• Isfahans swallowed a few fruits, whole, for colds and shivering (BIB).
• Lebanese use the myrrhs similarly, as carminative, fumitory, and vulnerary, using dried 
fruits for gastric problems and flu. They direct the smoke onto wounds (HJP).
AByss INIAN MyRRh (c ommiphor A h Abessinic A 
(o . BeRG) eNGL.) + BURseRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Balsamodendrum habessinicum O. Berg; Commiphora abyssinica (O. Berg) Engl., orth. var.
Notes (a byssi Nia N myrr H):
Your robes are all fragrant with myrrh, and aloes and cassia.
Psalms 45:8 (RSV)
And when they were come into the house, they saw the young child with Mary his mother, and fell 
down, and worshipped him: and when they had opened their treasures, they presented unto him 
gifts; gold, and frankincense, and myrrh.
Matthew 2:11 (KJV)
And going into the house they saw the child with Mary his mother, and they fell down and worshiped 
him. Then, opening their treasures, they offered him gifts, gold and frankincense and myrrh.
Matthew 2:11 (RSV)
And when they went into the house they saw the young child with Mary its mother, and, falling 
down, they did obeisance to it. They also opened their treasures and presented it with gifts, gold 
and frankincense and myrrh.
Matthew 2:11 (NWT)
Following those two biblical quotes, Zohary says, “Mor is justly translated ‘myrrh’, which is ident-i
cal with the species of Commiphora abyssinica,” (ZOH) now orthographically corrected to Com-
miphora habessinica. But Zohary goes on to say, “Further investigation is required to confirm the 
identicatfi ion.” (ZOH) Conveniently, this is alphabetically the first of 20 species (there are about 200 
species in this confusing genus) covered by the USDA Nomenclature Database, until you change 
the orthography. Then, C. africana is first alphabetically. Neither Zohary nor I know which spe-
cies is the myrrh of the Bible. But Zohary selected this one; in my first Bible book (BIB), I selected 
C. africana as bdellium and C. myrrha as myrrh, after wrestling with the long lists of candidates. 
With a little lobbying input from my editorial assistants, I honed in on C. erythraea in my second 
Bible book (BI2). I am not embarrassed to side with Zohary’s selection of C. habessinica. After all, 
Zohary has lived most of his life and his career as a botanist in the Holy Land, and I have spent no 
more than a total of 6 weeks in the Holy Land (Egypt, Israel). Zohary notes that myrrh (of undete-r
mined specic fi identity), most precious of the resins, is connected with both the birth and death of 
Jesus (ZOH). Because of its readiness to strike root from cuttings, many ethnic groups associate the 
tree and the myrrh with immortality.
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Commo N Names (a byssi Nia N myrr H):
Abyssinian Myrrh (Eng.; USN); Arabian Myrrh (Eng.; USN); Boeotian Myrrh (Eng.; JLH); Ma-c
eron (?; JLH); Medigeh (Arab.; GHA); Mirra (Eng.; JLH); Mrr (Arab.; Dho.; GHA); ‘Okor (Arab.; 
GHA); Opopanax (Eng.; JLH); Smyrna Boiotike (Eng.; JLH); Yemen Myrrh (Eng.; USN).
a Ctivities (a byssi Nia N myrr H):
Anthelmintic (f; GHA); Antiseptic (f; GHA); Astringent (f; UPH): Stimulant (f; UPH); Stomachic 
(f; UPH).
iNdi Catio Ns (a byssi Nia N myrr H):
Adenopathy (f; GHA); Cancer (f; JLH); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Chest Cold (f; GHA); Cold (f; GHA); 
Cough (f; GHA); Diarrhea (f; GHA); Dyspepsia (f; GHA); Dyspnea (f; GHA); Infection (f; GHA); 
Pulmonosis (f; GHA); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Sore (f; JLH); Swelling (f; GHA); Worm (f; GHA).
d osages (a byssi Nia N myrr H):
FNFF = !
Arabians peel and chew the roots for their sweet taste; branches sucked for sustenance; ripe berries 
eaten (GHA).
• Arabians inhale the smoke of burning resin for breathing disorders, chest colds, and 
swollen glands (GHA).
• Arabians take the resin orally for coughs, diarrhea, dyspepsia, and worms (GHA).
• Arabians use resin for chest and other infections, applying it externally as a disinfe-c
tant (GHA).
MyRRh ( c ommiphor A myrrh A (Nees) eNGL. 
AND othe R spp.) ++ BURseRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Balsamodendron myrrha Nees; Commiphora molmol (Engl.) Engl.; Commiphora myrrha var. mol-
mol Engl. fide USN
Notes (myrr H):
My beloved put in his hand by the hole of the door, and my bowels were moved for him. I rose up 
to open to my beloved; and my hands dropped with myrrh, and my fingers with sweet smelling 
myrrh, upon the handles of the lock.
Song of Solomon 5:4–5 (KJV)
My beloved put his hand to the latch, and my heart was thrilled within me. I arose to open to my beloved, 
and my hands dripped with myrrh, my nfi gers with liquid myrrh, upon the handles of the bolt.
Song of Solomon 5:4–5 (RSV)
My dear one himself pulled back his hand from the hole [of the door], and my inward parts them-
selves became boistrous within me. I got up, even I, to open to my dear one, and my own hands 
dripped with myrrh and my fingers with liquid myrrh; upon the hollows of the lock.
Song of Solomon 5:4–5 (NWT)
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha).
All three versions seethe with sex and myrrh, a not uncommon linkage in the Bible. But which 
myrrh? I doubt that Herbal PDR and Commission-E writers are any wiser than the wise men of the 
Nativity; or Felter in 1898; or Madaus in 1938; or even me in 1985, 1999, 2005, or today, at know-
ing which species of Commiphora is myrrh, especially when faced only with the imported gum, 
and not ofl wering and fruiting herbarium vouchers. Myrrh shows up in at least a dozen places in 
ten books of the Bible. We will never know which of many species it was, of the complicated genus 
Commiphora. Many authors equate this one with the biblical myrrh, but none with final authority. 
PH2 entries below were derived from Gruenwald’s entry for C. molmol. The USDA (USN) and 
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Philips (HJP) equate C. molmol with C. myrrha. AH2 treats them as distinct species but with the 
same standardized common name, myrrh (AH2). Hence, the data below may be attributed to either 
species, whether or not the source of the data believed that they are one and the same.
Commo N Names (myrr H):
African Myrrh (Eng.; USN); Bálim-Tra-Pólam (Tel.; DEP); Baisabole (India; EFS); Balasan (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Balintrap-Dum (Tel.; NAD); Balsam Makkah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Bhensa (Bom.; 
NAD); Bhensabol (India; EFS); Bisabole (India; EFS); Ból (Beng.; Bom.; Cutch; Dec.; Guj.; Hindi; 
Iran; DEP; EFS; NAD); Bóla (Ayu.; Kan.; Sanskrit; AH2; DEP; EFS); Bólam Gandarassa (Singh.; 
DEP; NAD); Bysabole (India; EFS); Common Myrrh (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Gandharas (Beng.; NAD); 
Gandha-Rasaha (Beng.; Sanskrit; DEP); Habaghadi (Arab.; EFS); Habak (Arab.; EFS); Heerabole 
(India; DEP; EFS); Herabol Myrrh (Eng.; USN); Hírábói (Beng.; DEP); Hírábol (Cutch; Guj.; Mah.; 
DEP; NAD); Hirabol Myrrh (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Karam (India; EFS); Minaharma (Sanskrit; EFS); 
Mirha (Tur.; EFS); Mirra (It.; Sp.; EFS; USN); Molmol (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Mor (Heb.; DEP); Mo 
Yao (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Mo Yao Shu (Pin.; AH2); Mukula (Arab.; EFS); Mur (Arab.; DEP); Murr 
(Arab.; DEP; GHA; NAD); Myrrh (Arab.; Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; GHA); Myrrha (Den.; EFS); 
Myrrhabaum (Ger.; EFS); Myrrhe (Fr.; Ger.; EFS; USN); Myrrheboom (Dutch; EFS); Rasagandha 
(Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Rasagandhaha (Sanskrit; DEP); Saindhava (Sanskrit; NAD); Samudrag- ug
gul (Sanskrit; NAD); Somali Myrrh (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Subr (Arab.; GHA); Vellaipa-Pòlam (Tam.; 
DEP; NAD); Vola (Sanskrit; NAD); Mo Yao (Pin.).
a Ctivities (myrr H):
Abortifacient (f; DEP); Analgesic (1; APA; BGB; WI3); Anesthetic (1; WI3; JNP64:1460); Ant-i
clastogenic (1; X7518189); Antiedemic (1; CAN; X9582001); Antiinafl mmatory (1; APA; BGB; 
PNC); Antioxidant (1; X9032627); Antipyretic (1; APA; CAN); Antiradicular (1; X9032627); 
Antirheumatic (1; BGB); Antiseptic (1; APA; BGB; FEL; PH2; PNC; SKY; WI3); Antispasmodic 
(f1; APA; DEP; EFS; PNC); Antithrombotic (1; X10353165); Antitumor (1; X7956458); Antiul -
cer (1; X9032627); Astringent (f12; APA; DEP; KOM; NAD; PH2; SKY; WI3); Bactericide (1; 
WI3; JNP64:1460); Carminative (f; BGB; PHR; PNC; WI3); Collyrium (f; DEP); Cytotoxic (1; 
JNP64:1460); Decongestant (f1; APA; DEP); Deodorant (1; BGB; HHB; WI3); Digestive (f; GHA; 
PH2); Emmenagogue (f; APA; DEP; FEL; NAD); Expectorant (f; DEP; EFS; FEL; NAD; PHR; 
PH2; PNC; WI3); Fasciolicide (12; X5125536); Fungicide (1; WI3; JNP64:1460); Gastroprotective 
(1; X9032627); Haematogenic (1; X11390128); Hepatoprotective (1; X15125513); Hypocholesterol-
emic (1; CAN); Hypoglycemic (1; APA; CAN); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; CAN); Immunostimulant 
(1; APA; PNC); Lactagogue (f; DEP); Laxative (f; NAD); Larvicide (1; X11478451); Lipolytic (1; 
CAN); Mitodepressant (1; X7518189); Mosquitocide (1; X11478451); Mucogenic (1; X9032627); 
Orexigenic (f; PH2); Prostaglandigenic (1; X9032627); Schistosomicide (1; X15125513); Stimulant 
(f; APA; EFS; FEL; NAD); Stomachic (f; EFS; NAD); Thyrostimulant (1; X9032627); Tonic (f; 
DEP; EFS); Vermifuge (f; DEP); Vulnerary (f; PNC).
iNdi Catio Ns (myrr H):
Abrasion (1; CAN); Adnexitis (f; MAD); Alopecia (f; MAD; NAD); Amenorrhea (f; BGB; DEP; 
FEL; MAD; NAD; PH2); Aphthae (1; CAN); Arthrosis (1; GHA); Arteriosclerosis (f; MAD); 
Asthma (f1; APA; DEP; FEL); Athlete’s Foot (1; SKY); Bacteria (1; JNP64:1460); Bedsores (f; 
APA); Bladder stone (f; BIB); Boils (f; PNC); Bronchosis (f1; APA; BGB; DEP; FEL); Bruise (f; 
BOW); Cancer (f; APA; PH2); Cancer, abdomen (f; PH2); Cancer, colon (f; PH2); Candidiasis (f1; 
BGB; NAD); Canker Sore (1; APA; SKY); Carbuncle (f; PH2); Caries (f; FEL; NAD); Catarrh (f; 
BGB; CAN; FEL); Chilblain (f; BIB); Chlorosis (f; BIB; DEP; NAD); Circulosis (f; BOW); Cold 
(f1; BGB; CAN; GHA; SKY); Congestion (f1; APA; BGB; DEP); Consumption (f; MAD); Cough 
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(f; PH2); Dandruff (1; JAR12:83); Decubitis (f; BGB; BOW); Dermatosis (1; APA; MAD; PH2; 
WI3); Diabetes (f1; JNP64:1460; X12506289); Diarrhea (f; MAD; JNP64:1460); Dicrocoeliasis (12; 
X15287191); Diptheria (f; NAD); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysentery (f; MAD); Dyslactea (f; DEP); Dys-
menorrhea (f1; BGB; NAD; PH2); Dyspepsia (f; APA; DEP; FEL; GHA; NAD); Dysuria (f; MAD); 
Earache (f; BIB); Edema (1; X9582001); Enterosis (f; DEP; PH2); Epilepsy (f; DEP); Erysipelas (f; 
MAD); Fascioliasis (12; X5125536); Fever (f; BIB; DEP; GHA; MAD); Fracture (f; GHA); Freckle 
(f; MAD); Fungus (1; JNP64:1460); Furunculosis (1; CAN; PH2); Gangrene (f; FEL); Gas (f; APA; 
DEP; MAD); Gastrosis (f; FEL; PH2; PNC; JNP64:1460); Gingivosis (f1; APA; DEP; FEL; PNC; 
SKY); Gleet (f; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; FEL); Halitosis (f; FEL); Hemorrhoids (f; APA; BGB; BIB; 
GHA); Hepatosis (f1; MAD; X15125513); Hoarseness (f; APA); Hypothyroidism (1; WAF); Impo -
tence (f; GHA); Infection (f12; DEP; PH2; JNP64:1460); Infertility (f; MAD); Inafl mmation (f1; 
BGB; DEP; GHA; PH2; WI3); Itch (f1; WI3); Laryngitis (f; FEL); Leprosy (f; APA); Leukorrhea (f; 
FEL; MAD); Menopause (1; BGB); Menorrhagia (f; MAD); Mononucleosis (f; BOW); Mucososis 
(f1; APA; DEP; FEL; PH2; WI3); Mycosis (1; JNP64:1460); Odontosis (f; MAD); Ophthalmia (f; 
BIB; DEP); Orchosis (f; DEP); Osteoalgia (f; BGB); Otosis (f; BOW); Pain (1; JNP64:1460); Parasite 
(f12; DEP; X15287191); Pharyngosis (f12; APA; FEL; KOM; MAD; PH2; PNC; WI3); Phthisis (f; 
NAD); Pruritis (f1; WI3); Pulmonosis (f; DEP; MAD); Respirosis (f; BGB); Rheumatism (f; BGB); 
Rhinosis (f; APA; BIB); Salpingitis (f; MAD); Schistosomiasis (12; X15287168; X15125513); Sinus-
itis (1; APA); Snakebite (f; GHA); Sore (f1; APA; DEP; FEL; PNC); Sore Throat (f12; BGB; DEP; 
FEL: KOM; MAD; SKY); Stitch (f; MAD); Stomatosis (f12; APA; DEP; KOM; MAD; NAD; PH2; 
PIP; WI3); Swelling (f1; APA; X9582001); Thrombosis (1; X10353165); Tonsilosis (1; APA; BGB; 
FEL; PNC); Toothache (f; GHA); Tuberculosis (f; MAD); Tumor (f1; DEP; X7956458); Ulcer (f; 
APA; PH2; X11113992); Uterosis (f; MAD); Uvulosis (f; FEL); Venereal Disease (f; FEL); Water 
Retention (f; MAF); Weaning (f; GHA); Worm (f; DEP; FEL; MAD); Wound (f; APA; BGB); Wrin-
kle (f; MAD); Yeast (f1; BGB; NAD).
d osages (myrr H):
FNFF = !!
Myrrh, more food additive than food, is used to afl vor baked goods, beverages, candy, chewing 
gums, frozen desserts, gelatins, meat, puddings, soft drinks, Swedish bitters (FAC); myrrh dissolved 
in water used in Arabia to afl vor coffee (GHA). 1 tsp powdered myrrh/cup water/1–2 ×/day (APA); 
5–10 drops tincture per glass water (for mouthwash or gargle) (APA); 8–10 drops myrrh extract to 4 
×/day (APA); 2.5–5.0 ml myrrh tincture (CAN; PNC); 0.3–1.2 g resin/day (HHB). 0.3–1.5 g (MAD); 
6–10 drops tincture, several times a day (MAD); 1–2 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY); 1 g resin 3 ×/day 
(SKY); 1/8–1/4 tsp myrrh tincture 3 x/daily (WAF).
• Arabians smear resin on a black cloth that, after hardening, is used to bind fractures 
(GHA).
• Asian Indians dissolve myrrh in mother’s or asses’ milk as a collyrium (DEP).
• Asian Indians give myrrh with gúr to increase flow of milk (DEP).
• Asian Indians mix borax with myrrh for parasitic stomatitis or thrush (NAD).
• Asian Indians mix myrrh tincture with glycerine for diptheria (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest myrrh tincture for chlorosis and dysmenorrhea in young girls 
(NAD).
• Dhofari soak the resin in water and drink it or rub it on the body for fever (GHA).
• Lebanese use the myrrhs similarly, as carminative, fumitory, vulnerary, using dried fruits 
for gastric problems and flu. They direct the smoke on wounds (HJP).
• Omani apply myrrh to caries heating the myrrh with a hot rod for toothache (GHA).
• Saudi apply the resin to the breast to wean babies (GHA).
• Yemeni paste myrrh on snakebites and wounds; on the penis as an aphrodisiac (GHA).
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d ow Nsides (myrr H):
None known (KOM; PHR). Class 2b. Emmenagogue; uterotonic. Contraindicated in uterorrhagia. 
Doses >2–4 g may cause diarrhea and nephrosis. French only permit external application (AHP, 
1997). Undiluted tincture may produce burning and local irritation (AEH). Newall, Anderson, and 
Phillipson (1996) caution that because it is reputed to affect the menstrual cycle, its use in pre-g
nancy and lactation should be avoided. May interfere with diabetic therapies. In view of the lack of 
toxicological data, excessive use should be avoided (CAN). “No adverse effects from myrrh have 
been reported” (SKY). Apprehension, diarrhea, hiccups, and restlessness have been reported as side 
effects of related gugulipid administration (CAN).
extra Cts (myrr H):
Hypoglycemic; resin kills germs and stimulates macrophages (SKY); astringent myrrh soothes gin-
givosis, stomatosis, and sore throat. Extracts of C. habessinica stimulate phagocytosis in mice 
inoculated with Escherichia coli. Other species of Commiphora have demonstrated antiaggregant, 
antioxidant, cardioprotective, hypocholesterolemic, and hypotriglyceridic activities, suggesting the 
utility of these gums, like many other gums, in preventing and moderating heart disease. I kind of 
like the idea of a gum for a gum disease.
po Iso N he MLo CK (c onium m Acul Atum L.) x ApIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cicutaria vulgaris Clus; Conium major Bauh.; Conium vulgaris major Park
Notes (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
… Judgment springeth up as hemlock in the furrows of the field … 
Hosea 10:4 (KJV)
[F]or you have turned judgment into gall, and the fruit of righteousness into hemlock.
Amos 6:12(KJV)
These are the only citations for hemlock in the King James Version online. The poison that Socrates 
took, hemlock, is too dangerous for herbal administration by the uninitiated. Some authors (e.g., 
Walker) relate the biblical hemlock to Conium, a truly dangerous medicinal plant, while Moldenke 
and Moldenke relate it to a more innocuous herb, closer to wormwood. Zohary, admitting that the 
Hebrew word rosh, generally meaning poison, more likely means a “bitter and poisonous drink 
or food.” Without saying definitively that hemlock is intended, Zohary does recount that the plant 
is poisonous, and quite possibly the poison drink of Socrates, yet praised by Avicennia for breast 
tumors (BIB).
Commo N Names (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
Anisillo (Ven.; AVP); Ansarinha Malhada (Port.; EFS); Baldiran (Tur.; EFS); Barbousha (Arab.; 
BOU); Beaver Poison (Eng.; GMH); Bikhe Shoukaran (Arab.; BOU); Bisbis Barri (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Carrot-fern (Austr.; Eng.; USN); Cashes (Eng.; BUR); Cegude (Por.; EFS); Cerfeuil (Fr.; 
AVP); Cicuta (Braz.; Col.; Peru; Por.; Sp.; Ven.; AVP; EFS; EGG; VAD); Cicuta Magguire (It.; 
EFS); Cicuta Mayor (Sp.; EFS); Ciguë (Fr.; JLH); Ciguë Ofcfi inale (Fr.; EFS); Ciguë Tachée (Fr.; 
BOU); Conoi (Arg.; JLH); Cow Bane (Eng.; BUR); Culantrillo (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Culén (Peru; Sp.; 
EGG); Deadly Hemlock (Eng.; BUR); Djerir (Arab.; BOU); Doll Kraut (Ger.; EFS); Dolle Kervel 
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FIGURe . Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum).
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(Dutch; EFS); Echte Schierling (Ger.; EFS); Fool’s-parsley (Eng.; USN); Geefl chter Giftschierling 
(Ger.; EFS); Gevlekte Scheerling (Dutch; EFS); Gift Petersilie (Ger.; EFS); Grande Ciguë (Fr.; 
JLH); Guebaba (Ber.; BOU); Harmal el Djezair (Arab.; BOU); Hemlock (Eng.; USN); Herb Bennet 
(Eng.; GMH); Herb Bonnet (Eng.; BUR); Isojuuri (Fin.; JLH); Kecksies (Eng.; GMH); Kex (Eng.; 
GMH); Kill Cow (Eng.; BUR); Kita Anis (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Kurdumana (India; EFS; SKJ); Monte 
Zanahoria (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Mushquash Root (Eng.; GMH); Odört (Swe.; EFS); Poison Hemlock 
(Eng.; CR2; USN; ZOH); Poison Parsley (Eng.; BUR); Poison Root (Eng.; BUR); Poison Snake-
weed (Eng.; BUR); Rosh (Heb.; ZOH); Sakaran (Arab.; ZOH); Saûvadge Feno (Belgium; JLH); 
Sellata (Ber.; BOU); Shawkaran (Arab.; BOU); Sikran (Arab.; BOU); Skarntyde (Den.; EFS); Sp-ot
ted Corobane (Eng.; GMH); Spotted Cowbane (Eng.; BUR); Spotted Hemlock (Eng.; EFS; USN); 
Spotted-parsley (Eng.; USN); Stinkweed (Eng.; BUR); Tahhmâ (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Viznaga (Eng.; 
BUR); Wild Hemlock (Eng.; BUR); Wodewhistle (Eng.; BUR); Ziata (Arab.; BOU); Nscn.
a Ctivities (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
Alterative (f; CRC); Analgesic (f; BUR; CRC); Anaphrodisiac (f; BIB; CRC); Anodyne (f; BIB; 
CRC); Antidote (Strychnine) (f; GMH); Antinicotinic (1; PH2); Antispasmodic (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); 
Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; CRC; EFS; SKJ); Cardiodepressant (f; BUR); Hypertensive (1; PH2); Hypo-
tensive (1; PH2); Insecticide (1; EGG); Negatively Inotropic (1; PH2); Nervine (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); 
Nicotinic (1; PH2); Paralytic (1; PH2); Poison (12; BIB; DEM; EFS; PH2); Respirodepressant (1; 
PH2); Respirostimulant (1; PH2); Sedative (f; BIB; BUR; CRC); Teratogenic (1; PHR; PH2).
iNdi Catio Ns (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
Adenopathy (f; CRC; JLH; PH2); Amenorrhea (f; CRC); Arteriosclerosis (f; BOU); Arthritis (f; 
BIB; PHR; PH2); Asthma (f; BUR; CRC; PHR; PH2); Backache (f; PHR; PH2); Bite (f; BOU); 
Bronchosis (f; CRC; PHR; PH2); Burn (f; AAH); Cachexia (f; CRC); Cacoethes (f; CRC); Cancer (f; 
CRC); Cancer, breast (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, face (f; JLH); Cancer, ganglia 
(f; JLH); Cancer, gland (f; JLH); Cancer, intestine (f; CRC); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, me-s
entery (f; JLH); Cancer, neck (f; JLH); Cancer, nose (f; CRC); Cancer, pancreas (f; CRC); Cancer, 
parotids (f; CRC); Cancer, penis (f; JLH); Cancer, scrotum (f; JLH); Cancer, skin (f; CRC; JLH); 
Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, sternum (f; CRC); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; 
JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, viscera (f; CRC); Carcinoma (f; CRC); Carditis (f; 
CRC); Cerebrosis (f; PH2); Chorea (f; CRC); Colic (f; CRC); Cough (f; CRC; PHR); Cramp (f; PHR; 
PH2); Delirium (f; CRC); Depression (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; CRC); Dyslactea (f; CRC); Dysmen-
orrhea (f; CRC); Eczema (f; CRC); Edema (f; JLH); Enterosis (f; JLH); Epilepsy (f; CRC; PHR; 
PH2); Erysipelas (f; CRC); Heart (f; CRC); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hiccup (f; HJP); Hyperlactation (f; 
CRC); Hepatosis (f; CRC; JLH); Icterus (f; CRC); Impotence (f; CRC); Induration (f; JLH); Jaun-
dice (f; CRC); Laryngismus Stridulus (f; CRC); Leprosy (f; CRC); Mania (f; CRC; GMH); Myosis 
(f; PHR; PH2); Neck (f; PHR); Nervousness (f; HJP); Neuralgia (f; BUR; CRC; PHR; PH2; VAD); 
Neurosis (f; BIB); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; BOU; CRC; JLH); Palpitation (f; CRC); Pancreatosis 
(f; CRC; JLH); Paralysis (f; CRC); Pareses (f; PH2); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pertussis (f; CRC; GMH); 
Prostatosis (f; BOU); Pylorosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; BOU; BUR; CRC; PHR); Sciatica (f; PHR; 
PH2); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Scrofula (f; CRC; GMH); Sore (f; AAH; CRC); Spasm 
(f; CRC); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stye (f; CRC); Swelling (f; CRC); Syphilis (f; CRC); Tetanus (f; CRC; 
PHR); Tumor (f; CRC); Ulcer (f; CRC); Vertigo (f; CRC); Wen (f; JLH); Wound (f; AAH).
d osages (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
FNFF = X
Do not use (JAD). Many of the indications are homeopathic. Maximum dose 300 mg; standard dose 
100 mg; not to exceed 1500 mg/day (HHB; PHR; PH2).
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• Arab and Greek physicians consider hemlock for arthrosis, cancer, dermatosis, hyd-ro
phobia, pain, scrofula, sores, and swelling (HJP).
• Asian Indians report using the herb to paralyze the nerves in painful dermatoses (SKJ).
• British claim to have cured cancer by taking leaf decoctions (AAH).
• British (not me) suggest hemlock juice for cramps, epilepsy in dentition, laryngeal spasms, 
mania, teething in children, and in inhalations for asthma, bronchitis, and pertussis (GMH).
• English Gypsies use hemlock to cure ulcers (HJP).
• Iranians apply fruits externally as an anodyne (BIB).
• Irish poultice the plant onto burns, rheumatism, sores, swelling, and wounds (AAH).
• Irish use the poisonous plant to treat giddiness. (AAH)
• Lebanese suggest the plant for asthma, cancer, hiccups, nervousness, pain, and whooping 
cough (HJP).
• North Africans suggest the dangerous tincture for arteriosclerosis, cancer, prostatitis, 
spasms, the dilute infusion for pain, and rheumatism (BOU).
• Rabat natives fumigate insect bites with the roots (BIB).
d ow Nsides (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
“Classed appropriately by the FDA as an unsafe herb containing the poisonous alkaloid coniine and 
other closely related alkaloids.” Plant can also cause contact dermatosis. Ingestion may cause debility, 
drowsiness, nausea, labored respiration, paralysis, asphyxia, and death. Following lethal doses, animals 
rapidly begin to show symptoms; among them are paralysis of the tongue, mydriasis, head pressure, 
giddiness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and collapse into central paralysis (first the feet and legs, then the 
buttocks, arms, then paralysis of the swallowing and speech). With increasing dyspnea and cyanosis, 
death ensues through central respiratory paralysis. Lethal dose is about 500 to 1000 mg coniine for man 
(CRC; HHB). (Note that in CRC (1985), I misquoted HHB and said 500 to 100 mg.)
Natural History (poiso N Hemlo Ck):
Larks and quail eat the fruit with impunity, but their meat becomes poisonous in the process. Thrush 
can eat the fruits but ducks are poisoned thereby (GMH).
Co RIANDeR (c ori Andrum s Ativum L.) ++ApIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Coriandrum diversifolium Gilib.; Coriandrum globosum Salisb.; Coriandrum majus Gouan
Notes (Coria Nder ):
And the house of Israel called the name thereof Manna: and it was like coriander seed, white; and 
the taste of it was like wafers made with honey.
Exodus 16:31 (KJV)
Now the house of Israel called its name manna; it was like coriander seed, white, and the taste of 
it was like wafers made with honey.
Exodus 16:31 (RSV)
And the house of Israel began to call its name “manna.” And it was like coriander seed, and its 
taste was like that of flatcakes with honey.
Exodus 16:31 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Coriander (Coriandrum sativum).
All three versions call it coriander, which generally tranquilizes me into believing that this is a 
reasonably certain biblical citation. But Zohary questions it for linguistic, culinary, and ecological 
reasons. Coriander does not occur in the desert (ZOH) (although I have seen it in irrigated deserts in 
Egypt (JAD)). And Zohary rightly comments that its green to brown seeds are not whitish. However, 
I have seen some that looked ivory colored, not too far from cream. He questions the KJV, RSV, and 
NWT translations of gad as coriander. And, the Arabic gidda, cognate with gad, is a white Arte-
misia, not a greenish coriander. Thus, while leaving coriander in his biblical book as will I, Zohary 
doubts that it is intended in the quoted passages. AH2 gives two standardized common names for 
this species: cilantro for the leaves and coriander for the seed. This will be confusing in places like 
Peru where this is the temperate species used in the Andes, whereas tropicalE ryngium foetidum, of 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
the same family, bears the name cilantro in the lowlands. AH2 gives culantro as the standardized 
common name for Eryngium foetidum (AH2). I suspect that both will serve well and similarly for 
the many indications listed below. Coriander was used in love potions, its use as an aphrodisiac  
being mentioned in The Thousand and One Nights (BIB).
Commo N Names (Coria Nder ):
Ababika (Sanskrit; KAB); Allaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Behan (Pun.; DEP); Bööbberli (Swiss; POR); 
Bopchukuksun (Rai; NPM); Brasyal (Tamang; NPM); Chamem (Arm.; POR); Chhatra (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Chinese Parsley (Ocn.; Por.; AH2; POR; USN); Chinesische Petersilie (Ger.; POR); Chrap-
fechöörnli (Swiss; POR); Cilantro (Eng.; Scn.; Sp.; AH2; EFS; EGG; USN); Coentro (Por.; POR); 
Coentro (Mad.; Por.; EFS; USN); Conzra (Arab.; GHA); Col (Essex; KAB); Cominos (Pi.; KAB); 
Coriander (Eng.; Hun.; Scn.; AH2; NPM; POR; USN); Coriandolo (It.; EFS; POR; USN); Coria-n
dre (Fr.; BOU; EFS; USN); Coriandro (It.; Por.; Sp.; EFS; KAB; POR); Coriándru (Rom.; POR); 
Cosbor (Malta; KAB); Culantro (Cuba; Ocn.; Pan.; Peru; Pi.; Sp.; AH2; EFS; IED; POR; RyM; 
USN); Culantro Chino (Ma.; JFM); Culantro de Cartagena (Ma.; JFM); Culantro de Castilla (Ma.; 
JFM); Culantro Domestico (Ma.; JFM); Daaniwal (Kas.; POR); Danga (Nepal; DEP); Danyalu 
(Tel.; DEP); Daun Ketumbar (Malaya; POR); Debja (Arab.; BOU); Dembilal (Eth.; POR); Dhaanya 
(Hindi; POR); Dhaanyakam (Hindi; POR); Dhana (Bom.; Mar.; Sanskrit; DEP; KAB; POR); 
Dhanak Chi (Tur.; DEP; KAB); Dhanayaka (Sanskrit; POR); Dhane (Beng.; DEP; KAB; POR); 
Dhaneyaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Dhania (Beng.; Hindi; India; Oriya; Pun.; Urdu; EFS; POR); Dhania 
Saabut (Hindi; POR); Dhanika (Sanskrit; KAB); Dhaniya (Bhojpuri, Danuwar, Gurung, Magar, 
Mooshar, Nepal, Sunwar, Tam.; Tharu; Urdu; KAB; NPM; POR; SUW); Dhaniyaa (Hindi; Urdu; 
POR); Dhaniya Dhap (Tamang; NPM); Dhaniyaka (Sanskrit; KAB; POR); Dhaniyaalu (Tel.; POR); 
Dhano (Sin.; DEP; KAB); Dhanya (Hindi; Mar.; Sanskrit; DEP; KAB; POR); Dhanyabija (Sa- n
skrit; KAB); Dhanyaka (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; DEP; KAB); Dhanyika (Sanskrit; DEP); Dhennika 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Dhoney (Beng.; POR); Dimbilal (Eth.; POR); Dyovunco (Ocaina; EGG); Falscher 
Anis (Ger.; KAB); Gad (Heb., KAB; ZOH); Gakaka (Piro; EGG); Gemeiner Coriander (Ger.; Swe.; 
KAB; NAD); Geshnes (Iran; POR); Goid (Punic; ZOH); Gosangn (Newari; NPM); Gouzbir (Ber.; 
BOU); Grain(e) du Coriandre (Fr.; Havija; Kan.; DEP; NAD); Haraa Dhania (Hindi; POR); Havija 
(Kan.; POR); Hiang T’‘sai (China; KAB); Hom Phak (Ic.; KAB); Hom Pom (Ic.; KAB); Ho Tuy 
(Ic.; KAB); Hridyagandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Hsiang Hsui (China; EFS); Huang Thai Tu (Ic.; KAB); 
Hu Sui (Pin.; China; AH2; DAA; POR); Indische Petersilie (Ger; POR); Iuen Siu (China; KAB); 
Iuen Soui (China; KAB); Janapriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Kabzara (Arab.; GHA); Kajbira (Arab.; KAB); 
Kambari (Kan.; POR); Karbijar (Arab.; KAB); Kashmirkhuska (Iran; KAB); Kasriza (Iran; KAB); 
Katumba (Sumatra; IHB); Katumber (Java; IHB); Katunchar (Sunda; IHB); Kerti Koriander (Tur.; 
EFS); Kesbour (Arab.; BOU); Ketumbar (Malaya; IHB; POR); Khabzara (Arab.; GHA); Khotbir 
(Mar.; DEP; KAB); Khotmir (Mar.; DEP; KAB); Kishnetz (Rus.; KAB); Kisnis (Tur.; EB49:406); 
Kisnish (Tur.; POR); Kishniz (Iran; DEP; EFS); Kizniz (Tur.; EFS); Koendoro (Japan; POR; 
X11776997); Kolendra (Pol.; POR); Kolendra Siewna (Pol.; POR); Koljandra (Rus.; POR); Ko-n
phir (Guj.; KAB; POR); Korander (Dutch; KAB); Koriander (Den.; Dutch; Ger.; Hung.; Nor.; Rus.; 
Swe.; EFS; KAB; POR); Korianderfrucht (Ger.; POR), Koriandr (Czech.; Rus.; POR); Koriandr Po-s
evnoi (Rus.; POR); Koriandrze (Pol.; KAB); Koriannon (Greek; POR); Korijander (Croatia; POR); 
Korion (Greek; POR); Koriyun (Greek; DEP); Koryander (Pol.; KAB); Ko Soo (Korea; POR); Ko 
Su (Korea; POR); Kotamalli (Tam.; KAB); Kotambari (Kan.; DEP; KAB); Kotamrbi-beeja (Kan.; 
DEP; EFS); Kot Bor (Kon.; KAB); Kot Bori (Kon.; KAB); Kothamali (Tam.; POR); Kothamalli 
(Tam.; POR); Kothambala (Kas.; POR); Kothambalari Kothambri (Kan.; POR); Kothamira (Bom.; 
DEP; KAB); Kothambri (Kan.; WOI); Kothimber (Mar.; POR; WOI); Kothimbir (Mar.; POR); 
Kothmir (Mar.; DEP); Kothmiri (Guj.; POR); Kothmiri Bija (Kan.; POR); Kothumpalari (Mal.; 
POR); Kothumpalati (Mal.; KAB); Kothumpkalari Bija (Mal.; POR); Kotimiri (Tel.; DEP; KAB; 
NAD; POR); Kottamali (Mal.; Tam.; DEP; EFS; POR); Kottamalli Virae (Tam.; POR); Kottambari, 
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Kothambari (Kan.; POR); Kottampalari (Tel.; NAD); Kotthamalie (Sinh; KAB; POR); Kottmir 
(India; EFS); Kottumburi (Kon.; NAD); Koyendoro (Japan; POR); Kunati (Sanskrit; KAB); Ku-r
busar (Arab.; DEP; KAB); Kusbara (Arab.; Heb.; BOU; DEP; EFS; POR); Kusbarah (Arab.; DEP); 
Kushniz (Iran; EFS; KAB); Kusthumbari (Kustumburi) (Sanskrit; EFS; KAB; POR); Kuzbarah 
(Arab.; KAB; POR); Kuzbura (Arab.; POR); Libdhane (Guj.; POR); Nan Nan Bin (Burma; POR); 
Nan Nan Zee (Burma; POR); Nau-nau (Burma; DEP; NAD); Ngo (Vn.; EB42:413); Ngo Tham (Ic.; 
KAB); Nisara (Sanskrit; KAB); Ongsay (Pi.; KAB); Pak Chi (Thai; IHB); Penjilang (Java; Malaya; 
IHB; POR); Persil Arabe (Fr.; POR); Petite Coriandre (Fr.; KAB); Phààk Kaawm (Laos; POR); 
Phak Hom (Laos; POR); Pucioagna (Rom.; KAB); Rau mùùi (Vn.; KAB; POR); Rüügeliküümmi 
(Swiss; POR); Saquil (Ma.; JFM); Schwindelkornerr (Ger.; EFS); Shakayogya (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Silantro (Peru; EGG); Stinkdill (Ger.; KAB); Sukshmapatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Sugandhi (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Tabel (Arab.; BOU); Tansanaqua (Ma.; JFM); Tumbaru (Sanskrit; KAB); Tunchar (Sunda; 
IHB); Uchung (Lepcha; NPM); Ushu (Lad.; MKK); Ussu (Bhoti; KAB); U-su (Tibet; NPM); Ved-
haka (Sanskrit; KAB); Veshana (Sanskrit; KAB); Vitunakka (Sanskrit; KAB); Wanzendill (Ger.; 
POR); Wanzenküümmel (Ger.; POR); Wan Swee (China; POR); Xiang Sui (China; POR); Yan sui 
(China; POR; USN); Yuan Sui (China; Pin.; AH2; EFS); Yuan Sui Zi (Pin.; AH2); Zaub Thwb Qaib 
(Hmong; EB57:365); Zaub Txib Gab (Hmong; EB57:365).
a Ctivities (Coria Nder ):
Alexiteric (f; BIB); Analgesic (f; KAB); Anaphrodisiac (f; HHB; JFM); Antidote (Mercury) (1; 
FNF; X15721537; X8914687); Antiedemic (f1; APA); Antiimplantation (1; APA); Antiinafl mmatory 
(f1; PNC); Antimutagenic (1; APA; X15451560); Antinitrosaminic (1; X15451560); Antioxidant 
(1; JAF51:6961; X15364640); Antiperoxidant (1; X15364640); Antiradicular (1; JAF51:6961); Ant-i
septic (f1; PH2); Antispasmodic (f1; BGB; HHB; PHR; PH2); Anxiolytic (1; X15619553); Aphro-
disiac (f; APA; BOU; DEP; SUW); Bactericide (1; APA; PHR; PH2; X15612768); Cardiotonic (f; 
GHA); Carminative (f1; APA; DEP; GHA; HHB; PHR; PH2); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Contracep-
tive (f; APA); Digestive (f1; BGB; BIB; GHA; IHB); Diuretic (1; APA; BIB; DEP); Emmenagogue 
(f; BIB; EFS); Febrifuge (f; DEP); Fungicide (1; APA; PHR; PH2); Gastrogogue (1; PH2); Hepato-
tonic (f; KAB); Hypnotic (f; KAB); Hypocholesterolemic (1; X15462185); Hypoglycemic (1; APA; 
PNC); Hypolipidemic (1; X15462185) Hypotensive (f; APA); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; X15462185); 
Lactogogue (f; NMH); Larvicide (f1; APA; PNC; X15623234); Lipolytic (f1; BGB; LAF); Mercury 
Chelator (1; X15721537; X8914687); Myorelaxant (1; APA; X15619553); Orexigenic (f2; EFS; PH2); 
Pectoral (f; BIB; DEP); Sedative (f1; BIB; DEP; X15619553); Stimulant (f1; BGB; BIB; DEP); Sto-
machic (f1; BGB; BIB; HHB); Tonic (f; BIB; DEP; GHA); Vermifuge (f; JFM).
iNdi Catio Ns (Coria Nder ):
Adenopathy (f; KAB); Ameba (f; PH2); Amenorrhea (f; JFM); Anorexia (f2; APA; EFS; KOM; 
PH2); Arthrosis (f; BIB; HHB); Asthenia (f; BOU); Bacillus (1; HH2; X15612768); Bacteria (1; PH2; 
X15612768); Biliousness (f; BIB; DEP; SUW); Bleeding (f; DEP; EGG; PH2); BO (f; APA); Bron-
chosis (f; KAB); Burn (f; BOU); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); 
Cancer, sinew (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Carbuncle (f; BOU; DEP); 
Cardiopathy (f; BIB; GHA); Catarrh (f; BIB); Chickenpox (f; PH2; SKJ); Childbirth (f; IHB: PH2); 
Cholecocystosis (f; PHR); Cholera (f; BOU); Colic (f; DEP; GHA; HHB); Condyloma (f; JLH); 
Conjunctivosis (f; DEP; GHA); Coryza (f; KAB); Cough (f; IHB; PHR; PH2); Cramp (f1; BGB; BIB; 
PH2); Cystosis (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; PHR; PH2); Diabetes (f; JFM); Diarrhea (f; APA; EGG; 
HHB); Dysentery (f1; APA; PHR; PH2); Dyspepsia (f12; APA; DEP; GHA; HHB; KOM; PH2); 
Dysuria (f; PH2); Edema (f; PH2); Enterosis (f2; BGB; JLH; PHR; PH2); Epistaxis (f; EGG; PH2); 
Erotomania (f; BIB); Erysipelas (f; BIB); Erythema (f; DEP); Escherichia (1; HH2; X15612768); 
Fever (f; PHR; PH2); Fungus (1;PHR); Gingirrhagia (f; KAB); Gleet (f; KAB); Halitosis (f; APA; 
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DEP; PHR; PH2); Headache (f1; PH2; X15612768); Gas (f1; APA; BGB; DEP; EGG); Gastrosis 
(f1; BGB; HHB; BIB; DEP; EGG; PHR; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; APA; DEP; PH2); Hernia (f; BIB); 
Hiccup (f; KAB); Hysteria (f; BIB; BOU; JFM); Impotence (f; BIB; BOU); Induration (f; JLH); 
Infection (f1; HH2; PH2); Inafl mmation (f; KAB); Intoxication (f; BIB; DEP); Jaundice (f; KAB); 
Kernel (f; JLH); Leprosy (f; PHR; PH2); Listeria (1; X11929164); Measles (f; APA; HAD; PH2); 
Mycosis (f1; DEP; HH2; X15612768); Nausea (f; BIB; GHA; IHB); Nervousness (f; BIB); Neuralgia 
(f; APA; BIB; EGG; NAD); Neurosis (f; BOU); Obesity (1; X15462185); Ophthalmia (f; BOU; DEP; 
GHA); Orchosis (f; BOU); Otosis (f; BOU); Pain (f; KAB; PH2); Parasite (f; BOU); Pharyngosis (f; 
PHR; PH2); Ptomaine (f; BIB); Puerperium (f; PHR); Rash (f; PHR; PH2); Rheumatism (f; BOU; 
HHB; NAD); Salmonella (1; HH2; X15161192); Scabies (f; KAB); Sclerosis (f; BIB); Scrofula (f; 
PH2); Smallpox (f; DEP); Snakebite (f; BIB); Sore (f; DEP); Soroche (f; EGG); Splenosis (f; BIB); 
Stomachache (f; BIB; EGG; EB49:406); Stomatosis (f; KAB; PHR; PH2); Swelling (f; DEP; GHA); 
Syphilis (f; BIB; KAB); Thirst (f; NAD); Thrush (f; DEP); Toothache (f; APA); Tumor (f; JLH); 
Ulcer (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; JLH); Venereal Disease (f; BIB; KAB); Vertigo (f; HHB; NAD; PH2); 
Wart (f; JLH); Wen (f; JLH); Worm (f; APA; BOU; JFM); Wound (f; HH2); Yeast (f1; DEP).
d osages (Coria Nder ):
FNFF = !!!
Seeds, the size of a peppercorn, have a sharp but pleasant aroma, pleasing to many ethnics (e.g., 
Arabs, Egyptians, some Europeans, Asian Indians), sometimes afl voring breadstuffs, cakes, and 
confections therewith. Used as early as 1550 b.c., the dried fruits, called coriander seed, combi-n
ing the taste of lemon peel and sage, is used in pastries, cookies, buns, processed meats (such as 
sausage, bologna, and frankfurters), pickling spice, and curry powder. Also used to afl vor liqueurs, 
such as gin and vermouth; in the cocoa, chocolate, and cordial industries. Young plants used in 
salads as a vegetable and in chutneys, sauces, soups, and curries. (Bib.; FAC; TAN). 1–2 tsp crushed 
fruit/cup water up to 3 ×/day (APA); 0.1 g essential oil, 2–3 ×/day (HH2); 3 g fruit (KOM; PHR); 
0.3–1 g powdered fruit (PNC); 0.5–2 ml liquid fruit extract (PNC); 0.05–2 ml (they said 2 ml, I 
would have said 0.2 ml; cf. celery seed, close kin) essential oil (PNC).
• Asian Indians paste powdered seed on carbuncles, headache, sores, and gargle for thrush 
(DEP).
• Asian Indians report pulverized roots and leaves in alcohol for measles eruptions (KAB).
• Asian Indians suggest the seed infusion or tincture for biliousness, catarrh, dyspepsia, 
enterosis, gas, and sore throat (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest equal parts coriander, cardamom, and caraway (1:1:1) as digestive 
(NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest powdered seed for colic, dyspepsia, and halitosis (DEP).
• Asian Indians suggest equal parts coriander, cottonseed, poppy seed, 2 parts sugar, and 
some rose water for vertigo (NAD).
• Ayurvedics recommend for biliousness, bronchitis, dysentery, fever, nausea, and thirst, 
viewing it as aphrodisiac, aperitif, anthelmintic, antipyretic, diuretic, laxative, refrig-er
ant, stimulant, and stomachic (KAB).
• Cubans suggest the seed decoction for diabetes and neuralgia (JFM).
• Ethiopians chew the leaves for colic and stomachache (BIB).
• Iranians use the leaf for headache (BIB).
• Latinos report the tea 2 ×/day is a female anaphrodisiac (JFM).
• Latinos boil 1 tsp fruit in 0.25 liter wine as emmenagogue and vermifuge (JFM).
• Middle Easterners steep seed in vinegar for one day  and drink with sugar as cardiotonic, 
general tonic (GHA).
• Lebanese use seed decoction as a stimulant or as a narcotic anodyne (HJP).
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• Mohammedens use carminative, pectoral, sedative seeds in a collyrium to prevent smal-l
pox from destroying the eyes, as well as for chronic conjunctivosis (DEP).
• Peruvians paste the crushed leaves on the forehead for altitude sickness (EGG).
• Peruvians suggest the leaf tea for gas, headache, neuralgia, pain, and stomachache (EGG).
• Saudis suggest seed decoction for failing vision (GHA).
• Unani used the leaves, considered analgesic and hypnotic, for bleeding gums, eye pains, 
gleet, hiccup, inafl mmation, jaundice, piles, scabies, stomatitis, toothache, and tubercular 
glands. They used the seed to prevent bronchitis and coryza, for biliousness, dyspepsia, 
headache, syphilis, and ulcers on the penis, viewing the seed as aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, 
cerebrotonic, hepatotonic (KAB).
• Seed ground with raisins for tumors (JLH); with honey or raisins for burns, carbuncles, 
orchosis, sores, and sore ears (BOU).
d ow Nsides (Coria Nder ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). None known (KOM). “Health hazards or side effects following the proper 
administration of designated therapeutic dosages are not recorded” (PH2). Leaves may harbLoir s-
teria, especially in hot, moist situations.
extra Cts (Coria Nder ):
Iranian scientists (Emamghoreishi et al., 2005) demonstrated anxiolytic activity of seed extracts of 
coriander, used for anxiety and insomnia in Iranian folk medicine (10, 25, 50, 100 mg/kg, ipr mus). 
It may have myorelaxant and sedative effects (X15619553). Karunasagar et al. (2005) showed that 
2+
a sorbent prepared from coriander could remove inorganic mercury (Hg ) and methyl mercury 
+
(CH Hg ) from aqueous solutions. Such a sorbent could be used to decontaminate inorganic- and 
3
methyl mercury–contaminated waters (X15721537). Earlier Japanese scientists had suggested that 
coriander could help remove mercury from the human body (X8914687). [My dentist takes coriander 
following a day drilling in mercurous fillings.] Indian scientists (Harve and Kamath, 2004) report 
on an interesting case of interspecicfi synergy. Acetone and petroleum ether extracts of Murraya 
koenigii, Coriandrum sativum, Ferula asafoetida, and Trigonella foenum-graceum potentiated syn-
thetic larvicides Fenthion and Temephos as larvicides againsAt . aegypti larvae. They used 0.05 ppm 
Temephos and Fenthion with 25 ppm of M. koenigii, F. asafetida, T. foenum graceum, and 100 ppm 
of C. sativum. All plants showed synergic potential but were weakly larvicidal when tested individ-u
ally (X15623234). Lo Cantore et al. (2004) demonstarted the antibacterial activity of coriander was 
better than that of related fennel against 27 phytopathogenic bacterial species (includinBga cillus 
and Escherichia) and two mycopathogenic ones (X15612768). Essential oil is particularly effective 
againstL isteria monocytogenes (X11929164). Kubo et al. (2004) found that coriander’s (2E)-l dode-
canal was about twice as potent and (2E)-undecenal about equipotent with gentamicin at killing 
Salmonella. They were additive rather than synergic (X15161192). Proesto set al. (2005) checked the 
species for afl vonoids and phenolics and their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity (X15713039). 
LD50 (EO) = 4130 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
sAFFRo N (c rocus s Ativus L.) ++ IRIDACeAe
Notes (sa FFro N):
Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard, 
Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes, 
with all the chief spices.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (KJV)
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Your shoots are an orchard of pomegranates with all choicest fruits, henna with nard, nard and saf-
fron, calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense, myrrh and aloes, with all chief spices.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (RSV)
Your skin is a paradise of pomegranates, with the choicest fruits, henna plants along with spike-
nard plants; spikenard and saffron, cane and cinnamon, along with all sorts of trees of frankin-
cense, myrrh and aloes, along with all the finest perfumes.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (NWT)
In biblical times, saffron was important to oriental people as a condiment and sweet perfume. Still, 
it was not mentioned by early Sanskrit writers (although KAB present nearly fifty Sanskrit names 
for the plant; DEP listed only three). Arabian authors speak of its cultivation in the 10th century at 
Darband and Ispahan. Chinese state that Mohammedens introduced it to China during the Yuen 
dynasty. Mullahs are said to write charms with a saffron ink (DEP). The stigmas were especially 
valued as a food colorant (e.g., adding yellows to Indian curries). It was mentioned by Dioscorides. 
In Pliny’s time, benches at public theaters were strewn with saffron, the precious petals placed in 
small fountains, to diffuse the scent into public halls. One cannot believe the gfi ures one sees for 
this most expensive of spices until we realize that it was not speciefi d whether they were talking 
fresh weight (for the ofl wers stigmata) or perhaps dry weight for the saffron (dried stigmata). From 
my reading, “It takes 100,000 ofl wers to yield 1 kg saffron” (one ofl wer yields 10 mg, or 3.33 mg 
per stigmata; BIB), or “4000 to make an ounce” (circa 3000 mg), or one ofl wer yielding only 0.75 
mg, or 0.25 mg per stigmata (DEP). So I asked our garden director, Holly Vogel, to weigh some so 
we would know how many ofl wers it would take to give that 30-mg saffron dose. Her sister sent 
data from an online spice company suggesting that a single stigma would weigh 2 mg. I like that 
answer; it will take 15 stigmata (there are three in a ofl wer) to attain that 30-mg posology. My calcu-
lations suggested 40 ofl wers or 120 stigmata at the low dry weight, or only three ofl wers at the high 
dry weight. Maybe if I munch 15 stigmata next spring, in the sunshine, it will cure my midwinter 
Seasonal Affective Disorder. If you are foolish enough to wish to check our calculations, buy some 
saffron; if each orange thread is simple, you may have the real spice; but if, on analysis, each thread 
turns out to be a small withered tubular ofl wer, you may have the poor man’s saffron, Carthamus, 
mentioned previously. If you find strands longer than an inch long, it might be dyed corn silk. This 
most expensive spice, saffron, is often adulterated. Other than food usage, it is also used in cosme-t
ics for eyebrows and nail polishes, and as incense. Dioscorides comments on its use as a perfume, 
Harrison, on its use as a deodorant. Dissolved in water, it is applied to foreheads on religious and 
ceremonial occasions; it is also used as an ink. A Bronze Age (circa 3000–1100 BCE) Aegean wall 
painting in the building of Xeste 3 at Akrotiri, Thera, feature sCrocus. The frescoes concern saffron 
and healing, even depicting the harvest of stigmata; and 90 medical indications (and you thought my 
lists were long?) for saffron, starting in the Bronze Age. The frescoes depict a Theran goddess with 
her phytotherapy, saffron (X15259204).
Commo N Names (sa FFro N):
Açafrão (Por.; EFS; USN); Agnishekhara (Sanskrit; KAB); Asfar (Arab.; BOU); Azafrán (Sp.; EFS; 
USN); Bhavarakta (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Castagnolo (Potenza; KAB); Croco Florito (It.; EFS); 
Echter Safran (Ger.; HH3); Fan Hung Hua (China; Pin.; AH2; EFS); Giallone (It.; KAB); Grogo 
(Tuscany; KAB); Jafran (Beng.; KAB; NAD; WOI); Jafrana (Arab.; KAB); Jafranekar (Urdu; 
KAB); Kamakuma (Malaya; EFS); Kambama (Malaya; EFS); Karkom (Heb., KAB); Kasmira-ja
nma (Sanskrit; DEP); Kecara (Bom.; Mar.; DEP); Kesar (Hindi; DEP; KAB); Kesara (Mar.; KAB; 
WOI); Keshar (Guj.; DEP; KAB); Keshara (Sanskrit; WOI): Kessar (Bom.; KAB); Koma Koma 
(India; EFS); Kong (Kas.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Konger (India; EFS); Kormar Romar (India; EFS); 
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FIGURe . Saffron (Crocus sativus).
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Kouzrkour (Ber.; BOU); Krokos (Greek; KAB); Kruku (Arab.; BOU); Kumkuma (Sanskrit; DEP); 
Kungkumapave (Tel.; KAB; WOI); Kungumapu (Tam.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Kunkuma (Ayu.; AH2); 
Kunkumakesari (Kan.; Kon.; NAD; WOI); Kunkumapave (Tel.; DEP); Kunkumappu (Mal.; Tam.; 
NAD); Kunkumapurru (Tel.; NAD); Kunkumapuvva (Tel.; NAD); Kunkumkesarei (Kan.; KAB); 
Kunkumma Purru (India; EFS); Kurkam (Arab.; ZOH); Kurkum (Arab.; Bhote; DEP; KAB; ZOH); 
Larkimasa (Iran; KAB); Pewva (India; EFS); Piwva (India; EFS); Sa’faram (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Saferam (Arab.; ZOH); Safferian (Treviso; KAB); Saffron (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; USN); Sa-f
fron Crocus (Eng.; USN); Saffraan (Dutch; EFS); Safra (Cat.; KAB); Safran (Fr.; Den.; Ger.; Tur.; 
BOU; EFS; KAB; USN); Safran Cultivé (Fr.; BOU); Safran Vrai (Fr.; BOU); Saurab (Sanskrit; 
DEP; EFS); Schafran (Rus.; KAB); Spanish Saffron (Eng.; Ocn. AH2; KAB); Szafrana (Pol.; HH3; 
KAB); Thanwai (Burma; DEP; KAB); True Saffron (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Xi Hong Hua (Pin.; AH2); 
Zaafaran (Arab.; Iran; DEP; WOI); Zafar (Tur.; DEP; KAB); Za’faran (Arab.; BOU); Zafferano (It.; 
EFS); Zaffran (Hindi; India; EFS; NAD); Zafrah (Arab.; Iran; EFS; NAD); Zafran (Hindi; WOI); 
Zafrane Hor (Alg.; HH3); Zahafaran (Arab.; WOI); Zang Hong Hua (Pin.; DAA); Zipharana (Iran; 
NAD).
a Ctivities (sa FFro N):
Abortifacient (f12; PHR; PH2); Anodyne (f; APA; CRC; MAD); Antiaggregant (1; X16180089); Ant-i
depressant (f12; CRC; DAA; PNC; X15852492); Antidote (f; MAD); Antiedemic (f1; APA); Anti-
genotoxic (1; X11665650; X15331343); Antihysteric (f; CRC); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; X11914135); 
Antilymphomic (1; JAC7:405); Antinociceptive (1; X11914135); Antioxidant (1; PR14:149; 
X15653110); Antiplatelet (1; X16180089); Antiradicular (1; PR14:149; X15653110); Antiseptic (f; 
CRC; HJP); Antispasmodic (f1; APA; CRC; HHB; HJP); Antitumor (f1; PR14:149); Aphrodisiac (f; 
APA; BOU; CRC; MAD); Balsamic (f; CRC); Cardiotonic (f; CRC; EFS; MAD); Carminative (f1; 
CRC; PNC; VAD); Circulostimulant (f; BOW; X12776492); Diaphoretic (f; APA; CRC); Digestive 
(f; APA; BOW); Ecbolic (f; CRC); Emmenagogue (f; BOU; CRC; HHB; PNC); Emollient (f; APA); 
Expectorant (f; APA; CRC); Gastrogogue (f; PHR; PH2); Hemostat (f; MAD); Hypocholesterolemic 
(1; APA); Hypolipemic (1: PR14:149); Hypotensive (1; APA; BOW; X12648816); Immunostimulant 
(1; X12776492); Lactagogue (f; KAB); Memorigenic (1; X16028982); Myorelaxant (f; APA); Na-r
cotic (f; BOU; CRC; SKJ); Nervine (f; CRC); Neuroprotective (1: PR14:149); Orexigenic (f; VAD); 
Sedative (f; APA; CRC; HHB); Stimulant (f; BOU; CRC; HHB); Stomachic (f; CRC; HHB); TNF-
alpha Inhibitor (1; X11720092); Tonic (f; BOU); Toxic (f; CRC); Uterotonic (1; PHR; PH2).
iNdi Catio Ns (sa FFro N):
Adenopathy (f; JLH; X12776492); Aegilops (f; JLH); Amenorrhea (f1; CRC; MAD; NAD; PH2); 
Anorexia (f; VAD); Anuria (f; ?); Arthrosis (f; KAB); Asthenia (f; VAD); Asthma (f; BOU; MAD); 
Bladder Ailments (f; CRC); Bleeding (f; DAA; MAD); Blood Disorders (f; CRC); Bronchosis (f; 
PH2): Burn (f; JLH); Cacoethes (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; APA; PR14:149; X11582266); Cancer, abd-o
men (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, bladder (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, breast (f1; APA; CRC; JLH); Cancer, 
colon (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, diaphragm (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, ear (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, eye 
(f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, larynx (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; 
APA; CRC); Cancer, mouth (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, neck (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, spleen (f1; APA; 
CRC); Cancer, stomach (f1; APA; CRC; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f1 APA; JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; 
APA; JLH); Cancer, tonsil (f1; APA; CRC); Cancer, uterus (f1; APA; CRC; JLH); Cardiopathy (f1; 
APA; X12776492); Catarrh (f; CRC; DEP; SKJ); Cerebrosis (f1; APA; KAB); Chemopreventive (f1; 
X11582266); Chickenpox (f; HOS); Childbirth (f; DAA; PH2); Chlorosis (f; HOS); Cholera (f; CRC; 
HOS); Chorea (f; HHB; MAD); Circulosis (1; X12776492); Cold (f; CRC); Colic (f; NAD); Condyloma 
(f; DAA); Conjunctivosis (f; MAD); Cough (f; DAA; MAD); Cramp (f1; DAA; HHB; VAD); Cystosis 
(f; JLH); Cytotoxic (1; HH3); Debility (f; NAD); Depression (f12; CRC; DAA; PNC; X15852492); 
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Dermatosis (f; CRC; KAB); Diabetes (f; CRC); Diarrhea (f; NAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAA; HHB; 
MAD; PNC); Dyspepsia (f1; VAD); Edema (f1; APA); Enterosis (f; JLH); Epistaxis (f; MAD); Fear (f; 
CRC; DAA); Fever (f; CRC; NAD; PH2); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fibrosarcoma (1; HH3); Fractures (f; KAB); 
Gas (f1; MAD; VAD); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gingivosis (f1; VAD); Gout (f; MAD); Hangover (f; LIL); 
Headache (f; KAB; PH2); Hemicrania (f; KAB); Hemoptysis (f; DAA; MAD); Hemorrhoid (f; NAD); 
Hepatosis (f1; CRC; DEP; JLH; SKJ; X12776492); High Blood Pressure (1; APA; X12648816); High 
Cholesterol (1; APA); Hysteria (f; BOU; CRC; DAA; MAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; HJP); 
Inafl mmation (f1; JLH; X11914135); Lachrymosis (f; JLH); Laryngosis (f; JLH); Leukemia (f1; JLH; 
X12776492); Lochiostasis (f; PH2); Lymphoma (1; APA; JLH; HH3); Measles (f; CRC; DAA; MAD); 
Melancholy (f12; CRC; DEP; HHB; KAB; X15852492); Menorrhagia (f; HHB; HOS; PH2); Menox-
enia (f; CRC); Nausea (f; KAB); Nephrosis (f; JLH; KAB); Neuralgia (f; NAD); Neurosis (1; CRC; 
FNF); Obesity (f1; VAD; PR14:149); Ophthalmia (f; JLH; HOS); Orchosis (f; JLH); Osteosarcoma (1; 
HH3); Pain (f1; DAA; X11914135); Papilloma (1; X12776492); Parotosis (f; HOS; JLH); Pertussis (f; 
BIB; BOU; DAA; MAD); Pharyngosis (f; KAB); Phymata (f; JLH); Plague (f; MAD); Puerperium (f; 
CRC); Rhabdomyosarcoma (1; X12776492); Sarcoma (1; X12776492); Scabies (f; KAB); Sclerosis (f; 
CRC); Shock (f; CRC; DAA); Snakebite (f; NAD; SKJ); Sore Throat (f; PH2); Spasms (f; CRC); Sple-
nosis (f; CRC; JLH; KAB); Spermatorrhea (f; NAD); Swelling (f1; APA); Thrombosis (1; X16180089); 
Tonsilosis (f; JL); Toothache (f; VAD); Twitching (f; MAD); Uterosis (f; CRC; DAA; JLH); Venereal 
Disease (f; CRC; DAA); Vertigo (f; MAD); Vomiting (f; PH2); Wart (f; CRC).
d osages (sa FFro N):
FNFF = !!!
Prominent coloring agent and spice in cookery (especially Spanish), soups, stews, especially chicken 
dishes, and in confectionery to give color, afl vor, and aroma (BIB). 10–15 stigmata/cup water (APA); 
0.5–1.5 g day (APA; HHB). 10 g as abortive (HH3); 0.1–1 g powdered saffron (MAD); 15–16 drops 
tincture (MAD). 0.5–2.5 g saffron (PNC); tea (2g/l) 3 ×/day (VAD).
• Algerians and Gypsies use the saffron infusion as a collyrium (HJP).
• Asian Indians use saffron for bladder, kidney, and liver ailments; also for cholera. Mixed 
with ghee, it is used for diabetes (BIB).
• Ayurvedics, deeming saffron alexiteric, anthelmintic, laxative, tonic, use it for anuria, 
biliousness, bronchosis, cerebrosis, dermatoses, headache, pharyngitis, scabies, and 
vomiting (KAB).
• Iranians view saffron as antispasmodic and stimulant (HJP), and now as antidepressant 
(X15852492). Iranians report saffron (30 mg/day) as effective as imipramine (100 mg/day) 
in mild to moderate depression (X15341662).
• Lebanese add a dozen pistils to a large cup of hot water for children coming down with 
chickenpox, measles, or mumps (HJP).
• Germans take saffron in milk for measles (MAD).
• North Africans suggest eight to ten filaments (stigmata) per cup of tea as a “narcotic for 
cases of asthma, whooping cough, hysteria” (BOU).
• Spanish suggest massaging the gums with tincture (1:10) for gingivosis or toothache 
(VAD).
• Unani, deeming the herb antiinafl mmatory, aphrodisiac, bechic, diuretic, hematinic, lac-
tagogue, laxative, use it for disorders of brain, kidney, liver, and spleen (KAB).
d ow Nsides (sa FFro N):
Class 2b. Abortifacient; emmenagogue; uterotonic. Severe side effects may result from ingesting 
5 g saffron (lethal dose = 20 g) (AHP, 1997). “Health risk or side effects following the proper 
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administration of designated therapeutic dosages are not known” (PH2). Controversial. The 200-
mg/kg dose of saffron alleged to extend the life of cancerous mice translates to 22,000 mg or 22 
g saffron with a 100-kg rat named Jim Duke. Commission E reports no risks for doses up to 1.5 
g; however, 5 g is toxic, 10 g is abortive, and 20 g is lethal (AEH; PHR). Conversely, Tucker and 
DeBaggio report that “ingesting 0.05 ounce (1.5 g) saffron has resulted in death” (TAD). Parado-xi
cally, the life-saving dose is lethal! It is good that saffron is so expensive, so thatwe will not have 
too many fools overdosing on it. Preferring to err on the safe side, we can think of saffron only as 
an expensive spice to be used judiciously. I think these numbers may be alarmist. Of mice and men, 
the oral LD50 in mice is 20,000 mg/kg according to the German Hager’s Handbuch (HH3), while 
for man, 5 to 10 g can prove lethal.
extra Cts (sa FFro N):
Iranians found that saffron at 30 mg/day was as effective as imipramine at 100 mg/day in mild to 
moderate depression (F = 2.91, d.f. = 1, P = 0.09) (X15341662). Jessie and Krishnakantha (2005) 
found that saffron extract inhibited platelet aggregatioin n vitro (IC50 = 0.35–0.86 mg) (X16180089). 
LD50 (saffron) = 20,000 mg/kg orl mus HH3; LD50 (saffron extracts >600 mg/kg ipr mus HH3; 
LDlo 5,000–10,000 mg total orl hmn HH3). If Hager’s Handbuch numbers are correct, we had be-t
ter leave the saffron for the mouse, to whom the saffron seems orders of magnitude safer than to the 
man, where a few milligrams could be good, a few grams could be bad.
MeLo N (c ucumis melo L.) +++ CUCURBIt ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Bryonia collosa Rottler; Cucumis collosus (Rottler) Cogn.; Cucumis trigonus Roxb. fide USN; 
Cucumis utilissimus Roxburgh fide NPM
Notes (melo N):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5- 6 (KJV)
We remember the fish we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the 
onions, and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna 
to look at.
Numbers 11:5- 6 (RSV)
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5- 6 (NWT)
Some think the biblical melon was this; others think, as did the NWT translators, that it was wat-er
melon. Both are cultivated as pleasantly juicy fruits today in the Holy Land and other arid lands, 
always welcome in dry climates. We will never be sure what the non-taxonomic scholars implied. 
Even some hard-core taxonomists are loathe to make herbarium specimens of melons. Hence, I 
include both in my faith-based food farmacy, although the word “melon” shows up only once in my 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
FIGURe . Melon (Cucumis melo).
computerized version of the Bible. Zohary insists that the Hebrew words kishuim and mikshaw must 
equate to muskmelons, arguing that cucumbers did not exist in Egypt in biblical times. That makes 
the NWT even more interesting if one reads “muskmelon” instead of “cucumber.”
Commo N Names (melo N):
Afqous (Ber.; BOU); Aggour (Arab.; BI2; BOU); Al Bata (Mali; UPW); Ao Uri (Japan; TAN); 
Bachang (Kon.; NAD); Bambous (Ber.; BOU); Batanyah (Hausa; Nig.; UPW); Battikh Asfar (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Bettikha (Arab.; BOU); Bittikh (Arab.; BOU); Blewah (Java; TAN); Cantaloupe (Eng.; 
CR2); Cataloup (Fr.; EFS); Chibuda (Bom.; DEP); Chibunda (Mar.; DEP); Cikiire (Fula; Nig.; 
UPW); Dungra (India; DEP); Esaka (Cameroon; UPW); Feggous (Arab.; BOU); Ghurmi (Mooshar; 
Satar; NPM); Gidhro (Sin.; DEP); Gidro (Sin.; NAD); Goihmha (Tharu; NPM); Hsiang Inabe (Togo; 
UPW); Kakari (Nepal; NPM); Kalinga (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Kalingada (Kan.; NAD); Kan Kua 
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(China; EFS); Kanteloep (Dutch; EFS); Kavun (Tur.; EFS; EB54:155); Khad (Sen.; UPW); Kharb-a
zeh (Iran; DEP); Kharbuja (Bal.; Hindi; Nepal; DEP; KAB; NPM); Kharmuj (Beng.; DEP); Kha-r
vuja (Sanskrit; DEP); Khurbuj (India; EFS); Khurbuza (Kangra; DEP); Kishuim (Heb.; ZOH); Kua 
(China; EFS); Kurubombonmesengo (Gambia; UPW); Makuwauri (Japan; EFS); Ma-ru-tse (Tibet; 
NPM); Mazarisharif (Afg.; TAN); Melâo (Mad.; Por.; EFS); Melâo Casca de Carvalho (Por.; AVP); 
Melâo de Mesa (Por.; AVP); Meloen (Sur.; AVP); Melon (Den.; Eng.; Fr.; Swe.; AH2; BOU; CR2; 
EFS; NPM); Melón (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Melón Almazaleno (Sp.; AVP); Melón de Castilla (Haiti; 
AVP); Melon d’Espagne (Haiti; AVP); Melone (Ger.; It.; AVP; EFS); Melonegurke (Ger.; NAD); 
Melon France (Haiti; AVP); Melon Musqué (Fr.; Guad.; Mart.; St. Lucia; AVP); Melon Sucré (Fr.; 
EFS); Mikshaw (Heb.; ZOH); Mulampandu (Tel.; DEP); Mulkun Noshi (Korea; TAN); Muskmelon 
(Eng.; AVP; BOU; ZOH); Nashiuri (Japan; TAN); Phut (Nepal; NPM); Popone (It.; AVP); Qawoun 
(Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Quisu Im (Heb.; BI2); Remó (Naga; DEO); Sakkar Teti (India; EFS); 
Sardapaliz (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Senat (Sudan; UPW); Shammam (Arab.; Leb.; Syria; BOU; JNP); 
Shamman (Arab.; Nig.; UPW); Shao Kua (China; EFS); Shima Uri (Japan; TAN); Shiro Uri (Japan; 
TAN); Sirdapaliz (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Small Gourd (Eng.; NPM); Snap Melon (Eng.; NPM); Sweet 
Melon (Eng.; EFS); Tarbucha (Guj.; DEP); Tarbuj (San.; DEP); Tarrsimte (Ber.; BOU); Teng Tai 
(Thai; TAN); T’ien Kua (China; EFS); Turbuch (Guj.; NAD); Urmi (Nepal; NPM); Vaelapalam 
(Tam.; NAD); Velipandu (Tel.; NAD); Vellari Verai (Tam.; DEP); Yaqtin (Arab.; BOU); Yengani 
(Ghana; UPW); Yomba (Sen.; UPW); Yüeh Kua (China; EFS); Zaghun (Lad.; DEP); Zuckermelone 
(Ger.; EFS).
a Ctivities (melo N):
Allergenic (1; X14533664); Antiacne (1; PAM); Antiaging (1; FNF); Antiasthmatic (1; PAM); 
Anticancer (f1: FNF; JNU; PAM); PAM; Antiemetic (f; BIB; LMP); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; JLH; 
X15261965); Antimastitic (1; PAM); Antimutagenic (1; FNF); Antioxidant (1; PAM; X15261965); 
Antiozenic (1; FNF); Antiphotophobic (30–300 mg man/day) (1; M29); AntiPMS (1; JAF34:409); 
Antiporphyric (30–300 mg/man/day) (1; MAR); Antipityriasic (1;PAM); Antiproliferant (1; JNU); 
Antipsoriac (1; PAM); Antistress (1; DAS); Antitussive (f; BOU); Antiulcer (1; PAM); Antivinous 
(f; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; KAB); Cardioprotective (1; FNF); Cardiotonic (f; KAB); Cerebr-o
tonic (f; KAB); Demulcent (f; BIB; EFS; UPW); Digestive (f; BIB; BOU; LMP); Diuretic (f; BIB; 
UPW; WOI); Emetic (f; BIB; BOU; UPW; WBB); Emmenagogue (f; BIB); Emollient (f; WBB); 
Expectorant (f; BIB; BOU); Fungicide (1; UPW; WBB); Immunostimulant (1; FNF; PAM); Insec-
tifuge (f; HJP); Interferon synergist (1; FNF); Lachrymatory (f; BIB; KAB); Lactagogue (f; KAB); 
Laxative (f; KAB); Mucogenic (1; PAM); Phagocytotic (1; PAM); Refrigerant (f; BIB; BOU: DEP); 
Stomachic (f; BIB; EFS; LMP); Taenifuge (f; BIB); Thymoprotective (1; PAM); Tonic (f; BIB); Ver-
mifuge (f; BIB); Vulnerary (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (melo N):
Acne (1; FNF; MAR); Anasarca (f; BIB); Anuria (f; DEP); Apoplexy (f; BIB); Ascites (f; BIB; KAB); 
Biliousness (f; BIB); Bronchosis (f; BIB); Bruise (f; BIB); Burn (f; BIB); Cancer (f; BIB); Cancer, 
bladder (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; BIB; JLH; JNU); Ca-n
cer, uterus (f1; BIB; JNU); Cardiopathy (1; FNF; JNU); Childbirth (f; HJP); Cold (f; BIB); Coryza 
(f; BIB); Cough (f; BIB; BOU); Cystosis (f; FNF; JLH); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Diabetes (f; BIB); Dys-
pepsia (f; BIB); Dysuria (f; BIB; DEP; NPM); Eczema (f; BIB; UPW; WOI); Extravasation (f; BIB); 
Fatigue (f; BIB); Fever (f; BOU); Freckle (f; BIB); Fungus (1; UPW); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gonorrhea 
(f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; BIB; JLH); Hyperkeratosis (1; FNF; PAM; DAS); Ichthyosis (1; FNF); Infec-
tion (1; UPW); Inafl mmation (f1; JLH; X15261965); Insanity (f; KAB); Jaundice (f; BIB; LMP); 
Leukoplakia (1; FNF; PAM); Lupus (1; FNF; MAR); Mastosis (1; FNF); Menorrhagia (f; BIB); 
Mycosis (1; UPW); Nephrosis (f; BIB); Oliguria (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Pityriasis (1; FNF); 
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Photophobia (1; FNF); PMS (1; FNF); Polyp (f; BIB); Porphyria (1; FNF); Prostatosis (f; FAC); Pso-
riasis (1; FNF); Rhinosis (f; BIB); Sore (f; BIB); Sore Throat (f; KAB); Stomatosis (f; BIB); Stress (1; 
FNF); Sunburn (f; BIB); Sunstroke (f; BIB); Thirst (f; KAB); Tumor (f; BIB); Tympanites (f; DEP); 
Ulcer (1; FNF); Uterosis (f; JLH); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Xerophthalmia (1; FNF).
d osages (melo N):
FNFF = !!!
Fruit widely eaten raw, pickled, or baked; seeds eaten raw or toasted, or slurried in fruit juices; or 
the oil is expressed. Roasted charmagaz is a mixture of peeled melon, cucumber, pumpkin, and 
watermelon seed (FAC; TAN; EB54:155); leaves eaten as a relish, vegetable, and in soups (UPW).
• Algerians give floral tea after surgically removing fetus (HJP).
• Asian Indians apply bruised seeds to children with tympanites (DEP).
• Asian Indians suggest fruit, raw or cooked, as lotion in eczema, freckles, and sunburn 
(NAD); one fruit a day for eczema (DEP).
• Asian Indians consider their beverage called burfi good for the prostate (FAC).
• Asian Indians consider the seed oil diuretic (NAD).
• Ayurvedics consider the fruit aphrodisiac, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, and tonic, using it 
for ascites, biliousness, fatigue, and insanity (KAB).
• Chinese suggest the seed for stomach cancer (JLH).
• Lebanese rub fruit pulp on breast and give it to weaning children to suck (HJP).
• Lebanese believe the melon repels bedbugs (HJP).
• Unani, considering the seed diuretic, lachrymatory, and tonic, use for bronchosis, fever, 
hepatosis, nephrosis, ophthalmia, sore throat, thirst; the fruit they consider cardiotonic, 
cerebrotonic, diaphoretic, diuretic, lactagogue, used for dysuria and ophthalmia, the v-ul
nerary rind applied to the hypogastrium as diuretic (KAB).
extra Cts (melo N):
Vouldoukis et al. (2004) proved antioxidant and antiinafl mmatory activities in a melon extract 
selected for its high superoxide dismutase activity. The extract dose dependently inhibited the pr-o
duction of superoxide anion (maximal at 100 µg/ml). The antiinafl mmatory properties of the extract 
were, in part, due to the induction of production of IL-10 by peritoneal macrophages (X15261965). 
Alpha-spinasterol signicafi ntly (circa 1000 x simvastin, a coenzyme-A inhibitor) modulates devel-
opment and/or progression of diabetic nephropathy. It reduced signicafi ntly attendant increases in 
serum triglycerides, renal weight, and urinary protein excretion in diabetic mice (X15326549).
CUCUMBeR (c ucumis s Ativus L.) ++ CUCURBIt ACeAe
Notes (Cu Cumber ):
And the daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers, 
as a besieged city.
Isaiah 1:8 (KJV)
And the daughter of Zion is left like a booth in a vineyard, like a lodge in a cucumber field, like 
a besieged city.
Isaiah 1:8 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Cucumber (Cucumis sativus).
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
And the daughter of Zion has been left remaining like a booth in a vineyard, like a lookout hut in 
a field of cucumbers, like a blockaded city.
Isaiah 1:8 (NWT)
Cucumber is mentioned only three times in the Bible, twice as a garden of cucumbers. And all three 
versions in my trilogy concur with cucumber. Zohary reminds us, rightly or wrongly, that garden 
cucumbers did not exist in Egypt in biblical times. And the lodges or lookout huts in the cucumber 
efi lds were booths of twigs or mats used then, and now, to guard against theft. But Zohary main-
tains that the huts were in melon efi lds rather than in cucumber efi lds. I would certainly guard my 
cantaloupes and watermelons more than cucumbers, although they are all pleasingly cool and juicy 
in hot arid climates. In case Zohary is wrong, perhaps highly unlikely, I will retain the prolic fi
cucumber in my garden, hoping to prevent the wrinkles generated by these preplexing historical 
puzzles. Like many cultivated, multiple-variety members of the pumpkin family, it has a whole host 
of common names around the world. The USDA database listed only cucumber, gherkin concombre 
(Fr.; USN); cornichon (Fr.; USN); Gurke (Ger.; USN); khira (India; USN); pepino (Por.; Sp.; USN); 
and cohombro (Sp.). But the USDA website links one to the much more extensive index of common 
names, which I have copied below (those followed by POR are abbreviations for citations from 
Porcher (porcher@landfood.unimelb.edu.au). Cucumber soap is said to be especially benecfi ial for 
windburn. Cucumber juice is said to kill cockroaches, repelling sfi h moths and wood lice. Even the 
strewing of the green peel on the floor at night is effective (BIB).
Commo N Names (Cu Cumber ):
Aggouria (Greek; DEP); Agurk (Den.; AVP; EFS; POR); Agurka (Bohemia; DEP); Airelu Kankro 
(Nepal; POR); Alpicoz (Sp.; EFS); Asare Kankro (Nepal; POR); Augurk (Dutch; EFS); Bahuphala 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Bakritaear (Mun.; KAB); Bazarula (Arab.; EFS; NAD); Betbinho (Guinea-Bissau; 
UPW); Bi Bai (Ic.; KAB); Bonteng (Sunda; IHB; POR); Cabul (Vis.; KAB); Calavaya (Vis.; KAB); 
Castravete (Rom.; KAB); Cedriuolo (It.; KAB); Cetrinolo (It.; AVP); Cetriola (It.; EFS); Cetriolo 
(It.; KAB; POR); Cetriuolo (It.; KAB); Chaja (Kalmuck; DEP); Chiar (Arab.; DEP); Citriuolo (It.; 
KAB); Cocombre (Haiti; AVP); Cocombro (Por.; AVP); Cocomero (It.; EFS); Cogombre (Cat.; 
KAB); Cohombro (Sp.; AVP; RAR; USN); Concombre (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS; TAN); Concombre 
Commun (Fr.; KAB); Concombre Cultive (Fr.; KAB); Concombre Ordinaire (Fr.; AVP); Concom -
bre Vrai (Fr.; AVP); Cornichon (Fr.; EFS; USN); Cucumber (Eng.; NPM); Dib (Hmong; EB57:365); 
Dlib (Hmong; EB57:365); Dobba (Malaya; IHB); Dosakaya (Tel.; WOI); Dosekaya (Tel.; NAD); 
Dozakaya (Tel.; KAB); Dua Chuot (Ic.; KAB); Dua Gang (Ic.; KAB); Dureagurk (Den.; EFS); 
Entimum (Malaya; IHB); Faggus (Arab.; Mali; UPW); Gemeine Gurke (Ger.; AVP; TAN); Gherkin 
(Eng.; EFS); Gnyo (Magar; NPM); Gros Concombre (Fr.; AVP); Gurka (Swe.; AVP; EFS; KAB); 
Gurke (Ger.; DEP; USN); Haswey (Dho.; Omar; Saudi; GHA); Hiyar (Tur.; EFS); Ho qua (Ic.; KAB); 
Hoang Qua (Ic.; KAB); Huang Gua (China; POR); Huang Kua (China; DAA; EFS); Huang Kwa 
(Canton; POR), Hu Kua (China; EFS); Kakari (Guj.; KAB); Kakdi (Hindi; Mah.; NAD; POR); Ka- k
kari (Mal.; NAD); Kaknai (Orissa; KAB); Kakri (Bom.; Hindi; Nepal; Simla; POR; SKJ); Kak-ri
kai (Tam.; WOI); Kakro (Nepal; POR); Kalabaga (Vis.; POR); Kandalu (Sanskrit; KAB); Kankdi 
(Guj.; KAB); Kankri (Bom.; Dec.; Guj.; Hindi; NAD); Kankro (Nepal; NPM; SUW); Kankur karkti 
(India; EFS); Kantakilaki (Sanskrit; KAB); Kantakiphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Karan (Arm.; DEP); 
Katiman (Java; IHB); Katimun (Sunda; IHB); Ketimun (Indonesia; POR); Kheyar (Arab.; GHA); 
Khiar (Tur.; AVP); Khira (Beng.; Hindi; India; Mar.; NAD; USN; WOI); Khiyar (Iran; EFS); Kiar 
(Tartar; DEP); Kira (India; EFS); Kokomba (Ghana; UPW); Komkommer (Dutch; POR); Konkom-
mer (Dutch; EFS); Koshaphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Krastavat (Slav.; DEP); Krastave (Slav.; AVP); 
Kratsavets (Albania; DEP); Kumba (Sierra Leone; UPW); Kunkummer (Ger.; KAB); Kurkku (Fin.; 
POR) Kusud (Arab.; EFS); Kyu Uri (Japan; POR); Kyuri (Japan; TAN); Langlai (Tamang; NPM); 
Lathai (Gurung; NPM); Machicho (Par.; AVP); Melon Alon (Sp.; AVP); Mentimun (Java; POR); 
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Moro Kyu (Japan; POR); Mullanvellari (Tam.; NAD); Mullusavte (Kan.; NAD); Mulluvellari (Tam.; 
NAD); Mutrulla Sookasa (Sanskrit; EFS); Ngurli (Nig.; UPW); Ogorek (Pol.; KAB); Oguretz (Rus.; 
KAB); Oh Ee (Korea; POR); Oi (Korea; POR); Penpininho (Por.; EFS); Pepineiro (Por.; KAB); 
Pepinillo (Sp.; Peru; EFS; EGG); Pepino (Cuba; Mad.; Peru; Por.; Sp.; EGG; RAR; RyM); Pepino 
de Castilla (Sp.; RAR); Pipingha (Sin. POR); Pipingkai. (Sin.; KAB; POR); Pipingkay (Sin.; Tam.; 
KAB); Pipino (Tag.; POR); Pipinya (Sing.; POR); Pitapushpa (Sanskrit; KAB); Qing Gua (Canton; 
POR); Quishooaim (Heb.; KAB); Qitha Bostany (Arab.; AVP); Qitsa (Arab.; AVP); Sakusa (Sa-n
skrit; EFS; NAD); Salatagurk (Den.; EFS); Salatalik (Tur.; EB54:155); Santekayi (Kan.; KAB); Sasa 
(Beng.; KAB; NAD); Sautekayi (Kan.; NAD); Setimun (Sakai; IHB); Shiyarekhurd (Iran; KAB); 
Sikua (Greek; DEP); Sikuos (Greek; DEP); Sikya (Greek; KAB); Sma Gurka (Swe.; EFS); Sud-
havasa (Sanskrit; KAB); Sukasa (Sanskrit; NAD; SKJ); Sushitala (Sanskrit; KAB); Taear (Munari; 
KAB); Taeng Kwaa (Thai; POR); Taeng Om (Thai; POR), Taeng Raan (Thai; POR); Tansali (Guj.; 
KAB); Tavas (Mar.; NAD); Tavase (Mar.; KAB); Tèèng (Laos; POR); Teng Kwa (Thai; IHB); Teng 
Ran (Thai; IHB); Thagwa (Burma; KAB); Thakhwa (Burma; POR); Thakhwathee (Burma; KAB); 
Tihu (Hindi; POR); Timun (Java; Malaya; Sunda; IHB; POR); Timun China (Malaya; IHB); Tolo-m
bro (Por.; AVP); Touxem (Kon.; KAB); Tovxini (Kon.; KAB); Towshay (Kon.; NAD); Trapukarkati 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Trapusha (Sanskrit; NAD); Tra sac (Ic.; KAB); Trâsâk (Khmer; POR); Tseng 
Kwa (China; POR); Tukhmi Khiyarain (India; DEP); Tundilaphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Uborka (Hun.; 
KAB); Uggurits (Estonia; DEP); Ukkurits (Estonia; DEP); Urits (Estonia; DEP); Vellari (Madras; 
KAB); Vellarikkai (Tam.; SKJ; WOI); Voantangombazaha (Guj.; KAB).
a Ctivities (Cu Cumber ):
Anthelmintic (f; KAB; UPW); Antiinafl mmatory (f; EGG; KAB); Antiseptic (1; X15151242); Bac -
tericide (1; X15151242); Demulcent (f; GHA; NAD; SUW); Diuretic (f; DEP; GHA; NAD; SUW); 
Emetic (f; DAA; GHA); Febrifuge (f; NAD); Insectifuge (f; DAA; UPW); Insecticide (f; UPW); 
Proteolytic (1; KAB); Purgative (f; DAA; GHA); Tonic (f; SUW); Vermifuge (f; EFS; GHA).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cu Cumber ):
Bacillus (1; X15151242); Bacteria (1; X15151242); Beri-beri (f; DAA); Biliousness (f; KAB); Burn (f; 
DAA); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); 
Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Condyloma (f; JLH); Cystosis (f; JLH; NAD); Dermatosis (f; DAA; KAB); 
Dysentery (f; IHB); Dysuria (f; GHA; NAD); Enterosis (f; GHA; JLH); Escherichia (1; X15151242); 
Fever (f; NAD); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; X15151242); 
Inafl mmation (f; EGG; NAD); Listeria (1; X15151242); Malaria (f; NAD); Ophthalmia (f; EGG); 
Salmonella (1; X15151242); Spermatorrhea (f; NAD); Scald (f; DAA); Sore Throat (f; UPW); Sprue 
(f; IHB); Strangury (f; NAD); Sunstroke (f; DEP; NAD); Swelling (f; DAA); Tapeworm (f; GHA); 
Throat (f; DEP; NAD); Tumor (f; JLH); Wart (f; JLH); Urethrosis (f; NAD); Worm (f; DAA; UPW).
d osages (Cu Cumber ):
FNFF = !!!
Fruits widely eaten raw or pickled, oil-roasted, stewed, stuffed, or wrapped in banana leaves and 
baked; pickles in rice bran essential in Japanese diet; seed edible; young leaves and stems eaten as 
potherb (FAC; NPM; TAN; EB54:155).
• Africans report that the juice repels sfi h moths and woodlice; and that peelings left on the 
ofl or overnight will kill cockroaches that eat them in three or four nights (UPW).
• Arabians use fruit pulp to soothe and whiten the skin (GHA).
• Ayurvedics consider the fruit aphrodisiac, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, and tonic, using it 
for ascites, biliousness, fatigue, and insanity (KAB).
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• Indochinese suggest candied cucumber in children’s dysentery (BIB).
• Indonesians suggest fruit or its juice for gallstones and sprue (BIB).
• Koreans make cucumber salves for burns, scalds, and skin disorders (BIB).
• Lebanese mix the sap that oozes from scraped cucumber skin with yogurt to treat cold 
sores (HJP).
• Lebanese believe that cucumbers prevent colds (HJP).
• Lebanese use a favorite saladl, aban (cucumbers and yogurt), to soften skin, dispel acne, 
smooth rash, and heal sunburn (HJP).
• Madagascans use the fruit as an anthelmintic, a use showing up in many cultures (KAB).
• Peruvians apply sliced cucumber to eye problems and inafl mmation (EGG).
• Unani, considering the seed diuretic, lachrymatory, and tonic, use it for bronchosis, 
fever, hepatosis, nephrosis, ophthalmia, sore throat, and thirst; the fruit they consider 
cardiotonic, cerebrotonic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and lactagogue; used for dysuria and -oph
thalmia; the vulnerary rind is applied to the hypogastrium as diuretic (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Cu Cumber ):
Like other members of the cucurbit family, this also contains cucurbitacins.
extra Cts (Cu Cumber ):
Buescher et al. (2004) showed that two cucumber volatiles (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal and (E)-2-no-n
enal could inactivate or weaken bacterial pathogens Ba( cillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Listeria 
monocytogenes (but weakly), Salmonella typhimurium) (at 250 and 500 ppm) (X15151242). Alpha-
spinasterol signicafi ntly (circa 1000 x simvastin, a coenzyme-A inhibitor) modulates development 
and/or progression of diabetic nephropathy. It reduced signicafi ntly attendant increases in serum 
triglycerides, renal weight, and urinary protein excretion in diabetic mice (X15326549).
CUMIN (c uminum cyminum L.) +++ ApIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cuminia cyminum J. F. Gmel.; Cuminum hispanicum Bunge; Cuminum odorum Salisb.; Ligusticum 
cuminum (L.) Crantz
Notes (Cumi N):
Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin, 
and have omitted the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith: these ought ye to 
have done, and not to leave the other undone.
Matthew 23:23 (KJV)
Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin, and 
have omitted the weightier matters of the law, judgment, mercy, and faith: these ought ye to have done, 
and not to leave the other undone. Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel.
Matthew 23:23- 4 (KJV)
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for you tithe mint and dill and cummin, and have 
neglected the weightier matters of the law, justice and mercy and faith; these you ought to have done, 
without neglecting the others. You blind guides, straining out a gnat and swallowing a camel.
Matthew 23:23- 4 (RSV)
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Cumin (Cuminum cyminum).
Woe to you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! because you give the tenth of the mint and the dill 
and the cumin, but you have disregarded the weightier matters of the Law, namely justice and 
mercy and faithfulness, These things it was binding to do, yet not to disregard the other things. 
Blind guides, who strain out the gnat but gulp down the camel.
Matthew 23:23- 4 (NWT)
Search the KJV electronically for cumin and you will not nfi d it. In that version of the Bible, it is spelled 
“cummin.” Zohary comments that the plant is undoubtedly native to the Middle East, but so long cult-i
vated that it has not been positively identiefi d in the wild state (ZOH). However, all three versions above 
seem to agree on the cumin and the mint, such that I condfi ently include them in my biblical garden. In 
biblical times, cumin was used as a medicine and an appetite stimulant. Philips notes that cuminC (umi-
num) was the materia medica of the ancient world, almost paralleling black cumin’sN (igella) role in the 
Muslim world as the medicine for every disease except death. Among Mediterranean people, they used to 
speak of “cummin-splitters,” or avaricious individuals perhaps more greedy than today’s hair splitters.
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Commo N Names (Cumi N):
Acham (Ber.; BOU); Ajaji (Sanskrit; DEP; EFS; KAB); Ajajika (Sanskrit; KAB); Anis Aigre (Fr.; 
KAB); Anis Faux (Fr.; KAB); Anisacre (Fr.; KAB; NAD); Azkar (Ber.; BOU); Borsos Kömény 
(Hun.; POR); Camon (Heb.; POR); Camon Tarbuti (Heb.; POR); Carvi (It.; EFS); Cheerakum (Mal.; 
NAD); Chemmun (Malta; KAB); Chimen (Roumanian; KAB); Cimino (It.; KAB); Cimonagero 
(It.; KAB); Cominho (Por.; TAD; USN); Cominhos (Por.; EFS; KAB); Comino (It.; Peru; Sp.; CR2; 
EGG; KAB; TAD; VAD); Comino Blanco (Sp.; POR); Comino Comun (Malta; Sp.; EFS; KAB); 
Comino Fino (Sp.; EFS); Cominos (Ma.; JFM); Cumi (Cat.; KAB); Cumin (Eng.; Fr.; Malta; Scn.; 
AH2; BOU; CR2; EFS; KAB; TAD); Cumin de Malte (Fr.; USN); Cumin du Maroc (Fr.; POR); 
Cumin Ofcfi inal (Fr.; KAB); Cuminho (Ma.; JFM); Cumino (It.; EFS; KAB); Cummin (Eng.; 
Malta; EFS; KAB); Dipaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Dipya (Sanskrit; KAB); Dipyaka (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Dirghaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Dirghakana (Sanskrit; KAB); Duru (Sin.; KAB); Egyiptomi Kömény 
(Hun.; POR); Faux Anis (Fr.; KAB); Gee (Nepal), Go-snyod (Tibet; NPM); Guarajaji (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Guarajiraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Hime Unikyoo (Japan; POR); Hrasvanga (Sanskit; NAD); 
Ichammen (Ber.; BOU); Ichoumane (Ber.; BOU); Jarana (Sanskrit; KAB); Jeelakara (Tel.; NAD); 
Jeera (Kon.; Mah.; Nepal; NAD; SUW); Jeeraka (Sanskrit NAD); Jeerakam (Mal.; POR); Jeerigay 
(Kan.; NAD; POR); Jeerige (Tel.; WOI); Ji (Newari; NPM); Jilakara (Tel.; WOI); Jilakarra (Tel.; 
POR); Jintan (Dei.; POR); Jintan Puteh (Malaya; EFS; POR); Jintan Putih (Dei.; POR); Jinten (Dei.; 
Java; POR); Jinten Bodas (Sunda.; IHB); Jinten Puteh (Java; IHB); Jinten Putih (Indonesia; POR); 
Jira (Beng.; Bhojpuri; Chepang; Danuwar; Magar; Nepal; Sunwar; DEP; KAB; NPM); Jirah (Urdu; 
KAB); Jiraj (Beng.; Kan.; Hindi; Sanskrit; KAB; WOI); Jiraka (Ayu.; Sanskrit; Tel.; AH2; DEP; 
KAB; WOI); Jirakam (Mal.; KAB); Jirana (Sanskrit; KAB); Jirautmi (Guj.; DEP; KAB); Jirna 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Jiregire (Mar.; KAB; WOI); Jiringe (Kan.; KAB); Jiro (Rai; NPM); Jiru (Guj.; 
DEP; KAB); Jorekam (Mal.; WOI); Jyajyurakat (Lepcha; NPM); Kamon (Heb.; KAB; ZOH); Kam-
mon (Arab.; Heb.; BI2; EFS; POR; TAD); Kammûn (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kammun Abiad (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Kamon (Heb.; POR); Kamun (Arab.; Egypt; Morocco; EFS; KAB; TAD); Kamuna 
(Arab.; Sanskrit; KAB; WOI); Kana (Sanskrit; KAB); Kanajira (Sanskrit; KAB); Kanavha (S-an
skrit; KAB); Kemmoun (Arab.; BI2; BOU); Kemum (Accadian; ZOH); Kemun (Arab.; Syria; 
KAB; ZOH); Kimion (Arm.; POR); Kimoon (Arab.; GHA); Kimyon (Tur.; EFS); Kloeftsvoeb 
(Den.; POR); Kmin (Rus.; Pol.; POR; TAD); Kmin Tminovyj (Rus.; POR); Kmin Tminovyi (Rus.; 
POR); Kminek (Pol.; POR); Komijn (Dutch; EFS; POR; TAD); Kommoon (Malta; KAB); Komyn 
(Dutch; KAB); Kreuzkuemmel (Ger.; KAB); Kreuzkümmel (Ger.; EFS; TAD; USN); Kumel (Ger.; 
HIL); Kumin (Japan; TAD); Kumin Rimskii (Rus.; POR); Kumin Tminovyi (Rus.; POR); Kumina 
(Fin.; POR); Kuminmag (Hun.; POR); Kumyn (Dutch; KAB); Kunchika (Sanskrit; EFS); Kyminon 
(Greek; KAB; POR); Kyminos (Greek; KAB); Ma-Ch’in (China; Khmer; POR; TAD); Magadha 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Maruk (Limbu; NPM); Maustekumina (Fin.; POR); Mitadipya (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Mitajaji (Sanskrit; KAB); Mohrenkummel (Ger.; EFS); Mutterkuemmel (Ger.; KAB); Mutterkum -
mel (Ger.; EFS); Ou Shi Luo (China; POR); Pepparkummin (Swe.; POR); Ravamuna (Arab.; KAB); 
Rimskiy Tmin (Russian; KAB); Roemischerkuemmel (Ger.; KAB); Római Kömény (Hun.; POR); 
Roman Caraway (Eng.; POR); Romersk Kommen (Den.; EFS); Romerks Kummin (Swe.; POR); 
Romischer Kummel (Ger.; EFS; TAD); Safed Jeera (Beng.; Hindi; India; EFS; NAD); Safed Jiraun 
(Guj.; NAD); Sanoot (Arab.; GHA); Sannût (Arab.; Syria; HJP; POR); Seerugam (Tam.; KAM); 
Shiagira (Beng.; Hindi; NAD); Shimai Shombu (Tam.; NAD); Shiragam (Tam.; DEP; KAM); Sira-
gam (Tam.; WOI); Spidskommen (Den.; POR); Spiskummin (Swe.; POR; TAD); Spisskarve (Nor.; 
POR); Spisskummen (Nor.; POR); Sududuru (Sin.; DEP; KAB; POR); Thian-Khao (Thai; POR); 
Thien Khaw (Laos; POR); Vahmisakha (Sanskrit; KAB); Venidischer Kummel (Ger.; NAD); Vit 
Kummin (Swe.; POR); Weißer Kreuzkümmel (Ger.; POR); Yee Raa (Thai; POR); Zeera (Hindi; 
Iran; Urdu; EFS; POR; WOI); Zero (Sind; DEP; KAB; NAD); Zira (Hindi; Iran; Urdu; DEP; EFS; 
KAB; NAD; POR; WOI); Ziraa (Urdu; POR); Zi Ran Qin (China; POR); Zireh (Iran; POR); Ziya 
(Burma; DEP; KAB; POR).
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a Ctivities (Cumi N):
Abortifacient (f; BIB; PH2); Aldose-Reductase Inhibitor (1/2 quercitrin) (1; X15796577); Alpha-
Glucosidase Inhibitor (circa 1/2 acarbose) (1; X15796577); Analgesic (f; HJP); Anesthetic (f1; BIB); 
Anodyne (f1; BIB; DEP; PHR; PH2); Anthelmintic (f; BIB; KAB; VAD); Antiaggregant (1; PHR; 
PH2); Antibilious (f; BIB); Antidiabetic (1; X15796577); Antidote (f; BIB); Antifertility (1; PHR; 
PH2; JAC7:405); Antihyperglycemic (1; JAC7:405; X8569244); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; BIB); Anti -
oxidant (1; BIB; LAF; X15364640); Antiseptic (1; BIB; PH2); Antispasmodic (f; BIB; EFS; PHR; 
PH2); Antitumor (f1; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; HHB; KAB; PH2); Apoptotic (1; X10675556); 
Astringent (f; DEP; JFM; SUW; WOI); Bactericide (1; BIB; LAF; X10548758); Candidicide (1; 
HH2); Carminative (f1; DEP; EFS; NPM; PH2; SUW; VAD); Chemopreventive (1; JAC7:405); 
Decongestant (f; JFM); Diaphoretic (1; BIB); Digestive (f; EFS; VAD); Diuretic (f; BIB; HHB; JFM; 
PH2); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; BOU; EFS; PH2); Estrogenic (1; HH2; PHR; PH2; VAD); Fungicide 
(1; PHR; PH2); Glutathiogenic (1; JAC7:405); Hypoglycemic (1; JAC7:405; X8569244); Lactogogue 
(f; BOU; EFS; HHB; JFM; KAP; NMH; PH2); Larvicide (1; BIB; HH2); Mutagenic (f1; BIB; PH2; 
X14531636); Orexigenic (f; BIB; VAD); Photodermatitic (1; LAF); Secretagogue (1; X10812814); 
Sedative (f; VAD); Stimulant (f; DEP; EFS; NPM; PH2; SUW); Stomachic (f; BIB; BOU; DEP; 
EFS; SUW); Sudoric fi (f; BIB; BOU; EFS); Tonic (f; BIB); Uterocontractant (f; GHA); Uterotonic 
(f; KAB); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cumi N):
Adenoma (1; X16608205); Adenopathy (f1; JLH; X16608205); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Amen-
orrhea (f1; BOU; HH2; VAD); Anorexia (f; BIB; VAD); Asthma (f; BIB); Atherosclerosis (1; COX; 
FNF; X16608205); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (1; X10548758; X15934015; X15631509); 
Bite (f; DEP); Boil (f; BIB; KAB); Cancer (f1; JLH; JAC7:405; X16608205); Cancer, abdomen 
(f1; JLH; JAC7:405); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH; JAC7:405; X16608205); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); Ca-n
cer, esophagus (f1; JAC7:405); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, pancreas (f1; JNU); Cancer, spleen 
(f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; JLH; JAC7:405); Cancer, testes (f; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; JLH); 
Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, uvula (f; JLH); Candida (1; HH2); Cardiopathy (f1; BIB; HJP; 
X16608205); Childbirth (f; HJP); Chills (f; BIB); Cholera (1; HH2); Cold (f; BIB; BOU); Colic (f; 
BOU; BIB; EGG; GHA; PHR; PH2); Condylomata (f; BIB; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; BIB); Constipa-
tion (f; BIB); Consumption (f; BIB); Corn (f; BIB; JLH); Corneal Opacities (f; BIB; KAB); Cough 
(f; BIB); Cramps (f; BIB; BOU); Debility (f; NAD); Dermatosis (1; BIB; JAR12:83); Diabetes (1; 
JAC7:405; X8569244); Diarrhea (f; BIB; GHA; PHR; PH2; SUW; WOI); Diuretic (f; JFM); Dys-
entery (f1; BIB; HH2); Dyslactea (f; BOU; NAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; VAD); Dyspepsia (f; BIB; 
DEP; EGG; SUW; WOI); Dysuria (f; JFM); Enterosis (f; JLH; VAD); Epilepsy (1; X16226415); 
Epistaxis (f; BIB; GHA); Escherichia (1; X10548758); Esophagosis (1; JAC7:405); Fever (f; BIB); 
Flu (f; BIB); Fungus (1; PH2); Gas (f; BIB; JFM; PH2); Gastrosis (f1; PH2; JAC7:405); Gonorrhea (f; 
BIB; DEP; KAB; NAD); Headache (f; BIB; PHR; PH2); Helicobacter (1; X15934015); Hematoche-
zia (f; PH2); Hemoptysis (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f1; BIB; JLH; JAC7:405; X16106395); Hiccup (f; BIB; 
KAB; NAD); Hoarseness (f; NAD); Hypothermia (f; BOU); Hysteria (f; BOU); Impotence (f; BIB; 
GHA; NAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; PH2); Inafl mmation (f1; BIB; X16608205); Klebsi -
ella (1; HH2); Leprosy (f; BIB; KAB; PH2); Leukemia (1; X10675556); Leukoderma (f; BIB; KAB); 
Leukorrhea (f; NAD); Mastosis (f; SKJ); Microsporum (1; JAR12:83); Mycosis (1; PH2); Obesity (1; 
X16106395); Ophthalmia (f; PH2); Orchosis (f; JLH; JFM); Pain (f; BIB; DEP; HJP; PH2); Palpita-
tion (f; BIB); Parasite (f; VAD); Parotitis (f; BIB; BOU; JLH); Puerperium (f; BIB); Rheumatism (f; 
PHR); Salmonella (1; HH2); Scabies (f; BIB; KAB); Sclerosis (f; BIB; JLH); Scorpion Sting (f; BIB); 
Shigella (1; HH2); Snakebite (f; SUW); Sore (f; BIB; KAB); Spasm (f; BIB; VAD); Splenomegaly 
(f; BIB; KAB); Splenosis (f; JLH; KAB); Staphylococcus (1; HH2); Stomachache (f; BIB); Stone 
(f; PH2); Streptococcus (1; HH2); Sty (f; BIB); Syncope (f; BIB); Swelling (f; SKJ); Tachycardia 
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(f; BIB); Tumor (f; BIB); Ulcer (f1; BIB; X15934015); Uterosis (f; BIB; JLH); Venereal Disease (f; 
JLH); Vibrio (1; HH2); Wart (f; BIB; JLH); Whitlow (f; BIB; JLH); Worm (f; BIB; KAB); Yeast (1; 
X10548758).
d osages (Cumi N):
FNFF = !!!
The spice seed cumin is crushed and mixed with foods, for example, in biblical times, with sfi h and 
meat, especially stews. Egyptians sprinkled the seeds on bread and cakes. Today the seeds afl vor 
breads, cheeses, chutney, meat, pickles, rice, sauerkraut, sausage, and soups. Essential oil used in 
liqueurs and perfumes (BIB; FAC; TAN); 300–600 mg (HHB); 0.06–0.2 ml EO (HHB; HH2). 5–10 
fruits (PHR); “300 to 600 gm” (PHR) (I am sure they did not mean that; that is, 1 to 2 pounds, close 
to a lethal dose, I would think). Corrected in PH2 to 300–600 mg (=5–10 fruit).
• Algerians use cumin for colic and dyspepsia, with butter for coughs and colds (HJP).
• Ancient Assyrians suggested cumin with garlic for constipation and gas (BIB).
• Arabs take oil of cumin as an aphrodisiac, mixed with honey and pimento, taken 
3 ×/day (BIB).
• Arabians drink decoction of ground lime and cumin seed for colic (GHA).
• Arabians steep leaves in vinegar; boil in water; drink warm for diarrhea (GHA).
• Arabians stuff ground seed with vinegar in nose to stop bleeding (GHA).
• Asian Indians smoke seeds coated with ghee in a pipe to relieve hiccup (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest seeds with lime juice for pregnant ladies with bilious nausea (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest 10 to 30 grains seed, even in food, for diarrhea, dyspepsia, gon-or
rhea, and hoarseness (NAD).
• Ayurvedics consider the fruit aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, and aIexipharmic, using it for 
belching, biliousness, consumption, dysentery, eye diseases, fever, leprosy, leucoderma, 
scorpion stings, and tumors (BIB).
• Ethiopians apply pounded leaves to skin disorders (BIB).
• Iranians suggest the seeds as analgesic for pain following childbirth (HJP).
• Iraqis and Iranians use as carminative (HJP).
• Lebanese use seed oil, with or without orange ofl wer water, for cramps, syncope, and 
tachycardia (HJP).
• North Africans poultice the seeds on the nape of the neck for mumps (BIB).
• Peruvians suggest the carminative seed tea for dyspepsia and infants with colic (EGG).
• Shi’ites cook it with kibi to prevent gas (HJP).
• Unani use the fruit for asthma, boils, corneal opacities, epistaxis, gonorrhea, hemoptysis, 
hiccup, inafl mmation, scabies, splenomegaly, styes, and ulcers, considering it abortifa-
cient, astringent, carminative, emmenagogue, and vulnerary (KAB).
• Yemeni use seeds in aphrodisiac and uterocontractant preparations (GHA).
d ow Nsides (Cumi N):
AHP Class 1. None noted (PHR). “Health hazards or side effects following the proper administr-a
tion of designated therapeutic dosages are not known” (PH2). “A very weak oxidative mutagenic 
action has been revealed by cumin” (X14531636). Spaniards (VAD) are more cautious but it may 
be generic for essential oils. Except for speciefi d VAD indications, not for pregnant nor lactating 
women; not for not children less than 6 years old. Not for patients with Crohn’s, epilepsy, gastritis, 
hepatosis, IBS, neuroses, Parkinson’s, and ulcers. There is a canned contraindication that could 
apply to every herb: “Do not prescribe alcoholic tinctures to recovering alcoholics” (VAD).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
extra Cts (Cumi N):
Could the biblical cumin have prevented the diabetes in those 300 million people worldwide who 
have it; a leading cause of amputation, blindness, heart attack, and kidney failure among adults? 
Lee (2005) establishes that cuminaldehyde inhibits aldose reductase (IC50 = 0.85 µg/ml) and alpha-
glucosidase (IC50 = 500 µg/ml). Lee (2005) optimistically champions cuminaldehyde for its antid-i
abetic potential (X15796577). Cuminaldehyde was half as powerful at inhibiting alpha-glucosidase 
as acarbose and quercetin and could serve as an antidiabetic (X15796577).
It ALIAN CypRess ( c upressus sempervirens L.) ++ CUpRess ACeAe
Notes (italia N Cypress ):
He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak, which he strengtheneth for 
himself among the trees of the forest: he planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it.
Isaiah 44:14 (KJV)
Zohary (1982) notes that biblical berosh occurs more than 30 times in the Scriptures, but thinks of it 
as a collective term, meaning merely conifers with scale-like rather than needle-like leaves. He lists 
Abies cilicica, Cupressus sempervirens, and Juniperus excelsa as candidates for the word berosh. 
He interpreted it to mean coniferous trees with small scale-like or short linear leaves. He concludes 
that berosh is a collective name for all three. Amazingly, on page 120 of his excellent book, he ide-n
tiefi d ash in the HJV quote above as laurel (Laurus nobilis). The colloquial taxonomic names are so 
different in the RSV that I quote here Zohary’s quote of the RSV: 
He cuts down cedars; or he chooses a holm tree or an oak and lets it grow strong among the trees 
of the forest; he plants a cedar and the rain nourishes it.
Note that the RSV says cedar, the KJV says ash. Perhaps this is not so amazing; there are many sup-ra
specicfi and suprageneric terms in the United States, such as scrub oaks and conifer, respectively. The 
latter embraces more kinds of gymnosperms than Zohary’s berosh. The cypress was an important 
biblical timber tree, used by the Egyptians for coffins in olden times, and in Greece more recently. 
The doors of St. Peter’s in Rome and the gates of Constantinople, made of cypress, both survived more 
than 1000 years. Its timbers were used for house building, ship building (even the ark), and musical 
instruments. David and all the house of Israel played on musical instruments made of cypress (BIB). 
Oil of cypress is a valuable perfume ingredient, providing ambergris- and ladanum-like odors. The 
trees are often planted as ornamentals in cemeteries, gardens, and parks. The Island of Cyprus, where 
the tree was once worshipped, derives its name from the cypress. Regarded as antiseptic, astringent, 
diuretic, expectorant, pectoral, styptic, sudoricfi , vasoconstrictor, vermifuge, and vulnerary, cypress is 
used in folk remedies for cancer or tumors of the eyes, nose, breast, tests, uterus, and indurations of the 
liver, spleen, stomach, and testicles. In Palestine, the oil derived from the leaves was used for whoo-p
ing cough. Lebanese use for cough, dyspepsia, hiccup, inafl mmation, and ulcers. The berries serve in a 
cough syrup. Mashed berries are applied to lesions. Algerians ate stewed fruits for dyspepsia. In India, 
the fruits are described as “an aromatic stimulant” in piles. The cone has been used for bronchitis, 
cough, diarrhea, enuresis, fever, hemorrhage, and hemorrhoids (BIB).
Commo N Names (italia N Cypress ):
Arella (Ber.; BOU); Bestana (Arab.; BOU); Chiparos (Rom.; KAB); Churam (Mal.; KAB); Ciprés 
(Cuba; Peru; Sp.; EGG; KAB; RyM); Ciprés Común (Sp.; USN); Ciprés italiano (Sp.; USN); Cipresso 
(It.; KAB); Cyprès (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Cyprès Commun (Fr.; BOU; USN); Cyprès d’Italie (Fr.; USN); 
Cyprès Pyramidal (Fr.; KAB); Cypress (Eng.; Swe.; BOU; CR2; KAB); Cypresseboom (Dutch; KAB); 
Cypreste (Por.; KAB); Echte Zypresse (Ger.; USN); Evergreen Cypress (Eng.; BOU; HJP); Farash 
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FIGURe . Italian Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens).
(Sin.; KAB); Hayat (Arab.; BOU); Italian Cypress (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Italienische Zypresse (Ger.; 
USN); Kyparis (Rus.; KAB); Kyparissi (Greek; KAB); Kyparissios (Greek; KAB); Mediterranean 
Cypress (Eng.; CR2; USN; VOD); Sara (Hindi; Nwp.; KAB); Sa’ed (Arab.; BOU); Saras (Hindi; Nwp.; 
KAB); Saru (Arab.; Hindi; Syria; HJP; KAB); Saruboke (Mar.; KAB); Sarw (Arab.; BOU); Serwal 
(Arab.; BOU); Shagaret el Hayat (Arab.; BOU); Sharbin (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sipré (Creole; Haiti; VOD); 
Surahva (Sanskrit; KAB); Suram (Tam.; KAB); Tiddi (Ber.; BOU); Zipressenbaum (Ger.; KAB).
a Ctivities (italia N Cypress ):
Anthelmintic (f; KAB; WOI); Antielastase (1; X7884634); Antiseptic (f; EFS); Astringent (f1; BOU; 
HHB; KAB); Diuretic (f; BOU; EFS); Expectorant (f1; BOU; EFS; PH2); Febrifuge (f; BOU); Hemo-
stat (f; EFS); Insectifuge (f; WOI); Pectoral (f; EFS); Sedative (f; BOU); Stimulant (f; KAB); Sudoric fi
(f; BOU; EFS); Tonic (f; BOU); Vasoconstrictor (f; EFS); Vermifuge (f; VOD); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (italia N Cypress ):
Abortion (f; BIB); Bleeding (f; BOU; EFS; VOD); Bronchosis (f; BOU; HHB; PH2); Cancer, breast 
(f; JLH); Cancer, eye (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, nose (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; 
JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testes (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cold (f; PH2); 
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Convulsion (f; VOD); Cough (f; BOU; PH2; VOD); Diabetes (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f1; BOU; HHB; 
VOD); Dyspepsia (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; HJP; VOD); Enuresis (f; BOU); Fever (f; BIB); Flu (f; BIB); 
Gastrosis (f; JLH); Hemorrhoid (f1; BOU; HHB; KAB; VOD); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hiccup (f; HJP); 
Infection (f; EFS); Inafl mmation (f; HJP); Mastosis (f; JLH); Menopause (f; VOD); Menorrhagia (f; 
VOD); Myobfi roma (f; BIB); Neurosis (f; VOD); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pertussis (f; EFS; WOI); Polyp 
(f; BIB); Prolapse (f; BIB); Pulmonosis (f; VOD); Rheumatism (f; VOD); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Sclero -
sis (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Swelling (f; BIB; HJP); Ulcer (f; HJP); Uterosis (f; VOD); Varicosity 
(1; HHB); Wart (f; BIB); Worm (f; HHB; VOD); Wound (f; HJP).
d osages (italia N Cypress ):
FNFF = X
0.5–2 g fluid extract; 0.15–0.2 g aqueous extract (HHB).
• Algerians eat stewed fruits for dyspepsia (HJP).
• Asian Indians use the fruits as “an aromatic stimulant” in piles (BIB).
• Haitians use bark, fruit, or wood decoction for diarrhea and chest complaints (VOD).
• Haitians use essential oil for convulsive coughs and intestinal worms (VOD).
• Haitians use the fruit decoction for hemorrhoids, menstrual and nervous disorders, and 
uterorrhagia (VOD).
• Haitians use the leaf decoction topically for rheumatism (VOD).
• Lebanese use for cough, dyspepsia, hiccup, inafl mmation, and ulcers. The berries serve 
in a cough syrup. Mashed berries are applied to lesions (HJP).
• Palestinians used the leaf oil for whooping cough (BIB).
d ow Nsides (italia N Cypress ):
“Health risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages 
are not known” (PH2). Large doses may irritate kidney (PH2). More recent PubMed abstracts refer 
more to allergenicity than to medicinal uses.
t URMeRIC (c urcum A long A L.) +++ ZINGIBeRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Curcuma domestica Valeton
Notes (t urmeri C):
Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard, 
Spikenard and saffron; calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense; myrrh and aloes, 
with all the chief spices.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (KJV)
Your shoots are an orchard of pomegranates with all choicest fruits, henna with nard, nard and saf-
fron, calamus and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense, myrrh and aloes, with all chief spices.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (RSV)
Your skin is a paradise of pomegranates, with the choicest fruits, henna plants along with spike-
nard plants; spikenard and saffron, cane and cinnamon, along with all sorts of trees of frankin-
cense, myrrh and aloes, along with all the finest perfumes.
Song of Solomon 4:13–14 (NWT)
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FIGURe .0 Turmeric (Curcuma longa).
Israeli authors such as Zohary, more familiar with the Israeli ofl ra and the Bible than am I, should 
be better equipped to speculate as to which herbs were really meant in some elusive passages. I am 
both pleased and displeased to note that Zohary like me, leaves a few, perhaps insoluble problems 
unresolved, including one involving two major medicinal plants — saffron and turmeric — and one 
minor medicinal — safofl wer— all sources of yellow dyes, and all used culinarily. All three can be 
grown in warmer regions of Israel, but the turmeric would be most difcfi ult. Saffron and safofl wer 
would both be easy. Here are points that Zohary makes. “Saffron (in Hebrewk, arkom) is mentioned 
only once in the Bible.” (ZOH) Some commentators identify it with turmeric, which “was never 
grown” in this country, others with saffron, which was probably grown only in postbiblical times. 
There is linguistic support for both possibilities. “There is no doubt that the sown karkom efi lds 
mentioned in the Mishnah (of the Talmud) refer to Crocus sativus.” (ZOH)Other data he presents 
point “to the identicatfi ion of biblical karkom as turmeric and not as crocus…. But doubt arises 
when one considers another widely cultivated annual yielding numerous heads of orange ofl wers” 
(safofl wer, Carthamus tinctorius; (ZOH). Where does this leave me? Should I include just one or 
all three of the candidates for the one mention of saffron in the Bible? From the medicinal point 
of view, turmeric seems even more important than saffron, which appears even more important 
than safofl wer. Ditto from the likelihood point of view, based on the views of Zohary. Expansively, 
I have included all three in this account. Regardless of if and when it is cultivated in Israel, Xia 
et al. (2005) tell us that turmeric has been in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) since Su Song 
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in 627–649. In China it is commonly used for dysmenorrhea, epilepsy, hepatitis, pain, rheumatism, 
and traumatic diseases. The essential oil has antitumor and antiviral properties (X16028990).
Commo N Names (t urmeri C):
Açafrao da India (Por.; AVP); Aneshta (Sanskrit; KAB); Angai (Pam.; KAB); Arazó (Chiriguano; 
DLZ); Arishina (Kan.; DEP); Aurukesafar (Arab.; DEP; B12); Azafrán (Peru; EGG; DAV; MDD); 
Azafrán Bastardo (Bol.; DLZ); Azafrán Cimarrón (Peru; EGG); Azafrán de la India (Sp.; USN); 
Azafrán Indio (Peru; RAR); Bahula (Sanskrit; KAB); Banley (Cam.; KAB); Batatilla (Sal.; AVP); 
Besar (Chepang; Danuwar; Magar; Nepal; Tharu; NPM); Bhadra (Sanskrit; KAB); Calanag (Vis.; 
KAB); Calavaga (Vis.; KAB); Camagüey Amarillo (Cuba; AVP); Camotillo (Cr.; Sal.; AVP); C-hi
ang Huang (China; KAB); Chichima (St. Lucia; AVP); Chobah (Iran; EFS); Chukurayo (Aym.; 
Bol.; DLZ); Common Turmeric (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Coron (Peru; Shipibo/Conibo; EGG); Culalao 
(Pam.; KAB); Culiao (Ilo.; KAB); Cucurma (Sp.; SAR); Cunig (Ilo.; KAB); Curcuma (Cr.; Fr.; 
Mart.; Pr.; AHL; AVP; USN); Cúrcuma (Peru; RAR); Cucurma di Levante (It.; EFS); Cucurma 
Indiano (It.; EFS); Curcuma Long (Fr.; EFS); Curry (Eng.; EGG); Dar Sard (Iran; DEP); Darzardi 
(Iran; KAB); Dilao (Tag.; KAB); Dirgharaga (Sanskrit; KAB); Djavé (Tur.; AVP); Dragón (Cuba; 
AVP); Dulao (Vis.; KAB); Erouqsoir (Arab.; AVP); Gandhapashika (Sanskrit; KAB); Gangamau 
(Hausa; KAB); Gauri (Sanskrit; KAB); Gauriz Kamal (Sanskrit; EFS); Gelbwurzel (Ger.; AVP; 
EFS; USN); Gengibre Cimarrón (Dr.; AHL); Gengibrillo (Dr.; AHL); Gharshani (Sanskrit; KAB); 
– –
Gonowe’ka (Siona; SAR); Guisador (Peru; DAV; DAV; MDD); Gurgemeie (Swe.; EFS); Gurkmeje 
(Den.; AVP); Guskmeja (Swe.; AVP); Halada (Guj.; DEP; KAB); Haladi (Sanskrit; Urdu; KAB); 
Haldar (Beng.; Pun.; DEP); Halde (India; EFS); Haldi (Hindi; Tamang; DEP; NPM); Halede (Mar.; 
DEP); Haledo (Nepal; NPM; SUW); Halja (Pun.; DEP); Halu (Nepal; NPM); Halud (Beng.; DEP); 
Harandi (Limbu; NPM); Hardi (Bhojpuri; Mooshar; Sunwar; NPM); Haridra (Sanskrit; AH2; 
KAB); Haridra Etta (Sanskrit; EFS); Hardithuli (Rai; NPM); Haridra (Sanskrit; DEP); Harita (S-an
skrit; KAB); Hatusasang (Mun.; KAB); Hawa Hawa (Ese’Eja; EGG); Hemaragi (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Hemaragini (Sanskrit; KAB); Hohomich (Sunwar; NPM); Holodi (India; EFS); Hridivilasina (Sa-n
skrit; KAB); Hsa-nwen (Burma; DEP; KAB); Huang Chiang (China; EFS); Idi (Culina; RAR); 
Indian Saffron (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; USN); Jayanti (Sanskrit; KAB); Jengibrillo (Dr.; Pr.; AVP); Jiang 
huang (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Juquillo (Pr.; AVP); Jvarantika (Sanskrit; KAB); Kaha (Sing.; Ari.; AVP; 
DEP); Kahu Halu (Nepal; SUW); Kalo Haledo (Nepal; SUW); Kanchani (Sanskrit; KAB); Karkom? 
(Heb.; ZOH); Keveri (Sanskrit; KAB); Kiaong Hoang (China; DEP); Koenir (Sur.; AVP); Korkoom 
(Arab.; AVP); Krimighni (Sanskrit; KAB); Kshanada (Sanskrit; KAB); Kshapa (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Kunjit (Malaya; EFS); Kunyit (Malaya; EFS); Kurkum (Arab.; Heb.; BI2; DEP; ZOH); Kurkuma 
(Ger.; EFS; USN); Kürküma Uzun (Tur.; EFS); Kurkumel (Pol.; AVP); Lakshmi (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Lange Curcuma (Dutch; EFS); Lange Kurkuma (Ger.; EFS); Lisangay (Zambalese; KAB); Long 
Root Turmeric (Jam.; AHL; AVP); Mandiwinshi (Amahuaca; Peru; EGG); Mangalaprada (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Mangalya (Sanskrit; KAB); Manjal (Tam.; DEP); Mannal (Mal.; DEP; KAB); Marinalu 
(Mal.; DEP; KAB); Mbaemboyubá (Chiriguano; Iguembo; DLZ); Mehaghni (Sanskrit; JFM); Nghê 
(Vn.; AVP); Nisa (Sanskrit; DEP); Nisha (Sanskrit; EFS); Nishakhya (Sanskrit; KAB); Nishavha 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Ollod (Kon.; KAB); Ollodi (Kon.; KAB); Palillo (Peru; DAV); Palillo Cholón 
(Peru; EGG; RAR); Palillo Chuncho (Peru; RAR); Pampi (Tel.; DEP); Pangas (Pam.; KAB); Pasupu 
(Tel.; DEP); Pavitra (Sanskrit; KAB); Pinga (Sanskrit; KAB); Pinja (Sanskrit; KAB); Pita (Sa- n
skrit; KAB); Pitavaluka (Sanskrit; KAB); Pitika (Sanskrit; KAB); Pitras (Beng.; DEP; KAB); Ponly 
(Cam.; KAB); Porenki (Machiguenga; EGG); Pwalojir Pagi (Piro; Yine; EGG); Quinamboy (Vis.; 
KAB); Rabhangavasa (Sanskrit; KAB); Racine Safrán (Fr.; AHL); Rajani (Sanskrit; EFS); Ranjani 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Ratrinamika (Sanskrit; KAB); Romiet (Cam.; KAB); Safrán (Haiti; AVP; TRA); 
Safrán Cooli (Mart.; AHL); Safrán des Antilles (Guad.; AHL); Safrán des Indes (Fr.; AHL; USN); 
Safrán de St. Domingue (Fr.; AHL); Safrán du Pays (Fr.; AHL); Safrán Pays (Mart.; AHL); Sanae 
(Burma; KAB); Sanoe (Burma; DEP); Sarsud (Arab.; DEP); Ser-po (Tibet; NPM); Shifa (Sanskrit; 
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KAB); Shiva (Sanskrit; KAB); Shobhana (Sanskrit; KAB); Shyma (Sanskrit; KAB); Souchet (Fr.; 
AHL); Souchet Long (Fr.; KAB); Souchet Odorant (Fr.; KAB); Subgavavhaya (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Suvarna (Sanskrit; KAB); Suvarnavarna (Sanskrit; KAB); Tamasini (Sanskrit; KAB); Tambrick 
(Jam.; AHL; AVP); Tamotamo (Malagasy; KAB); Tanun (Burma; DEP; KAB); Terre Mérite (Fr.; 
KAB); Timmer (Egypt; AVP); Tjitjima (St. Lucia; TRA); Tumeric (Jam.; AHL); Tumerico (Pr.; 
AVP); Turmeric (Eng.; Scn.; Trin.; AH2; AVP; NPM; USN); Turmero (Ven.; AVP); Ukon (Japan; 
TAN); Uma (Sanskrit; KAB); Unkwisi Manya (Siona; SAR); Urakya (Gurung; NPM); Uruk es Saba 
Ghin (Arab.; DEP); Uruk es Subr (Arab.; DEP); Urukus Safé (Arab.; EFS); Vara (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Varangi (Sanskrit; KAB); Varavarnini (Sanskrit; KAB); Varnadatri (Sanskrit; KAB); Varnavât 
(Sanskrit; EFS); Varnavati (Sanskrit; KAB); Varnini (Sanskrit; KAB); Vishaghni (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Wat Kam (Malaya; KAB); Wong Keong (Malaya; KAB); Wong Keung (Canton; KAB); Yamini 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Yellow Ginger (Bel.; Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BNA); Yoshitapriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Yü 
chin (China; EFS); Yu Chiu (China; USN); Yu Jin (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Yü Kin (China; EFS); Yü 
Lin (China; EFS); Yuet Kam (Canton; KAB); Yungs-ba (Tibet; NPM); Yuquilla (Cr.; Cuba; AVP); 
Yuvati (Sanskrit; KAB); Zafran al Hend (Arab.; AVP); Zard (Iran; EFS); Zard Choba (Iran; DEP); 
Zard Chubah (Iran; DEP); Zerdé (Tur.; AVP); Zirand (Arab.; EFS); Zirsood (Arab.; AVP).
a Ctivities (t urmeri C):
Abeta-Blocker (1; X15974909); Alterative (f; DAD; SUW); Amebicide (1; MPI); Analgesic (f1; 
BIB; COX; X16028990); Antacid (f; BIB; DAD); Anthelmintic (f; KAB; SUW); Antiaafl toxin (1; 
X1394115); Antiadenomic (1; X7954412); Antiaggregant (f1; AKT; MAB; SKY; VAD); Antialzhe-i
meran (1; X15974909); Antiamyloid (1; X15974909); Antiangiogenic (1; MAB); Antiarthritic (f1; 
APA; PED; WHO); Anticholeretic (f1; DAD); Antidiabetic (f1; BOW; JMF8:251); Antidote (arsenic) 
(f; DAD); AntiEBV (1; X10389986); Antiedemic (f1; WHO); Antifertility (1; PH2; PNC); Antibfi ri -
nolytic (1; PR14:443); Antiafl tulent (f1; WHO); Antihistaminic (1; MAB; MPI; SKY); AntiHIV (1; 
MAB); Antihyperlipidemic (12; PHR; JMF8:256); Antiinafl mmatory (f12; APA; KOM; PH2; TRA; 
WAM); Antiintegrase (1; MAB; WHO); Antileishmanic (1; X10865470); Antileukemic (1; AKT); 
Antileukotriene (1; BGB; PR14:443); Antilipoperoxidant (1; X7714712); Antilymphomic (1; APA; 
JAD; MAB); Antimutagenic (1; BGB; LIB; MAB); Antinitrosation (1; X3054526); Antioxidant (1; 
PHR; PH2; WAM; WHO); Antipapillomic (1; X8879271); Antiparasitic (f; DAD); Antiplatelet (1; 
MAB); Antiprostaglandin (1; PH2); Antipsoriatic (1; FNF); Antiscorbutic (f; DLZ); Antiseptic (f1; 
MAB; PH2; PNC); Antispasmodic (f1; BIB; SHT; VAD); Antithromboxane (1; MAB); Antitumor 
(f1; APA; MAB; PH2; TRA); Antitumor promoter (1; X7586157); Antiulcer (f1; TRA; WHO); Anti -
venom (1; JAF51:6802); Antiviral (1; X10389986); Aperitive (f; DLZ); Apoptotic (1; X15356994); 
Astringent (f; BIB); Bactericide (1; APA; MAB; MPI; VAD); Bitter (f1; AKT); Cardioprotective (1; 
MAB; X15622377); Carminative (f1; APA; MAB; SUW; WHO); Chemopreventive (1; MAB); Cho-
lagogue (f1; AHL; BGB; SHT; TRA); Choleretic (f12; KOM; SHT; TRA; WHO); Cholecystokinetic 
(2; KOM; SHT; WHO); Cicatrizant (f; EGG); Circulotonic (1; BOW); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; COX); 
Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; MAB; PNC); Cytotoxic (1; MAB); Decongestant (f; BIB); Depurative 
(f; MAB; SUW); Digestive (f1; MAB); Diuretic (f; APA; BIB); Dysgeusia (f; KAB); EGF Inhibitor(1; 
X15356994); Emmenagogue (f1; AHP; DAD; LIB); Expectorant (f; BIB); Febrifuge (f1; BIB; COX); 
Fibrinolytic (1; MAB); Fungicide (f1; KAB; MAB; X8824742); Gastroprotective (1; WHO); Glu-
tathiogenic (1; JAC7:405); Gram(+)-icide (1; X16277395); Heme-Oxidase Inducer (1; X15356994); 
Hemostat (f; DAD); Hepatoprotective (12; AKT; APA; DAD; PH2; PNC; TRA); Hepatotoxic (1; 
MAB); Hypocholesterolemic (1; APA; MAB; TRA; WAM); Hypoglycemic (1; X16277395); Hypo -
lipidemic (f1; MAB; VAD); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; TRA); Immunostimulant (1; BGB; TRA); 
Insectifuge (f1; PHR); I-Kappa-B-Kinase Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Laxative (f; BIB); Lice (f; HAD); 
Lipase Promoter (1; JEB50:167); Lipolytic (f; PH2); Litholytic (f1; HHB; MAB); Maltase Promoter 
(1; JEB50:167); Mucogenic (1; WHO); Mucolytic (f; AKT); Myorelaxant (f1; WHO); Nematocide (f1; 
MAB; X8221978); NF-Kappa-B Inhibitor (1; X15356994); NO-genic (1; PR14:443); NO Scavenger 
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(1; MAB); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Oncogene Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Orexigenic (f12; 
BIB; PHR); Ornithine-Decarboxylase Inhibitor (1; MAB); Parasiticide (f; SUW); Phagocytotic (1; 
BGB: WHO); PKC Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Plasmodicide (1; X10865470); Protisticide (1; APA; 
MPI; PNC); Radioprotective (1; X10775394); Respiratonic (f; BOW); Secretogogue (1; TRA); Secre-
tolytic (1; TRA); Sortase-A Inhibitor (1; X16277395); Stimulant (f; BIB; DEP; SUW); Stomachic (f; 
BIB); Sucrase Promoter (1; JEB50:167); TNF Inhibitor (1; MAB); Tonic (f1; SUW); Tyrosine Kinase 
Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Ubiquitin-Proteasome Inhibitor (1; X15356994); Ulcerogenic (1; APA; 
MAB; WHO); Uterotonic (1; AHP; LIB); Vulnerary (f1; AKT; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (t urmeri C):
Abscess (f1; FNF; TRA); Adenoma (1; X7954412); Adenopathy (1; DAD; JLH; X7954412); Allergy 
(f1; WAM); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Amenorrhea (f1; BGB; PH2; WHO); Anorexia (f12; BGB; 
BRU; PHR; PH2); Arthrosis (f1; COX; KAP; MAB; WAM; WHO); Asthma (f1; MAB; WHO); 
Atherosclerosis (1; MAB; SKY; VAD; JMF8:246); Athlete’s Foot (1; FNF); Atony (f; DEP); Bacillus 
(1; X10552805); Bacteria (1; X10552805); Biliousness (f1; KAB; VAD); Bite (f; BIB; DEP; PH2); 
Bleeding (f; PH2); Boils (f1; DAD; WHO); Bowen’s Disease (1; X11712783); Bronchosis (f; BIB; 
DEP; PH2); Bruise (f; DAV; DEP; PED; PH2; WHO); Bursitis (1; SKY); Cancer (f1; JLH; MAB); 
Cancer, abdomen (1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f1; X11712783); Cancer, breast (f1; COX; 
FNF; MAB); Cancer, cervix (f1; X11712783); Cancer, colon (f1; COX; FNF; JLH; JNU); Ca-n
cer, duodenum (f1; X7954412); Cancer, esophagus (f1; JAC7:405); Cancer, joint (f1; JLH; MAB); 
Cancer, liver (f1; JAC7:405); Cancer, mouth (f1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, nose (f1; COX; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, sinew (f1; COX; FNF; JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; X7954412); Cancer, stomach (f1; 
JAC7:405); Cancer, uterus (f1; X11712783); Cardiopathy (f1; AKT; MAB; X15622377); Cataracts 
(f1; MAB); Catarrh (f; DEP; UPW); Chest ache (f; PH2); Childbirth (f; DAD); Cholecocystosis 
(12; APA; PHR; VAD; JAF51:6802); Circulosis (f; BOW); Cold (f; DEP; KAP; NPM; PH2); Colic 
(f; APA; PED; PH2); Coma (f; DAD); Congestion (f; APA; BIB; DEP); Conjunctivosis (f; KAB; 
MAB; PH2; SUW), Constipation (f; PH2); Coryza (f; DEP; KAB); Cough (f; NPM); Cramp (f1; 
AKT; BIB; DAD); Cystosis (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f1; AKT; DEP; MAB; PH2; SUW; WHO; WOI); 
Diabetes (f1; BOW; JMF8:251); Diarrhea (f1; APA; DEP; WHO); Dropsy (f; DAD); Duodenosis (1; 
X7954412); Dysgeusia (f; KAB); Dyskinesia (f; VAD); Dysmenorrhea (f1; AKT; APA; DLZ; PED; 
WHO); Dyspepsia (f12; KOM; MAB; PH2; WHO); Dysuria (f; DAD); Eczema (f1; BGB; KAP; 
MAB); Edema (f1; KAP; PH2); Elephantiasis (f; DAD); Enterosis (f1; AKT; DAD; PH2; WHO); 
Epilepsy (f; WHO; X16028990); Epistaxis (f; DAD; PH2); Esophagosis (1; JAC7:405); Fever (f1; 
APA; BIB; DEP; COX); Fibrosis (1; BGB; MAB); Fit (f; DEP); Fungus (f; BIB; PH2); Gallstones (f1; 
APA; MAB); Gas (f1; APA; PH2); Gastrosis (f1; PH2; VAD); Gonorrhea (f; BIB; KAB); Gray Hair 
(f; HAD); Fungus (1; LIB); Headache (f; PH2); Hematemesis (f; DAD; PH2); Hematuria (f; DAD); 
Hemorrhage (f; PED); Hemorrhoids (f; MAB); Hepatosis (f12; DEP; MAB; PED; PHR; PH2; TRA); 
Herpes (f; EGG); High Blood Pressure (1; KAP); High Cholesterol (1; AKT; APA; MAB; TRA; 
VAD; JMF8:246); High Triglycerides (1; MAB; TRA); Hyperhomocysteinemia (1; X15622377); 
Hyperlipidemia (1; MAB; JMF8:256); Hysteria (f; DAD; DEP); IBS (1; PED); Infection (f12; MAB; 
MPI; PH2); Inafl mmation (f1; DEP; PHR; PH2; WAM; WHO); Itch (f; APA; KAP; PH2); Jaundice 
(f1; DEP; MAB; TRA); Laryngitis (f1; BIB; COX); Leprosy (f; PH2); Leishmania (1; X10865470); 
Leukemia (1; AKT); Leukoderma (f; DAD); Leukoplakia (1; X11712783); Lymphoma (1; BIB; COX; 
FNF); Malaria (f; KAB; KAP; PH2); Morning Sickness (f1; MAB); Mucososis (f; PH2); Mycosis 
(f1; DEP; PH2; X8824742); Nematode (1; X8221978); Nephrosis (f1; AKT; PH2); Ophthalmia (f1; 
AKT; DAD; DEP; PH2); Orbital Pseudotumor (1; PR14:443); Osteoarthrosis (1; MAB); Otorrhea 
(f; DEP); Ozoena (f; KAB); Pain (f1; BIB; DEP; COX; WHO; X16028990); Parasite (f; BIB; DAD; 
KAP LIB); Plasmodicide (1; X10865470); Polyp (f1; COX; JLH; JNU); Psoriasis (1; FNF; MAB); 
Puerperium (f; MAB); Radiation (1; AKT); Restenosis (1; MAB); Rheumatism (f1: BIB; COX; 
SKY); Rhinosis (f1; COX; JLH); Ringworm (f; APA; BIB; DEP; KAP; PH2); Scabies (f2; BGB; 
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DEP); Smallpox (f; DAD); Snakebite (1; JAF51:6802); Sore (f; PH2); Sore Throat (f; PH2); Sprain 
(f1; DEP; MAB; SUW); Staphylococcus (1; MPI; UPW); Sting (f; DEP); Stone (f1; HHB; MAB); 
Stroke (f; BOW; PH2); Swelling (f1; AKT; COX; NPM; PH2); Syphilis (f; DAD); Thrombosis (f1; 
VAD); Tonsilosis (f; NPM); Trauma (f; AKT; X16028990); Ulcer (f1; BIB; COX; PED; WHO); Uve-
osis (2; AKT); Venereal Disease (f; BIB; DAD); Vertigo (f; BIB; DEP; DAD); Virus (1; X10389986); 
Vomiting (f; PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; JLH); Worm (f1; DEP; X8221978); Wound (f1; APA; 
BGB; PH2; SUW; WAM); Yeast (f1; PED).
d osages (t urmeri C):
FNFF = !!!
Rhizomes widely consumed as foods. 4.5–9 g/day, as tea (AHP); 0.5–1 g severa×l /day, between meals; 
or 1.5–3 g/day, often with warm milk (APA); 300-mg capsules, to 3 ×/day (APA); 1 tsp/cup warm milk 
(APA); 300-mg capsule, 3 ×/day (APA); 1200 mg curcumin (APA); one 445-mg StX capsule 2–3 ×/day 
(JAD); 0.1 g up to 20 g day (HHB); 1.5–3 g rhizome (KOM); 4 g turmeric powder in water, 1–2 ×/day 
(MAB); 5–14 ml ufl id extract (1:1), divided in 4 or 5 doses (MAB). 0.5 tsp turmeric powder boiled with 
2 cups water for 5 minutes, cooled to lukewarm and gargled for colds, cough, and tonsillitis (NPM). 
3–5 g fresh herb (PED); 0.3–0.5 g dry herb (PED); 0.4 g dry herb:2 ml alcohol/2 ml water (PED); 
1.5–3 g/day crude drug (SHT); 400 mg curcumin, 3 ×/day (SKY); 3–9 g crude turmeric/day (WHO); 
1.5–3 g powdered plant; 0.5–1 ml tincture (1:10) 3 ×/day; 0.5–1 g oral infusion 3× /day (WHO).
• Ayurvedics consider the rhizome alexiteric, anthelmintic, depurative, emollient, lax-a
tive, tonic, vulnerary, and useful for biliousness, boils, bruises, complexion, dysgeusia, 
dyspepsia, dysuria, elephantiasis, inafl mmation, leukoderma, ozoena, smallpox, sprains, 
and swelling (KAB).
• Bolivians, considering the rhizome antiscorbutic, aperitive, diuretic, stimulant, and tonic, 
use it in childbirth and dysmenorrhea (DLZ).
• Chinese use for amenorrhea, colic, congestion, and externally for dermatosis (KAB).
• Haitians use the cholagogue root for fever with jaundice (AHL).
• Madagascans use rhizome as aperient, astringent, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, 
stimulant, and tonic (KAB).
• Mohammedens, following doctrine of signature, use for hepatosis and jaundice (KAB).
• Nepali boil 1/2 tsp 5 minutes in 2 cups water and gargle with the lukewarm tea for colds, 
coughs, and tonsillitis (NPM).
• Peruvians apply grated root to herpes, rheumatism, and wounds, as a cicatrizant (EGG).
• Peruvians take a tablespoon of grated root for malaria and take the root decoction for 
infectious hepatitis, 1 or 2 (child or adult) spoonfuls a day for 10 to 15 days (DAV; EGG).
• Unani consider the rhizome useful for bruises, dysuria, hepatosis, jaundice, scabies, and 
strangury (KAB).
d ow Nsides (t urmeri C):
Class 2b. Emmenagogue; uterotonic. Counterindicated in patients with bile duct obstruction, ga-ll
stones, hyperacidity, stomach ulcers (AHP, 1997; AEH). While in moderate doses, turmeric is said 
to inhibit cancers, lymphomas, and ulcers, overdoses of curcuminoids may possibly be cytotoxic 
and ulcerogenic and may lead to dimunition of red and white corpuscles. Still, Commission E 
approves 1.5 to 3 g/day, not nearly enough to provide 1200 mg curcumin. Commission E also 
reports contraindications: biliary obstruction, adverse effects: GI-irritation from continued use; 
consult physicians before using with gallstones (BIS; KOM). At 10% of diet, turmeric caused some 
loss of hair in rats (MAB). Care should be taken in women who wish to conceive or patients com-
plaining of alopecia (MAB). Women who are pregnant or children with gallbladder or liver disease 
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or ulcers should avoid turmeric (WAM); limit internal use to 10 days (WAM). Rather frightening 
what one reads in UPW (2000): “Laboratory animals treated with it are reported to have been r-en
dered entirely infertile.”
extra Cts (t urmeri C):
Fond as I am of synergy and food farmacy, I like the following comments from Verma et al. (1997). 
Curcumin and genistein can inhibit estrogen-positive human breast cells induced by estradiol or 
pesticides individually or mixed. Curcumin and genistein were synergic, totally inhibiting induction 
in vitro (X9168916). Curcuminoids inhibit cancer at initiation, promotion, and progressioni n vitro 
and in vivo (MAB). Viva the curried bean soup I am having for lunch! Reportedly as effective as 
hydrocortisone acetate or indomethacin in experimental inafl mmation (WHO); both natural anti-
inafl mmatory curcumin (1200 mg/day) and unnatural phenylbutazone (30 mg/day) improved joint 
swelling, morning stiffness, and walking time in rheumatoid arthritics, both better than placebo 
(WHO). Bruneton notes that the antiinafl mmatory ED50 or curcumin orally in rats is 48 mg/kg 
(= 4.8 g for me) and apparently devoid of side effects (BRU) while the ipr ED50 is only 2.1 mg/kg, 
suggesting that the ipr route is 20 times more effective. But I am not into injecting herbs. Enjoy your 
curried beans, counting on those synergies. Duke suggests that curcumin needs to be compared with 
Celebrex and Vioxx as a COX-2 inhibitor. Essential oil showed signicfi ant antihistaminic and an-ti
inafl mmatory activity, the latter at 0.1 ml/kg, which translates to 10 ml for me, a rather dangerous 
dose. At doses of 1.5 g/day for 30 days, turmeric reduced urinary excretion of mutagens in an unco-n
trolled trial of 16 chronic smokers. In six non-smoking controls, there was no change in urinary 
secretion. Turmeric had no effect on serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate amino transferase, 
blood glucose, creatinine, and lipid profile (MAB). Turmeric extract (circa 20 mg curcumin/day) for 
45 days dramatically decreased blood lipid peroxide levels in 18 male subjects (MAB). Curcumin is 
poorly absorbed (some 15 to 35% max in rats) orally; but if administered with piperine (from black 
and long pepper), absorption improves more than 150% in rats. However, in human volunteers, 
20 mg piperine increases the bioavailability of curcumin 20-fold (MAB). One study indicated that 
curcumin and sodium curcuminate were more potent than phenylabutazone in acute and chronic 
arthritic models, while another found it only 1/10th as effective as ibuprofen. While ulcerogenic 
in large doses, curcumin is only about 1/3 as ulcerogenic as the phenylbutazone. In low doses, cu- r
cumin had antiulcer activity, protecting against the ulcerogenic activity of phenylbutazone (MAB). 
1-Phenylhydroxy-N-pentane stimulates the secretion of secretin, gastrin, and bicarbonate, thus hel-p
ing maintain the gastric pH, in dogs and humans (TRA). LD50 ether extracts 12,200 mg/kg orl rat 
(MAB); LDlo curcumin >2000 mg/kg orl mus (MAB); LDlo curcumin >5000 mg/kg orl rat (MAB); 
curcumin more potent against Leishmania than pentamidine (JAF51:6604).
pALMARos A (c ymbopogon m Artini (Rox B.) J.F. WAtso N) ++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Andropogon martini Roxb.; Andropogon schoenanthus var. martini Hook. f.
Notes (palmarosa ):
Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh vfi e hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon 
half so much, even two hundred and ffi ty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and ffi ty shekels.
Exodus 30:23 (KJV)
Take the finest spices: of liquid myrrh vfi e hundred shekels, and of sweet - smelling cinnamon half 
as much, that is, two hundred and fifty, and of aromatic cane two hundred and fifty.
Exodus 30:23 (RSV)
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As for you, take to yourself the choicest perfumes: myrrh in congealed drops vfi e hundred units, 
and sweet cinnamon in half that amount, two hundred and fifty units, and sweet calamus two 
hundred and fifty units.
Exodus 30:23 (NWT)
To what purpose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and the sweet cane from a far country? 
Your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor your sacrifices sweet unto me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (KJV)
To what purpose does frankincense come to me from Sheba, or sweet cane from a distant land? 
Your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor your sacrifices pleasing to me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (RSV)
What does this matter to me that you bring in even frankincense from Sheba, and the good cane 
from the land far away? The whole burnt offerings of you people serve for no pleasure, and your 
very sacrifices have not been gratifying to me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (NWT)
Zohary informs us that aromatic grasses were used daily in the biblical world, imported from the 
Near East or India, for cosmetics, afl vorings, medicines, and perfumery. To wit, when they opened 
the tombs of the Pharaohs (20th and 21st dynasty) in 1881, circa 3000 years after burial, the aroma 
of Cymbopogon was still obvious. The Hebrew words kanev hatov, knei bosem, and sometimes 
kaneh alone were often used to convey the broad semi-taxonomic concept of aromatic grass, sweet 
cane, sweet grass. Admitting that it is hopeless to speculate about which of the possible species 
(Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon martinii, or Cymbopogon schoenanthus) was intended by 
the biblical writers, Zohary led his discussion with ginger grass. One of them does grow wild in 
the Holy Land. Zohary quotes from the Revised Standard Version of the Bible (RSV© 1946, 1952, 
1971, and 1973), which renders the Cymbopogon in the first quote above as aromatic grass (ZOH), 
whereas my KJV renders it as sweet calamus. In my first Bible book, I followed the Moldenke’s 
suggestion that it could be Andropogon schoenanthus or Andropogon muricatus (which is appar-
ently Vetiveria) and they leaned toward the vetiver. After reading Zohary, I am more inclined to side 
with him. No one seems to push Acorus calamus, which did not apparently occur in the Holy Land. 
It seems less likely to have been imported than the Cymbopogon or Vetiveria, to either of which 
the alternative translation “sweet cane” seems more appropriate. The aromatic grasses share many 
chemicals and activities. According to WOI, “Two varieties are knownm, otia and sofia , which are 
morphologically indistinguishable.” Some of the activities and indications, even common names, 
might as well refer to C. schoenanthus, which EFS treated as synonymous with A. martinii. BOU 
and UPW entries below apply to North African C. schoenanthus (including C. proximum). Remains 
of C. schoenanthus have been found in Egyptian tombs. Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” is 
said to have used it circa 440 b.c. Further, it is said to have been used in the toilet and burial prepar-a
tion of the Prophet Mohammed.
Commo N Names (palmarosa ):
Afar (Arab.; Mauritania; UPW); Agyaghas (Beng.; Hindi; NAD); Bhustrina (Sanskrit; EFS); 
Bhutrina (Sanskrit; NAD); Buluuje (Upper Volta; UPW); Camel Grass (Eng.; UPW); Camel’s 
Hay (Arab.; BOU); Chiendent Pied de Poule (Fr.; UPW); Citronelle (Fr.; BOU); Gandhabena 
(Beng.; Hindi; India; EFS; NAD); Gandh Bel (Hindi; WOI); Geranium Grass (Eng.; BOU; FAC); 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Geraniumgras (Ger.; HHB); Gingergras (Ger.; USN); Gingergrass (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; ZOH); Halfet 
Hashma (Arab.; BOU); Idhkir (Arab.; BOU); Indian Geranium (Eng.; EFS); Jonc Aromatique (Fr.; 
BOU); Jonc Odorant (Fr.; BOU); Kaneh (Heb.; ZOH); Kanev Hatov (Heb.; ZOH); Kavatham Pillu 
(Tam.; WOI); Knei Bosem (Heb.; ZOH); Lemmad (Arab.; Mali; BOU; UPW); Mahareb (Arab.; 
Nig.; BOU; UPW); Makkah (Arab.; BOU); Mao Hsiang (China; EFS); Motiya (India; USN); Namar 
Grass (Eng.; EFS); Ñangulé (Bambara; Sen.; UPW); Nard (Fr.; EFS); Nemour Grass (Eng.; EFS); 
Nimar Grass (Eng.; EFS); Nobi (Hausa; (Niger; UPW); Oost Indische Geranium (Dutch; EFS); 
Ostindisches Geraniumgras (Ger.; EFS); Paille de la Mecue (Fr.; BOU); Palmarosa (Eng.; Ger.; 
Scn.; Sp.; AH2; HHB; USN); Palmarosa Indien (Fr.; EFS); Palmarosagras (Ger.; HHB); Palmaroza 
(Tur.; EFS); Rauuns (Guj.; WOI); Robisa (Ayu.; AH2); Rohisa (Sanskrit; WOI); Roosa Grass (Eng.; 
EFS); Rosha (India; USN); Rosha Grass (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Roshegavat (Mar.; WOI); Ruaghas 
(Hindi; India; EFS; NAD); Rusa (Eng.; EFS); Rusagras (Ger.; EFS); Rusha (India; USN); Russagras 
(Ger.; HHB); Scenanth (Eng.; BOU); Schoenanthe (Fr.; BOU); Schoenanthe Ofcfi inal (Fr.; BOU); 
Shakanarupillu (Tam.; NAD); Sha’ret et Trab (Arab.; BOU); Soyfi a (India; USN); Sumpiga (Ghana; 
UPW); Sweet Calamus (Eng.; KJV; ZOH); Sweet Cane (Eng.; KJV); Tiberrimt (Ber.; BOU); Tibn 
Makkah (Arab.; BOU); Turkse Geranium (Dutch; EFS).
a Ctivities (palmarosa ):
Abortifacient (f; UPW); Analgesic (f; UPW); Anthelmintic (1; X13680833); Antiseptic (1; 
X12809717); Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Aphrodisiac (f; UPW); Astringent (f; BOU); Carmina-
tive (f; BOU; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; BOU); Insectifuge (f1; WOI; X15119079); Nematicide (1; 
X13680833); Stimulant (f; EFS); Sudoric (fi f; BOU; EFS); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (palmarosa ):
Ache (f; UPW); Alopecia (f; WOI); Amenorrhea (f; BOU); Arthritis (f; WOI); Biliousness (f; WO2); 
Bleeding (f; BOU); Cancer, liver (f; UPW); Cancer, spleen (f; UPW); Cancer, stomach (f; UPW); 
Dermatosis (f; WOI); Enterosis (f; NAD); Fever (f; BOU; UPW); Gas (f; BOU; NAD); Guineaworm 
(f; UPW); Impotence (f; UPW); Infection (1; X12809717); Lumbago (f; WOI); Mania (f; UPW); 
Pain (f; UPW); Parasite (f; UPW); Rheumatism (f; BOU); Snakebite (f; UPW); Sore (f; UPW); 
Spasm (f; EFS); Worm (1; X13680833); Wound (f; BOU); Yeast (1; X12809717).
d osages (palmarosa ):
FNFF = !
Essential oil used in baked goods, chewing gum, deserts, gelatin, and ice creams (FAC). Some 
Northeast Africans eat the inner core of the rhizome as an aphrodisiac (UPW).
• Ghanans apply leaves, pounded in a little water, to body aches and pains (UPW).
• Ghanans mash ofl wers to apply, or poultice ashes to guineaworm sores (UPW). Maybe 
I should try that on the next bot yfl I get. The last one cost me more than a thousand 
dollars.
• Ghanans take a tea of the inofl rescence for fever (UPW).
• Nigerians inhale the burning smoke to treat temporary mania (UPW).
• Togo and north Ghanan natives use the grass for snakebite (UPW).
extra Cts (palmarosa ):
Containing up to 2250 ppm perillyl-alcohol, this species could well be important.
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MALtese MU sh Roo M (c ynomorium coccineum L.) 
++ BALANopho RACeAe
Notes (maltese mus Hroom ):
Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat.
Job 30:4 (KJV)
They pick mallow and the leaves of bushes, and to warm themselves the roots of the broom.
Job 30:4 (RSV)
They were plucking the salt herb by the bushes, And the root of broom trees was their food.
Job 30:4 (NWT)
Because this mushroom-like parasite is edible, and has edible roots, while juniper (broom) roots 
are not very edible, I was inufl enced in my earlier version to conclude that Cynomorium constituted 
the juniper roots of Job. Or maybe it even grew as a root parasite among the stems and roots of 
the halophytes. Such “roots” are frequently eaten in times of scarcity, for example, on the Canary 
Islands. In Qatar, where it is given the Arabic name tarthuth, natives eat it. In Northern Africa, the 
roots are pulverized and used as a spice (BIB). But Zohary concludes that the juniper (broom) root 
of Job 3 is Retama. On Malta, where it was once considered endemicC, ynomorium was so highly 
prized for its supposed medicinal help in dysentery that military sentinel were posted around places 
where it occurred. In some cultures it is considered an aphrodisiac for males (suspected to increase 
the sperm count); in others, for females. Bedouins either peel the root and eat it, or grind it and make 
a sweetened tea for colic (BIB).
Commo N Names (maltese mus Hroom ):
Abushal (Arab.; BOU); Afdad (Ber.; BOU); Champignon de Malte (Fr.; BOU); Cynomoir Acarlate 
(Fr.; BOU); Hawkal (Arab.; BOU); Maltese Mushroom (Eng.; BOU); Marshoush (Arab.; BOU); 
Masrut (Arab.; BOU); Mazrour (Arab.; BOU); Mousowrar (Arab.; BOU); Raetem (?; TAN); Scarlet 
Cynomorium (Eng.; BOU); Tarthoorth (Arab.; GHA); Tarthuth (Arab.; Oman; Qatar; Saudi; BIB; 
GHA); Tartous (Ber.; BOU); Tartout (Arab.; BOU); Tartout el Beni Edem (Arab.; BOU); Terzous 
(Ber.; BOU); Zobb el Ard (Arab.; BOU); Zobb el Ghaba (Arab.; BOU); Zobb el Qa’a (Arab.; BOU); 
Zobb el Tourki (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (maltese mus Hroom ):
Aphrodisiac (f; BOU; PR14:288); Astringent (f; BOU); Deobstruent (f; BOU); Gonadotrophic (1; 
PR14:288); Hypotensive (f; X683693); Laxative (f; GHA); Narcotic (f; PR14:288); Spermatogenic 
(f1; BOU; PR14:288; X11282435); Tonic (f; BOU; PR14:288).
iNdi Catio Ns (maltese mus Hroom ):
Arthrosis (f; BIB); Back (f; BIB); Biliousness (f; BIB); Colic (f; BIB); Constipation (f; BIB; GHA); 
Dysentery (f; BIB); High Blood Pressure (f; X683693); Impotence (f1; BIB; PR14:288); Infertility 
(1; BIB; PR14:288); Nephrosis (f; BIB); Sterility (f; BIB; PR14:288).
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d osages (maltese mus Hroom ):
FNFF = !
Tuareg used pulverized root as a spice; root apparently eaten by biblical Job. In Qatar, where it is 
given the Arabic name tarthuth, natives eat it (Batanouny, 1981). In Northern Africa, the roots are 
pulverized and used as a spice.
• Bedouins eat, or grind the peeled root to make a sweetened tea for colic (BIB).
• Chinese regard the herb for the back, kidney, and knee, using it for constipation, impo-
tency, and sterility (BIB).
• Maltese prize the plant for dysentery (BIB).
• North Africans mix powdered plants with butter for biliary obstructions (BIB; TAN)
extra Cts (maltese mus Hroom ):
A Chinese species of this genus proved more estrogenic than kudzu, following after Polygonum 
cuspidatum, Rheum palmatum, Cassia obtusifolia, Polygonum multiflorum, Epimedium brevicor -
num, and Psoralea corylifolia (X15814262). On Malta, where it was once considered endemic, In 
some cultures it is considered an aphrodisiac for males (suspected to increase the sperm count); in 
others, for females. Bedouins either peel the root and eat it or grind it and make a sweetened tea for 
colic. North Africans mix powdered plants with butter for biliary obstructions (BIB).
pApyRUs (c yperus p Apyrus L.) ++ CypeRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cyperus olivaris Targioni-Tozzetti, Cyperus tuberosus Roxn., Pycreus rotundus (L.) Hayek
Notes (papyrus ):
That sendeth ambassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters, saying, Go, 
ye swift messengers, to a nation scattered and peeled, to a people terrible from their beginning 
hitherto; a nation meted out and trodden down, whose land the rivers have spoiled!
Isaiah 18:2 (KJV)
First described by Theophrastus (circa 372–287 b.c.) from cultivated material on the Nile delta, the 
inofl rescences were described as useful only for “garlands for the shrines of the Gods.” But boats 
were made from the stalks, which were also important sources of parchment paper. Moses was laid 
in a cradle woven from the bulrushes of papyrus growing in the rivers of lower Egypt. Among these 
same bulrushes the ark was placed, to be discovered by Pharaoh’s daughter who brought Moses up 
as her son. Galen, Dioscorides, and later Islamic pharmacologists (e.g., Ibn Gulgul and El Ghaqfi i) 
included papyrus among medicinal plants. Common in the upper Jordan valley, the papyrus reaches 
its northern natural limits in Israel (BIB; UPW; ZOH).
Commo N Names (papyrus ):
Bardi (Arab.; BOU); Birdi (Arab.; Nig.; UPW); Bulrush (Eng.; UPW); Burdi (Arab.; Nig.; UPW); 
Castañuela (Sp.; POR); Coco-Grass (Eng.; POR); Coquito (Sp.; POR); Fole (Kanuri; Nig.; UPW); 
Gemi (Heb.; ZOH); Gomeh (Heb.; ZOH); Hamasuge (Japan; POR); Herbe-à-Oignon (Fr.; POR); 
Jonc du Nil (Fr.; BOU); Junça (Por.; POR); Kotolo (Kanuri; Nig.; UPW); Mothe (Nepal; POR); Nile 
Papyrus (Eng.; BOU); Paper Reed (Eng.; BOU); Papier du Nil (Fr.; BOU; USN); Papiro (Por.; USN); 
Papyrus (Eng.; Fr.; JLH; UPW; USN); Papyrusstaude (Ger.; USN); Souchet à Papier (Fr.; USN); 
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FIGURe . Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus).
Herbe-à-Oignon (Fr.; POR); Juncia (Sp.; POR); Qasab el Bardi (Arab.; BOU); Rundes Zypergras 
(Ger.; POR); Souchet à Papier (Fr.; BOU); Souchet à Tubercules (Fr.; POR); Souchet Rond (Fr.; 
POR); Suo Cao (China; POR); Umm Ganagan (Nig.; UPW); Xiang Fu Zi (China; POR); Ya Haeo 
Mu (Thai; POR); Ya Khon Mu (Thai; POR); Zigolo Infestante (It.; POR). Nscn.
a Ctivities (papyrus ):
Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (papyrus ):
Burn (f; JLH); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f; JLH); Dermatosis (f; JLH); Fistula (f; BIB); Induration (f; 
JLH); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Sore (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f; BIB; BOU); Wound (f; BIB; BOU).
d osages (papyrus ):
FNFF = !
Pith commonly eaten, raw or cooked. Starchy rhizomes and lowermost parts of the stem cut off and co-n
sumed raw, boiled, or roasted, or just chewed like sugarcane. Roasted rhizomes were once a fairly co-m
mon food. The Roman poet Martial joked about the bfi er left in the mouth after chewing it (BIB; IHB).
• Gabonese chew the dried rhizomes for use in warding off evil spirits (UPW).
• Old World inhabitants use ashes of burned papyrus like charcoal in ophthalmia (BIB).
• Old World inhabitants sometimes used the pith to widen fistulae (BIB).
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• North Africans steeped the plant in vinegar, then dried and burned it, and used the ashes 
for preventing the spread of oral ulcers or to heal wounds (BIB; BOU).
• Tanganyikan women take root decoction with leaf sap from Maytenus senegalensis for 
sterility (UPW).
extra Cts (papyrus ):
Octopamine and tyramine reported from the leaves.
CeyLo N eBo Ny (d iospyros ebenum Koe NIG.) + eBeNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Diospyros assimilis Bedd.; Diospyros glaberrima Rottb.; Diospyros hebecarpa A. Cunn.; Diospy-
ros sapota Roxb.
Notes (Ceylo N ebo Ny):
The men of Dedan were thy merchants; many isles were the merchandise of thine hand: they 
brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony.
Ezekiel 27:15 (KJV)
The men of Rhodes traded with you; many coastlands were your own special markets, they 
brought you in payment ivory tusks and ebony.
Ezekiel 27:15 (RSV)
The sons of De’dan were your traders; many islands were merchants in your employ; horns of 
ivory and ebony they have paid back as gift to you.
Ezekiel 27:15 (NWT)
All three versions in my trilogy call it ebony, a very important timber in the same genus with our 
eastern persimmon ( Diospyros virginianum). Its puckery fruits are quite astringent, even eaten after 
frost. Many of the tropical persimmons are also astringent. More importantly, the heartwood of 
several tropical species is the source of ebony, a hard black wood used for piano keys. Ebony was 
used, of old as it is today, frequently inlaid with ivory. We read that 200 logs of ebony presented 
to the kings of Persia every year by the Ethiopians were originally from India or Sri Lanka. The 
royal throne of Pluto, king of the mythical underworld, was made of ebony, as were carvings of 
many Egyptian gods and goddesses, especially those of Darkness, Night, and SorrowD. . ebenum 
is viewed as the best ebony timber, the only one that yields jet black heartwood without streaks or 
marking (BIB). Zohary identiefi s the biblical ebony, hovenium in Hebrew, hbu in Egyptian, as D. 
ebenum, admitting that many species of Diospyros yield this expensive wood (ZOH). The Bible is 
sketchy about commercial routes in biblical times. Although not sure that ebony and ivory reached 
Israel from India, Zohary seems sure that both Asian and African merchandise were shipped to the 
Phoenician commercial Dedan, on the Arabian coast (ZOH). Common names below can be viewed 
as more generic than specicfi , the EFS names applying to Diospyros ebenum, D. embryopteris, and 
other species. I have left out any I am sure apply to our eastern persimmon.
Commo N Names (Ceylo N ebo Ny):
Abnes e Hindi (Arab.; EFS); Abnus (Arab.; Hindi; DEP; WOI); Abnush (Nepal; POR); Acha (Tam.; 
DEP); Avolio (It.; EFS); Bale (Kan.; KAB); Bois Noir (Fr.; KAB); Ceylon Ebony (Eng.; USN); Ceylon 
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FIGURe . Ceylon Ebony (Diospyros ebenum).
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Persimmon (Eng.; POR); Chara (Sri.; KAB); Chërnoe Ebenovoe Derevo (Rus.; POR); Ebenuz (Sp.; 
POR); Ch’i Shih (China; EFS); Diosupirosu Ebenumu (Japan; POR); East Indian Ebony (Eng.; SKJ); 
Ebano (It.; Sp.; EFS); Ebans (Hindi; WOI); Ebbenhoutboom (Dutch; EFS); Ébène (Fr.; POR); Ébènier 
(Fr.; KAB; POR); Ébènier de Ceylan (Fr.; POR); Ébènier de Maurice (Fr.; POR); Ebenus (Latin; DEP); 
Ebenuz (Sp.; USN); Ebony (Eng.; POR; USN); Ebony Persimmon (Eng.; POR; USN); Echter Eben -
holzbaum (Ger.; POR; USN); Gab (India; EFS); Hbu (Arab.; Egypt; ZOH); Hovenum (Heb.; ZOH); 
Indian Ebony (Eng.; IHB); Kaju Arang (Malaya; EFS); Kakkayttali (Tam.; KAB); Kalétja (Malaya; 
EFS); Kaluwara (Sing.; DEP); Kanka (Sanskrit; EFS); Karai (Tam.; WOI); Kare (Kan.; DEP); Ka- re
mara (Kan.; Mysore; SKJ; WOI); Karu (Mal.; KAB; WOI); Karunkali (Tam.; DEP; WOI); Kendhu 
(Oriya; WOI); Khenda (Oriya; DEP; KAB); Kinkini (Sanskrit; EFS); Legno Santo (It.; EFS); Malabar 
Ebony (Eng.; KAB); Mallali (Mancharabad; DEP); Mauritius Ebony (Eng.; POR); Mishatumpi (Mal.; 
KAB); Mushtumpi (Mal.; WOI); Nallavalludu (Tel.; WOI); Nalluti (Tel.; WOI); Pei Shih (China; EFS); 
Tai (Mar.; DEP); Temru (India; EFS); Tendu (Hindi; India; DEP; EFS); Tinduka (Sanskrit; EFS); 
Tseilonskoe Ebenovoe Derevo (Rus.; POR); Tumbi (Tam.; WOI); Tumbiri (Sanskrit; EFS); Tumiki 
(Tel.; KAB; WOI); Vayari (Kerala; Mal.; SKJ; WOI); Wu Mu (China; POR); Nscn.
a Ctivities (Ceylo N ebo Ny):
Astringent (f; EFS; SKJ; WOI); Attenuant (f; SKJ; WOI); Litholytic (f; SKJ; WOI); Piscicide (f; 
BIB; PCS).
iNdi Catio Ns (Ceylo N ebo Ny):
Cancer (f; JLH); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Excrescence (f; JLH); Itch (f; PCS); Leprosy (f; PCS); Infec-
tion (f; PCS); Mycosis (f; PCS); Ringworm (f; PCS); Stone (f; WOI).
d osages (Ceylo N ebo Ny):
FNFF = !
Fruits edible (BIB).
• Unani consider the plant astringent, attenuant, and litholytic (KAB).
Co Ro MANDeL (d iospyros mel Anoxylon Rox B.) + eBeNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Diospyros dubia Wall.; Diospyros tupru Buch.-Ham.; Diospyros wightiana Wall. fide DEP.
Notes (Coroma Ndel ):
They brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony.
Ezekiel 27:15 (KJV)
The heartwood of several tropical species is the source of ebony, a hard black wood used for piano 
keys. Ebony was used, of old as it is today, frequently inlaid with ivory. We read that 200 logs of 
ebony presented to the kings of Persia every year by the Ethiopians were originally from India or 
Sri Lanka. The royal throne of Pluto, king of the mythical underworld, was made of ebony, as were 
carvings of many Egyptian gods and goddesses, especially those of Darkness, Night, and Sorrow. 
D. ebenum is viewed as the best ebony timber, the only one that yields jet black heartwood without 
streaks or marking (BIB). Zohary identiefi s the biblical ebony, hovenium in Hebrew, hbu in Egyp-
tian, as D. ebenum, admitting that many species of Diospyros yield this expensive wood (ZOH). 
The Bible is sketchy about commercial routes in biblical times. Although not sure that ebony and 
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FIGURe . Coromandel (Diospyros melanoxylon)).
ivory reached Israel from India, Zohary seems sure that both Asian and African merchandise were 
shipped to the Phoenician commercial Dedan, on the Arabian coast. (ZOH). Common names below 
can be viewed as more generic than specicfi , the EFS names applying to Diospyros ebenum, D. 
embryopteris, and other species. I have left out any I am sure apply to our eastern persimmon.
Commo N Names (Coroma Ndel ):
Abanasi (Kan.; WOI); Abnus (Arab.; Hindi; Iran; Urdu; DEP; KAB); Abuus (Arab.; DEP); Balai 
(Kan.; Kanari; DEP; KAB); Bale (Kan.; WOI); Bois de Coromandel (Fr.; KAB); Coromandel (Eng.; 
WOI); Dirghapatraka (Sanskrit; WOI); Ebony (Eng.; WOI); Ebony Persimmon (Eng.; WOI); Gatto 
lazo (It. KAB); Gora Tiril (Kol.; DEP); Jalaja (Karai; Tam.; WOI); Kakatembhurnia (Mar.; KAB); 
Kari (Mal.; WOI); Karundumbi (Tam.; KAB; WOI); Karunthumb (Tam.; DEP); Kend (Beng; NAD); 
Kendu (Hindi; Oriya; DEP; KAB); Kenduka (Sanskrit; DEP); Kiril (San.; KAB); Kiu (Beng.; DEP); 
Mancigata (Tel.; WOI); Manjigata (Tel.; KAB); Nallatumki (Tel.; WOI); Ouk Chin Ya (Burma; DEP; 
KAB); Schwartzholzbaum (Ger.; NAD); Tamrug (Baroda; Guj.; KAB; WOI); Tembhurni (Thana; 
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DEP; KAB); Temburni (Kolaba; KAB); Tendu (Baigas; Hindi; Mar.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Timberni 
(Bom.; KAB); Timburni (Hindi; Mar.; DEP; WOI); Timru (Raj.; SKJ); Timrug (Guj.; DEP); Tumari 
(Kan.; WOI); Tumbi (Tam.; WOI); Tumburnni (Bom.; DEP); Tumi (Tel.; DEP); Tumki (Tel.; WOI); 
Tummer (Gond.; DEP; KAB); Tumru (Mar.; WOI); Tumvuru (Sanskrit; NAD); Nscn.
a Ctivities (Coroma Ndel ):
Antiseptic (f; SKJ); Astringent (f; DEP; EFS; WOI); Carminative (f; WOI); Depurative (f; WOI); 
Diuretic (f; WOI); Hemostat (f; WOI); Intoxicant (f; BIB); Laxative (f; WOI); Tonic (f; DEP; NAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (Coroma Ndel ):
Adenopathy (f; BIB); Anemia (f; BIB); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; DEP); Blood (f; WOI); Burn 
(f; BIB); Cardiopathy (f; BIB); Cerebrosis (f; BIB); Constipation (f; WOI); Corneosis (f; BIB); Derma-
tosis (f; WOI); Diarrhea (f; NAD; WOI); Dysentery (f; BIB; DEP; NAD); Dyspepsia (f; NAD; WOI); 
Dysuria (f; WOI); Epistaxis (f; BIB); Infection (f; SKJ); Leukorrhea (f; BIB); Nyctalopia (f; BIB); 
Ophthalmia (f; BIB) Palpitations (f; BIB); Scabies (f; BIB) Smallpox (f; BIB); Sore (f; BIB); Splenosis 
(f; BIB) Trichiasis (f; BIB) Uterosis (f; BIB); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Wen (f; BIB); Intoxicant (f; BIB).
d osages (Coroma Ndel ):
FNFF = !
Fruits edible (WOI).
• Asian Indians burn the bark to treat smallpox (BIB).
• Ayurvedics consider the fruits astringent, carminative, and good for biliousness (KAB).
• Hindus consider the seeds intoxicating, using them for heart palpitations, mental diso-r
ders, and nervous breakdowns (KAB).
• Indian Hakims apply powdered bark to corneal ulcers, using it internally with black pe-p
per for diarrhea, dysentery, and dyspepsia (KAB).
• Unani use the leaves for burns, epistaxis, ophthalmia, scabies, trichiasis, tubercular 
glands, and wens; the ofl wers for anemia, leucorrhea, nightblindness, scabies, splenitis, 
and urinary discharges (KAB).
RUss IAN o LIve ( el AeAgnus A ngustifoli A L.) ++ eLAeAGNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Elaeagnus angustifolia var. orientalis (L.) Kuntze; Elaeagnus hortensis M. Bieb.;
Elaeagnus moorcroftii Wall. ex Schltdl.; Elaeagnus orientalis L. fide (DEP; USN)
Notes (r ussia N o live ):
And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth 
unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm 
branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written.
Nehemiah 8:15 (KJV)
And that they should publish and proclaim in all their towns and in Jerusalem, “Go out to the 
hills and bring branches of olive, wild olive, myrtle, palm, and other leafy trees to make booths, 
as it is written.”
Nehemiah 8:15 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia).
And that they should make proclamation and cause a call to pass throughout all their cities and 
throughout Jerusalem, saying “Go out to the mountainous region and bring in olive leaves, and 
the leaves of oil trees and myrtle leaves and palm leaves and the leaves of branchy trees to make 
booths, according to what is written.”
Nehemiah 8:15 (NWT)
Some of the biblical references to oil or olive trees are believed to refer to the Russian olive, a com-
mon shrub in Palestine. I did not arrive at those conclusions; I just report them. The RSV makes a 
distinction between olive and wild olive, and the NWT distinguishes between the olive leaves and 
the oil trees. I like to think they are singling out leaves of Olea, fruits of which are one of the bet-
ter sources of oleic acid, a heart-friendly monounsaturated fatty acid, and tEhe laeagnus, the fruits 
of which are one of the better sources of prostate-friendly lycopene. The KHV does not suggest 
Elaeagnus to me at all. Speaking of Lebanon, my late friend, anthropologist Jane Philips, said, 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
“There is a sacralization of the olive and the oleaster in the area.” The plant is said to bring some 
people back from the shadows of death. Oleaster was called “umm-zayt” by an illiterate villager, 
who responded no when asked if that was the name of the plant, “that was what it is” (BIB; HJP). I 
also confess to having trouble distinguishing the species. Kirtikar and Basu illustrate and key three 
species, as follows:
• Endocarp hard and bony:
• — E. angustifolia
• Endocarp ribbed, coriaceous, closed inside with a dense felt of white hairs:
• — Fruits 6 mm long: E. umbellata
• — Fruit 2.5–3.8 cm long: E. latifolia
The oleaster yields an inferior oil, used as a medicine but not as a food. Spaniards use the ofl wer 
juice for malignant fevers. The seed oil is used for bronchitis and catarrh. The leaves are astringent. 
Seeds have been used in homeopathy. Lebanese use all parts of the plant medicinally, including hot 
ofl wers compressed onto neuralgia and aching wounds. Persons near death are sometimes turned 
around by the flower infusion (BIB).
Commo N Names (r ussia N o live ):
Árbol del Paraíso (Sp.; USN); Árvore-do-Paraíso (Por.; USN); Bohemian Olive (Eng.; DEP); Bull 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Chalef (Fr.; USN); Chalef à Feuilles Étroites (Fr.; USN); Dar el Kalbah (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Eleagno (It.; HHB); Gewöhnliche Ölweide (Ger.; HHB); Jerusalem Willow (Eng.; 
DEP; KAB); Nuqd (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Oil Tree (Eng.; NWT); Oleaster (Eng.; Ger.; DEP; USN); 
Olivagno (It.; HHB); Olivier de Bohême (Fr.; DEP; USN); Olivier des Sables (Fr.; KAB); Olivier 
Sauvage (Fr.; KAB); Olivo de Bohemia (Sp.; USN); Panjino (Sp.; USN); Paradusbaum (Ger.; HHB); 
Russian-olive (Eng.; USN); Sanjata (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Sanjit (Afg.; Pushtu; DEP; KAB); Sa-n
–
til (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Sanzalai (Zhob; KAB); ShaZa?o (Pin.; DAA); Shiulik (Hindi; Nwp.; DEP; 
KAB; NAD); Silverberry (Eng.; FNF); Sinjid (Pishin; Toba; KAB); Sinjit (Kharan; Pushtu; KAB); 
Sinjli (Barkhan; Bori; Sanjawi; KAB); Sinzalae (Kohlu; Bori; Sharig; KAB); Sinzalai (Barkhan; 
Bori; Sanjawi; KAB); Sirshing (Tibet; DEP; WOI); Sirsing (Tibet; DEP); Sugarberry (Eng.; FNF); 
Trebizond-Date (Eng.; USN); Wild Olive (Eng.; BIB; JLH; RSV); Wilde Oelbaume (Ger.; DEP); 
Zaqqum? (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Zayzafûn (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Zineid (Iran; DEP). Nscn.
a Ctivities (r ussia N o live ):
Allergenic (1; X15461599); Analgesic (f; BIB); Antiaggregant (1; FNF); Antibacterial (1; FNF); An-ti
cancer (1; FNF); Anticarcinogenic (1; FNF); Antiglaucomic (1; JNU); Antihepatotoxic (1; FNF); 
Antihistaminic (1; FNF); AntiHIV (1; FNF); Antiinafl mmatory (1; FNF; X10967484); Antileuke -
mic (1; FNF); Antileukotriene (1; FNF); Antilipoperoxidant (1; FNF); Antimutagenic (1; FNF); 
Antinitrosaminic (1; FNF); Antinociceptive (1; X10967484); Antioxidant (1; CRH (Feb.):13.1997; 
FNF); Antiperoxidant (1; FNF); Antipresbyopic (1; JNU); Antiprostatitic (1; CRH (Feb.):13.1997); 
Antiradicular (1; FNF; HAD); Antiseptic (f; BIB); Antispasmodic (1; FNF); Antitumor (1; FNF); 
Antitumor, bladder (1; NR56:35); Antitumor, brain (1; NR56:35); Antitumor, breast (1; NR56:35); 
Antitumor, cervical (1; NR56:35); Antitumor, colon (1; JNU); Antitumor, esophagus (1; JNU); Anti-
tumor, lung (1; JNU); Antitumor, mouth (1; JNU); Antitumor, pancreas (1; JNU); Antitumor, pros -
tate (1; NR56:35; JNU); Antitumor, rectum (1; JNU); Antitumor, stomach (1; JNU); Antiviral (1; 
FNF); Astringent (f; HHB); Cancer Preventive (1; 525); Cholagogue (1; FNF); Choleretic (1; FNF); 
COX-2 Inhibitor (1; FNF); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; FNF); Cytotoxic (1; FNF); Diuretic (1; 
FNF); Gastroprotective (f1; X12902057); Hepatoprotective (1; FNF); Hypocholesterolemic (1; FNF); 
Hypotensive (1; JBH); Immunostimulant (1; FNF); Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (1; FNF); Myorelaxant 
(1; X12648826); ODC Inhibitor (1; FNF); Prostaglandigenic (1; FNF); Sunscreen (1; FNF).
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iNdi Catio Ns (r ussia N o live ):
Bacteria (1; FNF); Bronchosis (f1; FNF; KAB; WOI); Burn (f; BIB; HJP); Cancer (f1; FNF; JLH; 
JNU);  Cancer (1; FNF); Cancer, bladder (1; NR56:35); Cancer, brain (1; NR56:35); Cancer, breast 
(1; NR56:35); Cancer, cervical (1; NR56:35); Cancer, colon (1; JNU); Cancer, esophagus (1; JNU); 
Cancer, lung (1; JNU); Cancer, pancreas (1; JNU); Cancer, prostate (1; NR56:35; JNU); Cancer, re- c
tum (1; JNU); Cancer, stomach (1; JNU); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH; JNU); Carcinoma (1; FNF); Catarrh 
(f; KAB; WOI); Cerebrosis (1; NR56:35); Cervicosis (1; FNF); Constipation (f; BIB; HJP); Cramp 
(1; FNF; X12648826); Cystosis (1; FNF); Dysuria (f; HAD); Enterosis (f1; BIB; JNU); Esophagosis 
(1; FNF); Fever (f; HHB; HJP); Gastrosis (f1; FNF; X12902057); Glaucoma (1; JNU); High Blood 
Pressure (1; FNF; JBH); High Cholesterol (1; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); Immunodepression (1; FNF); 
Infection (f; BIB; HJP); Inafl mmation (1; FNF; X10967484); Maculitis (1; FNF); Mastosis (1; FNF); 
Neuralgia (f; BIB; HJP); Pain (f1; BIB; HJP; X10967484); Pancreatosis (1; FNF); Presbyopia (1; 
JNU); Proctosis (1; FNF); Prostatosis (1; CRH (Feb.):13.1997; FNF); Pulmonosis (1; FNF); Stomato-
sis (f1; FNF; JLH);  Ulcer (f1; X12902057); Water Retention (1; FNF); Wound (f; BIB).
d osages (r ussia N o live ):
FNFF = !!
The fruit is small and insipid, or large and quite edible. I ate many of the astringent fruits as a boy 
in Carolina, not realizing I might be sharing a culinary experience with the children of Israel. The 
fruits, believed by some to be implied by some olive references in the Bible, are known as Trebizond 
dates, sometimes dried and powdered to make an Arabian breadstuff. An intoxicant is distilled 
from the fruits. Middle Easterners may boil the fruits (even spoiled fruits known as afouna) to 
express an oleaster oil, used rather like olive oil (BIB).
• Lebanese boil astringent leaves to treat enteric fevers (HJP).
• Lebanese consider the oil antiseptic, laxative, and apply it to burns (HJP).
• Lebanese apply heated flowers as a compress for neuralgia, pain, and wounds (HJP).
Natural History (r ussia N o live ):
Fruit is a favorite food of birds and mammals; leaves are eaten by sheep and goats (WOI).
extra Cts (r ussia N o live ):
Eleagnine is a racemic form of tetrahydroharman (HHB). Many of the activities and indications 
above followed by FNF are scored 1 because of suspected high lycopene content.
Ro CKet ( eruc A sAtiv A MILL.) ++ BRAss ICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Brassica eruca L.; Brassica erucoides Roxb.
Notes (r o Cket ):
And one went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine, and gathered thereof wild 
gourds his lap full, and came and shred them into the pot of pottage: for they knew them not. So 
they poured out for the men to eat. And it came to pass, as they were eating of the pottage, that 
they cried out, and said, O thou man of God, there is death in the pot. And they could not eat 
thereof. But he said, Then bring meal. And he cast it into the pot; and he said, Pour out for the 
people, that they may eat. And there was no harm in the pot.
2 Kings 4: 39–41 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Rocket (Eruca sativa).
One of them went out into the field to gather herbs, and found a wild vine and gathered from it 
his lap full of wild gourds, and came and cut them up into the pot of pottage, not knowing what 
they were. And they poured out for the men to eat. But while they were eating of the pottage, they 
cried out, “O man of God, there is death in the pot!” And they could not eat it. He said, “Then 
bring meal.” And he threw it into the pot, and said, “Pour out for the men, that they may eat.” 
And there was no harm in the pot.
2 Kings 4:39–41 (RSV)
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Accordingly a certain one went out to the field to pick mallows, and he got to find a wild vine and 
went picking wild gourds from it, his garment full, and then came and sliced them into the stew-
pot, for they were not acquainted with them. Later, they poured it out for the men to eat. And it 
came about, as soon as they ate from the stew, they themselves cried out and began saying, “There 
is death in the pot!, O man of the [true] God.” So he said “FETCH then, flour. After he threw it 
into the pot, he went on to say, “Pour out for the people, that they may eat.” And nothing injurious 
proved to be in the pot.
2 Kings 4:39–41 (RSV)
It seems that all my versions agree that edible herbs or mallows were gathered in the efi ld. But some -
thing poisoned the pottage, perhaps corrected by the addition of ofl ur. I have not seen any speculation 
on the wild gourd, but cucurbitacins in wild gourds could foul an edible green soup. Whether or not 
ofl ur or meal would correct that problem, I do not know. Yes, some scientists agree that this is the gar-
den vegetable mentioned in the Bible (Kings II 4:39–40) as “Oroth.” Zohary notes that the wordo roth 
is mentioned as a plant only once, in the quote above. Referring to the Gilgal area in the Jordan Valley, 
where the garden rocket (arabicj arjir) still occurs today, Bedouins collect it as potherb or salad. Since 
oroth also appears asg argir in the Talmud, it is plausible to identify it with the rocket. Oroth may not 
necessarily be a specicfi potherb, but the Aramaic translation as “vegetables” in the RSV may well be 
correct. This is supported by the biblical verb aroh meaning “to collect, pick, gather” (ZOH). Rabbi 
Yohanan tells us that Oroth clears the eyes (Talmud, 3rd century). “Both Dioscorides and Galen reco-m
mended eating seeds for increasing semen production.” ZOH “…In the Talmud and in the Rabbinical 
literature of the tenth century of Irak al-Qazwine of the thirteenth century indicated that eating seeds 
with honey will stimulate sexual desire.” ZOH “…The Jewish Mishnah mention(s) that Rocket was used 
as a pepper substitute. The seeds were crushed and the paste was used to afl vor meat.” ZOH
Commo N Names (r o Cket ):
Achnef (Ber.; BOU); Ackerrauke (Ger.; KAB); Ai’afein (Arab.; BOU); ‘Aisha (Arab.; BOU); Arugula 
(Eng.; USN); Assu (Pun.; SKJ); Baglet (Arab.; BOU); Bhutaghna (Sanskrit; SKJ); Bimbata (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Bou Kahli (Arab.; BOU); Chara (Kum.; KAB); Cress (Eng.; HJP); Daradharsha (Sanskrit; 
WOI); Djedjir (Arab.; BOU); Dua (Kum.; DEP); Duan (Nwp.; KAB); Eihukan (Iran; NAD); Eruca 
(Malta; KAB); Fedorênte (Mad.; Por; PST); Garden Rocket (Eng.; USN); Gargir (Arab.; BOU; ZOH); 
Gery (Arab.; BOU); Horf (Arab.; BOU); Jamba (Pun.; WOI); Jambeh (Iran; DEP; KAB); Jambeho 
(Sin.; KAB); Jambho (Mah.; Sind; DEP; NAD); Jamnia (Pun.; DEP); Jarjir (Arab.; NAD); Jirjir (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Lalu (Nwp.; DEP); Mulai (Loralai; KAB); Oroth (Heb.; ZOH); Oruga Común (Sp.; USN); 
Rábano Silvestre (Por.; USN); Rocket-Salad (Eng.; USN); Gargir (Arab.; BOU); Jamba (India; USN); 
Kerkas (Arab.; BOU); Lalu (Nwp.; KAB); Mandao (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Ölrauke (Ger; USN); Oruga 
(Sp.; KAB); Rashad (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Rawq (Arab.; BOU); Roka (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Roqueta (Sp.; 
USN); Roquette (Eng.; Fr.; BOU; USN); Roquette des Jardins (Fr.; KAB); Roquette Vraie (Fr.; BOU); 
Rouka (Arab.; BOU); Ruca (Cat.; KAB); Rucheta (It.; KAB); Rucola (It.; KAB; USN); Rugula (Eng.; 
USN); Ruke (Ger.; USN); Safed Sarson (Hindi; KAB); Safed Sarsu (Bom.; NAD); Sahwan (Nwp.; 
KAB); Salad Rocket (Eng.; USN); Senfkohl (Ger.; Hindi; India; Nwp.; KAB; USN); Tanakfail (Ber.; 
BOU); Tara (Nwp.; Pun.; KAB; SKJ; KAB); Senfrauke (Ger.; USN); Seoha (Hindi; WOI); Shiltam 
(Arab.; BOU); Shwetsursha (Beng.; KAB; NAD; SKJ); Siddarthra (Sanskrit; SKJ); Suffed Shorshi 
(Beng.; DEP); Tamamira (Pun.; NAD); Tamarira (Hindi; India; Nwp.; KAB; USN); Taramira (Pun.; 
NAD); Taramiri (Pun.; NAD); Thorfel (Ber.; BOU); Tira (Nwp.; KAB); Usan (Pun.; KAB).
a Ctivities (r o Cket ):
Antidiabetic (1; X11053894); Antioxidant (1; X11053894; X15796582); Antiscorbutic (f; BOU); 
Aphrodisiac (f; BOU; KAB); Bactericide (1; MPI); Deodorant (f; EB52:394); Depurative (f; HJP); 
Diuretic (f; HHB; KAB; SKJ; UPW); Epoxide Hydrolase Inducer (1; X15796582); Glutathionagenic 
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(1; X11053894); Glutathione-Transferase Inducer (1; X15796582); Phase-II-Detoxicant Inducer (1; 
X15796582); Quinone-Reductase Inducer (1; X15796582); Rubefacient (f; BOU; UPW); Stimulant 
(f; BOU; KAB; MPI); Spermagenic (f; EB52:394); Stomachic (f; KAB; MPI; UPW); Vesicant (f; 
KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (r o Cket ):
Acne (f; EB52:394); Adrenoleukodystrophy (1; FNF); Adrenomyeloneuropathy (1; FNF); Anemia 
(f; HJP); Bacteria (1; MPI); Bite (f; EB52:394); Cancer (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; EB52:394); De-r
matosis (f; KAB); Diabetes (1; X11053894); Epilepsy (f; KAB); Gastrosis (f; EB52:394); Hemor-
rhoid (f; KAB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hyperglycemic (1; X11053894); Impotence (f; BOU; EB52:394); 
Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; MPI); Inafl mmation (f; KAB); Itch (f; KAB); Nausea (f; KAB); 
Nephrosis (f; EB52:394); Ophthalmia (f; EB52:394); Salmonella (1; MPI); Shigella (1; MPI); Tooth-
ache (f; KAB).
d osages (r o Cket ):
FNFF = !!
Greens widely eaten, raw in salads or cooked. The Jewish Mishnah mentions that rocket was used 
as a pepper substitute. Crushed seeds were used to afl vor meat. Rocket was used “in the Holy Land 
during the Hellenistic period,” as a spice, a food, and a medicine. Mohammedens add the rocket 
juice to sour pomegranates to make them sweet (NAD; EB52:394).
• Ayurvedics view as cholagogue, stomachic, vermifuge, and use for dermatosis, epilepsy, 
hemorrhoid, inafl mmation, itch, leukoderma, nausea, and toothache (KAB).
• Egyptians eat the green salad as an aphrodisiac (BOU).
• Europeans consider the young leaves antiscorbutic, diuretic, stimulant, and stomachic 
(KAB).
• Israelis think that eating rocket on an empty stomach prevents sweat smells (EB52:394).
• Israelis apply ground seeds to the face for acne (EB52:394).
• Lebanese give a few drops of expressed juice to weak babies (HJP).
• Lebanese Gypsies use the herb for blood puricatfi ion (BOU).
• Near Easterners around the Holy Land think that eating seeds or using ground powder 
under the arms functions as a deodorant (EB52:394).
d ow Nsides (r o Cket ):
Eating too much may cause headache (EB52:394).
extra Cts (r o Cket ):
Barillari et al. (2005) note that rocket is mentioned in traditional pharmacopoeia and ancient -lit
erature for several therapeutic properties, and contains several health-promoting agents (e.g., car-ot
enoids, vitamin C, bfi ers, afl vonoids, and glucosinolates). The latter gained attention as precursors 
of isothiocyanates, potent inducers of phase-II detoxication process, important in the detoxicafi -
tion of electrophiles, and protection against oxidative stress. The major glucosinolate in rocket 
seeds is glucoerucin, (circa 100–110 µM/ g ZMB) representing 95% of total glucosinolates. Gl-u
coerucin is sometimes converted into sulforaphane, the most effective inducer of phase-II enzymes 
(X15796582). Eruca is the namesake of erucic acid, with some good and some bad activities. Erucic 
and oleic acids are constituents of the cinematic Lorenzo’s oil, which led to complete normalization 
of plasma levels of saturated very-long-chain fatty acids. If given early enough to those genetically 
targeted, it may help; however, the oil has no substantial effect on childhood adrenoleukodystrophy 
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once neurologic symptoms develop. The oil’s erucic acid content varies from 33% to 47%, eicose-
noic acid (C 20:1) from 7.3% to 9.8%. (EB52:394), and oleic acid circa 28% (HHB).
GALBANUM (f erul A gummos A Bo Iss.) + A pIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. & Buhse; Peucedanum galbaniflua (Boiss. & Buhse) Baill.
Notes (g alba Num ):
And the LORD said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; 
these sweet spices with pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight.
Exodus 30:34 (KJV)
And the LORD said to Moses, “Take sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum, sweet spices 
with pure frankincense (of each shall there be an equal part).
Exodus 30:34 (RSV)
And Jehovah went on to say to Moses, “Take to yourself perfumes; stacte drops and onycha, and 
perfumed galbanum, and pure frankincense. There should be the same portion of each.”
Exodus 30:34 (NWT)
Galbanum was an ingredient in the incense burned at the golden altar in the Holy Place, consistently 
with stacte and onycha and frankincense. Recent authorities maintain that “incense” used in the T-ab
ernacle services was a mixture, in definite proportions, of frankincense, galbanum (Ferula gumosa), 
onycha (Styrax benzoin), and stacte S( tyrax officinalis ). Use of any incense not composed of these 
four ingredients (in the proper proportions) was strictly forbidden. The galbanum is a fetid yellowish 
gum resin, containing a chemical substance calledu mbelliferone. The gum is collected by cutting 
the young stem a few inches above the ground. A milky juice ofl ws out and soon hardens. Today it is 
used in the manufacture of varnish. Galbanum oils and resinoids are used as fragrance components 
in lotions, perfumes, and soaps. Galbanum’s popularity has expanded because of the “herbaceous-
green” odored personal care products on the market. Extracts of galbanum have preservative and 
antimicrobial properties. Aqueous, hydroalcoholic, and chloroform extracts are all antiseptic.
Commo N Names (g alba Num ):
Bariji (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Barzhad (Arab.; EFS); Galbanum (Eng.; Fr.; Scn.; Tur.; CR2; EFS); G-al
banumbaum (Ger.; EFS); Galbensaft (Ger.; HH3); Gandhabiroza (India; EFS); Gaoshira (Sanskrit; 
EFS); Jawashir (India; EFS); Kinneha (Iran; EFS); Moederharsboom (Dutch; EFS); Muttergummi 
(Ger.; HH3); Mutterharzbaum (Ger.; EFS); Mutterharz (Ger.; HH3); Quanawashaq (Arab.; JLH); 
Qinnah (Arab.; Syria; HJP).
a Ctivities (g alba Num ):
Anticonvulsant (1; X12241984); Antiedemic (f; BIB; HJP); Antiepileptic (1; X12241984); Antisep-
tic (f1; BIB; PH2; X15567258); Antispasmodic (1; X11695880); Bactericide (1; HH3 X15567258); 
Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Emollient (f; BIB); Escherichia (1; X15567258); Expectorant (f; EFS; PH2); 
Gram(+)-icide (1; X15567258); Stimulant (f; EFS; PH2); Stomachic (f; BIB); Uterotonic (f; BIB); 
Vulnerary (f; HJP; PH2).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Galbanum (Ferula gummosa).
iNdi Catio Ns (g alba Num ):
Addiction (1; X11483380); Allergy (f; BIB; HJP); Amenorrhea (f; EFS); Asthma (f; SKJ); Bacteria 
(1; HH3; X15567258); Bronchosis (f; SKJ); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, 
breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, gum (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, parotid 
(f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testicles (f; JLH); Cancer, 
uterus (f; JLH); Caries (f; BIB); Chilblain (f; BIB); Cold (f; BIB; HJP); Colic (f; BIB; HJP); Cramp 
(f; BIB); Diarrhea (f1; X11695880); Dyspepsia (f; BIB; PH2); Edema (f; BIB); Enterosis (f1; BIB; 
X11695880); Epilepsy (1; X12241984); Escherichia (1; X15567258); Gas (f; PH2); Gastrosis (f1; 
BIB; X11695880); Gingivosis (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hysteria (f; BIB); Induration (f; JLH); 
Infection (f1; HH3; PH2; X15567258); Inafl mmation (f; JLH); Mastosis (f; BIB); Morphinism (1; 
X11483380); Neurosis (f; BIB); Orchosis (f; JLH); Otosis (f; BIB); Parotosis (f; JLH); Phymata 
(f; JLH); Polyp (f; BIB; JLH); Rheumatism (f; EFS); Scleroma (f; JLH); Spasm (1; X11695880); 
Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; HH3); Swelling (f; BIB; HJP; JLH); Uterosis (f; JLH); With-
drawal (1; X11483380); Wound (f; HJP; PH2).
d osages (g alba Num ):
FNFF = !
Galbanum oils and resinoids are used as afl vor components in many foods, including non-alcoholic 
beverages, baked goods, candies, condiments, gelatins, puddings, relishes; the oil is used in meats 
and gravies (BIB). 0.3–1 g resin (HHB).
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• Lebanese use imported galbanum as stomachic tonic for colds and colic (HJP).
• Lebanese work resin into hot olive oil to dress wounds (HJP).
extra Cts (g alba Num ):
LD50 Sodium galbanate = 227 mg/kg ipr mus (HH3).
FIG (f icus c Aric A L.) ++ Mo RACeAe
Notes (Fig ):
For Isaiah had said, Let them take a lump of figs , and lay it for a plaister upon the boil, and he 
shall recover.
Isaiah 38:21 (KJV)
Now Isaiah had said, “Let them take a cake of figs , and apply it to the boil, that he may recover.”
Isaiah 38:21 (RSV)
And Isaiah proceeded to say, “Let them take a cake of pressed dried figs , and rub [it] upon the 
boil, that he may revive.”
Isaiah 38:21 (NWT)
Do I poultice my boil with a lump of fresh gfi s, a cake of dried gfi s, or rub the boil with a cake of 
pressed dried gfi s? For myself, I would drip some of the milk from the stem on my boil if I had the 
plant handy, but I would try dried gfi s in a pinch. The leaves of the gfi , first fruit recorded in the 
Bible, were used to cover Adam and Eve’s nakedness. I do not know about Adam and Eve but, with 
me, the leaves cause violent itching in contact with my bare skin. Other members of the g fi fam -
ily, if not the g fi itself, have been used to make bark cloth, which is much more comfortable. To sit 
under one’s own vine and g fi tree was the Jewish concept of peace and prosperity as indicated in I 
Kings 4:25. Fig leaves are still sewn together and used as wrappings for fresh fruit. To Egyptians, 
the g fi represented the Tree of Life. Some suggest that the g fi was the forbidden fruit of the Garden 
of Eden. They believe that eating the dried fruits facilitates conception.
Let me once again quote from one of hundreds of letters I received back when I was with the USDA, 
leading their Medicinal Plants Laboratory. “I have just read your article about searching for plants that 
contain anticancer chemicals. For a long time I have believed that gfi s would be used in the treatment 
of cancer. My reason — in II Kings Chap. 20 in the King James Version of the Bible beginning with 
the 1st verse through 7. Please read it and see what you think. I do pray to God that something will 
come through soon.” I read the scripture he suggested. “And Isaiah said, Take a lump of gfi s. And they 
took and laid it on the boil, and he recovered.” (II Kings 20:7). After reading that letter and scripture, I 
went to Jonathan Hartwell’sP lants Used against Cancer; and there among more than three full pages 
of anticancer folklore, found that folklore suggested gfi s for many cancerous conditions (e.g., cancer of 
the gums and uterus; calluses; condylomata; corns; exacerbations; excrescences of the eyelids, vulva, 
or uterus; bfi roids; impostumes; moles; myrmecia; neoplasms; polyps; scleroses of the cervix, kidney, 
limbs, liver, sinews, spleen, stomach, testicles, and uterus; thymi; tumors of the abdomen, bladder, fau-
ces, feet, glands, liver, neck, parotid, uterus, and windpipe; warts; and wens (BIB).
Commo N Names (Fig ):
A Tsang (China; EFS); Anjir (Afg.; Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Iran; Kharan; Kon.; Mar.; Nepal; Urdu; 
KAB; NPM); Anjira (Bom.; Sanskrit; AH2; KAB); Anjra (Guj.; NAD); Anjur (Kon.; KAB); Anjura 
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8202_C001.indd   188 11/12/07   2:33:28 PM
FIGURe . Fig (Ficus carica.)
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
(Kan.; KAB); Anjuru (Tel.; KAB); Aviavimbazaha (Hova; KAB); Azart (Ber.; BOU); Bakhis (Ber.; 
BOU); Berbereira (Mad.; Por.; PST); Bilaitloa (Mun.; KAB); Bou (Provence; KAB); Breva (Sp.; 
AVP); Brevo (Sp.; JFM); Cabrahigo (Sp.; KAB); Caprigfi uier (Fr.; AVP); Carique (Fr.; BOU); Cha -
gar el tin (Arab.; AVP); Common Fig (Eng.; VOD); Doomoor (Beng.; NAD); Doomoot (India; EFS); 
Echte Feige (Ger.; USN); Emohi (Ber.; BOU); Fagari (Pun.; KAB); Fagu (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Faguri 
(Pun.; KAB); Feige (Ger.; AVP); Feigenbaum (Ger; EFS; KAB; USN); Fico (It.; KAB; USN); Fig 
(Creole; Eng.; Haiti; Scn.; AH2; CR2; NPM; VOD); Fig Frans (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Figener (Den.; 
EFS); Figo (It.; Por.; AVP; KAB); Figovoi Drava (Rus.; KAB); Figu (Ma.; JFM); Figue France 
(Haiti; AVP); Figueira (Mad.; Por.; KAB; PST); Figueira Brava (Por.; KAB); Figueira comun (Ma.; 
JFM); Figueira de Baco (Ma.; JFM); Figuera (Cat.; KAB); Figuera Borda (Cat.; KAB); Figuier 
(Fr.; AHL; BOU; KAB); Figuiera (Por.; AHL; USN); Figuier Blanc (Fr.; AHL); Figuier Commun 
(Fr.; USN); Fijge (Ma.; JFM); Fikontrae (Swe.; KAB); Fugefa (Hun.; KAB); Fugu (Pun.; KAB); 
Higo (Peru; Sp.; AHL; AVP; DAV; USN); Higo Extranjero (Dr.; Sp.; AHL); Higuera (Peru; Sp.; 
KAB; DAV); Higuera Comun (Sp.; USN); Hinjir (Sibi; KAB); Incir Agasi (Tur.; EFS); Inzar (Sibi; 
KAB); Kakodumbar (Sanskrit; KAB); Karm (Arab.; BOU); Karmus (Arab.; BOU); Kerma (Arab.; 
Tunisia; AVP; BOU); Kimri (Pun.; KAB); Kohianjir (Sarawan; KAB); Krade (Greek; JLH); Kuru 
Incir (Tur.; EB51:195); Lovea si Phle (Cam.; JLH); Manjimeda (Tel.; KAB); Manjula (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Medi (Tel.; KAB); Modipatu (Tel.; KAB); Moo Fah (China; EFS); Olynthoi (Greek; JLH); 
Pushposhunyo (Oriya; KAB); Ravi (Iran; EFS); Saphansi (Burma; NAD); Shimeatti (Tam.; NAD); 
Simaiyatta (Tam.; KAB); Simayatta (Mal.; KAB); Simayatti (Tel.; KAB); Simeyatti (Kan.; KAB); 
Smochin (Rom.; KAB); Smokovnitsa (Rus.; KAB); Sykas (Greek; JLH); Syki (Greek; KAB); Sykia 
(Greek; KAB); Taguerout (Ber.; BOU); Tamazate (Ber.; BOU); Tamehit (Ber.; BOU); Tanaglet 
(Ber.; BOU); Tazert (Ber.; BOU); Ten (Arab.; KAB); Tenach (Heb.; KAB); Tenatti (Tam.; KAB); 
Teneyatti (Tel.; KAB; NAD); Tiethie (Burma; KAB); Tin (Arab.; KAB); Tin Teen (Arab.; EFS); 
Tine (Arab.; BOU); Udeunbara (Sanskrit; EFS); Vijgeboom (Dutch; EFS); Vijgenboom (Dutch; 
KAB); Wu Hua Guo (Pin.; DAA; USN); Wu hua Kuo (China; EFS; KAB); Yemis (Tur., EB49:406); 
Ying Jeh Kuo (China; EFS); Yu T’an Po (China; EFS).
a Ctivities (Fig ):
Alexiteric (f; BIB); Allergenic (1; HH3); Analgesic (f; EB49:406); Anthelmintic (1; GHA; HHB; 
X15727070; X11473446); Anticancer (1; X11473446); Antidiabetic (1; X12682822); Antidote (f; 
BOU); AntiHSV-1 (1; X15613791); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; VAD); Antileukemic (1; X11473446); 
Antilymphomic (1; X114734460); Antimutagenic (1; X15131968); Antioxidant (1; X12682822); 
Antisarcomic (1; X11473446); Antiseptic (f; AHL; BIB); Antitumor (breast) (1; X11473446); Anti-
tumor (prostate) (1; X11473446); Antitussive (f; DAV); Antiviral (1; X15613791); Aperient (f; BIB); 
Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; HH3); Ascaricide (1; WOI); Balsamic (f; VAD); Catabolic (1; X11473446); 
Demulcent (f; BIB; DEP; EFS; VOD); Deodorant (f; KAB); Digestive (f1; BIB; VAD); Diuretic (f1; 
BIB; GHA; HH3); Emollient (f; BIB; BOU; DEP; EFS; VOD); Expectorant (f; BIB; EFS); Hypocho-
lesterolemic (1; X11032050); Hypoglycemic (1; X11473446); Lactagogue (f; DAA; NMH); Laxative 
(f; BIB; DEP; EFS; GHA); Litholytic (f; BIB; GHA; KAB); Mnemonic (f; RAR); Nematicide (1; 
X15727070); Pectoral (f; AHL; BIB); Phototoxic (1; HH3); Proteolytic (1; GHA; WOI); Purgative 
(f; BIB); Restorative (f; BIB); Stimulant (f; DAV; RAR); Stomachic (f; BIB); Suppurative (f; DEP); 
Tonic (f; BIB; BOU; GHA); Toxic (f; DAV); Vermifuge (f1; BIB; GHA).
iNdi Catio Ns (Fig ):
Abscess (f; BIB); Adenopathy (f1; HHB; JLH; SOU); Alopecia (f; BIB); Anemia (f; WOI); Ascaris 
(1; WOI); Asthma (f; AHL; BIB; JFM); Boil (f; BIB; VOD); Bronchosis (f; DEP); Burn (f; VAD); 
Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f; BIB); Cancer, abdomen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, breast (1; FNF; HHB; X11473446); Cancer, cervix (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; FNF; 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
JLH); Cancer, eye (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, feet (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gum (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, 
kidney (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, parotid (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, prostate (1; X11473446); Cancer, spleen 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, testicle (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, vulva (1; FNF; JLH); Carbuncle (f; BIB); 
Catarrh (f; BIB; KAB); Cervicosis (f; JLH); Cheilosis (f; KAB); Childbirth (f; DAV); Cold (f; HH3; 
JFM; VOD); Colic (f; VAD); Condyloma (f; BIB; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; BIB; BOU); Constipa-
tion (f; DEP; KAB; VAD); Corn (f; BIB; DAA); Cough (f; BIB; HH3); Cystosis (f; JLH); Dandruff 
(f; DAV; SOU); Depression (f; GHA); Diabetes (f1; JFM; X12682822); Diarrhea (f; EB51:195); 
Diphtheria (f; BIB); Dropsy (f; SOU); Dysentery (f; PH2); Emphysemic (f; VAD); Enterosis (f; PH2; 
VAD); Epistaxis (f; KAB); Fibroid (f; JLH); Flu (f; AHL; BIB); Fracture (f; DAV); Freckle (f; BOU; 
GHA); Furuncle (f; VAD); Gastrosis (f; DAA; JLH; VAD); Gingivosis (f; BIB; JLH); Glossosis (f; 
KAB); Gout (f; KAB); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB; HH3; NPM); Hepatosis (f; HH3; JLH); Hernia (f; DAV); 
Herpes (1; X15613791); High Triglycerides (1; X11473446); HSV-1 (1; X15613791); Impostume (f; 
JLH); Impotence (f; DEP); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; FNF; KAB; X15613791); Inafl mmation 
(f; BIB); Leprosy (f; BOU; KAB); Leukemia (1; FNF; HHB; X11473446); Leukoderma (f1; DEP; 
FNF); Lymphoma (1; FNF; HHB; X11473446); Mastosis (f; EB51:195); Measles (f; BIB); Mole (f; 
JLH); Mucososis (f1; KAB; VOD); Mycosis (f1; FNF; KAB); Myrmecia (f; JLH); Nematode (1; 
X15727070); Nephrosis (f; GHA; JLH); Neurosis (f; GHA); Obesity (1; X11473446); Ophthalmia (f; 
BOU; JLH); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; BIB; EB49:50); Papillomatosis (1; X14720183); Paralysis (f; 
BIB); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pertussis (f; BIB; JFM); Pharyngosis (f; VAD); Phymata (f; JLH); Pimple 
(f; BIB); Polyp (f; BIB); Pulmonosis (f; JLH); Respirosis (f; VAD); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Ringworm (f1; 
FNF; KAB); Sarcoma (1; FNF; HHB; X11473446); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Scrofula (f; BIB; EFS); Sore 
(f; JLH); Sore Throat (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; HH3; JLH; NAD); Stomachache (f; DAA); Stomatosis 
(f; JLH; NAD; VAD); Stone (f; GHA; NAD); Stress (f; GHA); Swelling (f; JLH); Thirst (f; BIB); 
Thrush (f; BIB); Toothache (f; JFM); Tuberculosis (f; DEP); Tumor (f; BIB; VOD); Uterosis (f; JLH); 
Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Virus (1; X15613791); Wart (f1; BIB; NPM; VOD; X14720183); Wen (f; 
JLH); Worm (f1; BIB; X15727070); Wound (f; JFM); Yeast (f; BIB).
d osages (Fig ):
FNFF = !!!
Figs are eaten fresh or dried and threaded on long strings. “Cakes of Figs” are mentioned in I 
Samuel 25:18, and these were consumed for travel. North Africans make a tonic anis-eafl vored g fi
brandy (BIB; BOU); 30 g fig syrup (HH3).
• Africans drop fig latex in ant holes to drive them away (BIB).
• Africans use the fresh root in a lotion for thrush (BIB).
• Arabs deem the Smyrna fig a better aphrodisiac (DEP).
• Asian Indians apply leaf juice early in leukoderma (DEP) (furanocoumarins; JAD).
• Asian Indians suggest the fruit pulp with vinegar and sugar for pediatric bronchitis (DEP).
• Ayurvedics use the fruit for epistaxis, leprosy, and diseases of the blood and head (KAB).
• Chinese apply the leaves to hemorrhoids (BIB).
• Cubans drink strained leaf decoction for chest ailments (JFM).
• Haitians apply latex to warts, and roasted half figs to boils and tumors (VOD).
• Haitians eat raw, dry, or roasted fig, often with senna, as a laxative (VOD).
• Haitians take demulcent fig decoction for colds (VOD).
• Hispaniolans suggest aromatic leaf tea taken for asthma and flu (AHL).
• Latinos smoke the leaves for asthma (JFM).
• Lithuanians eat figs with dates, raisins, and wheat bread for cancer (JLH).
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• North Africans suggest the leaf decoction to erase freckles (BOU).
• Latinos steep ripe fruits in booze overnite, then eat on empty stomach for pertussis (JFM).
• Latinos boil three sundried leaves 15 minutes in 300 g water for diabetes (JFM).
• Unani use the root for leucoderma and ringworm, the alexiteric, aphrodisiac, litholytic, 
purgative, tonic, fruit for alopecia, chest pains, hepatosis, fever, inafl mmations, paralysis, 
piles, splenosis, and thirst. They regard the milky juice as diuretic, expectorant, yet da-n
gerous to the eyes (KAB).
• Yemeni eat mixed dates, gfi s, honey, and raisins for depression and nervous tension (GHA).
d ow Nsides (Fig ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates no specic qfi uantiefi d dosage! JAD).
extra Cts (Fig ):
Wang et al. (2004) found an antiviral (herpes simplex) effect in g fi leaf extracts with relatively 
low toxicity (X15613791). Stepek et al. (2005) demonstrated an expected anthelmintic effect of 
natural plant cysteine proteinases against a GI nematodeH, eligmosomoides polygyrus, in vitro. 
Cysteine proteinases from papaya, pineapple, gfi , and Egyptian milkweed all damaged the cuticle 
of H. polygyrus. LD50 values indicated that the puriefi d proteinases were more efcafi cious than 
the proteinases in the crude latex, with puriefi d cfi in, papain, chymopapain, Egyptian milkweed 
latex extract, and pineapple fruit extract containing fruit bromelain, having the most potent effect 
(X15727070). Agabeili et al. (2004) found antimutagenic and genoprotective activities with g fi
extracts (X15131968). Hemmatzadeh et al. (2003) successfully treated bovine papillomatosis with 
g fi latex (comparable to salicylic acid) (X14720183). Perez et al. (2003) found that g fi extracts are 
useful in diabetes; the extracts tend to normalize antioxidant status (X12682822). Poultice of dried 
gfi s in milk is said to deodorize malignant cancers (KAB).
sy CAMo Re FIG (f icus sycomorus L.) + Mo RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Ficus cocculifolia Baker; Ficus gnaphalocarpa (Miq.) A. Rich.; Ficus sycomorus subsp. gnapha-
locarpa (Miq.) C.C. Berg; Ficus trachyphylla (Miq.) Miq.; Sycomorus gnaphalocarpa Miq.; Syco-
morus trachyphylla Miq.
Notes (syCamore Fig ):
Then answered Amos, and said to Amaziah, I was no prophet, neither was I a prophet’s son; but 
I was an herdman, and a gatherer of sycamore fruit.
Amos 7:14 (KJV)
Then Amos answered Amazi’ah, “I am no prophet, nor a prophet’s son; but I am a herdsman, 
and a dresser of sycamore trees.
Amos 7:14 (RSV)
Then Amos answered and said to Amazi’ah, “I was not a prophet, neither was I the son of a 
prophet; but I was a herdsman, and a nipper of figs of sycamore trees.
Amos 7:14 (RSV)
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FIGURe . Sycamore Fig (Ficus sycomorus).
The sycamore gfi that Zacchaeus allegedly climbed to see Jesus pass is a curious tree combining the 
characteristics of gfi and mulberry. Its porous but durable wood was used for temples and auditoria, 
as well as for fashioning mummy chests or coffins (sarcophagi) found in perfect condition after more 
than 3000 years (BIB; FP1). Others say it is only tfi for fuel. African Masai use twigs in fire making. 
The milky latex, like many other gfi species, contains rubber-like compounds. In the Holy Land, it 
is frequently planted as a shade tree, the shade reported to have embraced the Virgin Mary. “At M-ar
have is a large sycamore or Pharaoh’s Fig, very old, but which bears fruit every year. They say that 
upon the Virgin passing that way with her son Jesus and being pursued by the people, this Fig tree 
opened to receive her and closed her in again, until the people had passed by and then opened again. 
The tree is still shown to travelers” (BIB). Zohary (FP1) notes that the plant is widely cultivated in 
the Holy Land (e.g., on the coastal plain and the Jordan Valley), but native to Ethiopia and elsewhere 
in tropical eastern Africa. Not setting viable seed, it is easily propagated by cuttings.
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Commo N Names (syCamore Fig ):
A Nak (Guinea; UPW); Djimez (Arab.; Niger; UPW); Figuier Sycomore (Fr.; USN); Ga (Mali; 
UPW); Gamiesa (Arab.; Nig.; UPW); Ganlu (Dahomey; UPW); Grande Sycomore (Fr.; UPW); 
Gummays (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Jiben Yadek (Gambia; UPW); Jummays (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kan-k
anga (Ivo.; UPW); Kilumpui (Ghana; UPW); Kobahi (Upper Volta; UPW); Madaka (Sen.; UPW); 
Mulberry Fig (Eng.; JLH; USN); Ndahi (Sierra Leone; UPW); Nouhe (Eng.; JLH); Pharaoh’s Fig 
(Eng.; FAC); Shikmim (Heb.; ZOH); Shikmoth (Heb.; ZOH); Sicomoro (Sp.; USN); Sycamore Fig 
(Eng.; USN); Sycamore of Cyprus (Eng.; JLH); Sycomore (Eng.; USN); Sykomore (Ger.; USN); 
Tcheque (Guinea-Bissau; UPW); Tin el Jummays (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (syCamore Fig ):
Antidote (f; HJP); Antiseptic (f1; HJP; X8170162); Cholagogue (f; UPW); Depurative (f; BIB; HJP); 
Lactagogue (f; BIB); Purgative (f; UPW).
iNdi Catio Ns (syCamore Fig ):
Abrasion (f; BIB; HJP); Adenopathy (f; UPW); Bacteria (1; X8170162); Burn (f; JLH); Cancer (f; 
JLH); Cancer, fauces (f; JLH); Cancer, limbs (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Caries (f; UPW); 
Cerebrosis (f; UPW); Chest ache (f; UPW); Cirrhosis (f; BIB); Cough (f; BIB; UPW); Depression (f; 
BIB); Dermatosis (f1; X8170162); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Dropsy (f; UPW); Dysentery (f; UPW); Fever 
(f; BIB); Gastrosis (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; UPW); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; BIB; X8170162); 
Inafl mmation (f; BIB; JLH; UPW); Jaundice (f; UPW); Melancholy (f; BIB); Pertussis (f; UPW); 
Pulmonosis (f; BIB); Respirosis (f1; X8170162); Sarcoma (1; UPW); Scrofula (f; BIB); Snakebite (f; 
UPW); Sore (f; HJP); Sore Throat (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomachache (f; UPW); Swelling (f; 
UPW); Tetanus (f; HJP); Tumor (f; JLH); Typhoid (f; BIB); Wart (f; JLH); Wound (f; BIB; HJP).
d osages (syCamore Fig ):
FNFF = !!
Produced in several crops per year, the yellowish fruit smells like an ordinary g fi but is inferior in 
taste and sugar content. In olden times, fruits were much consumed by the poor, raw or cooked, and 
even sold in the markets. Some Africans consume with millet or ferment a beverage. Leaves also 
eaten in soups or in peanut dishes. Latex serves as a vegetable rennet (BIB; FAC; ZOH).
• Egyptians apply the milk to burns, cancers, indurations, and warts (JLH).
• East Africans use the bark for sore throat, the Masai for diarrhea (BIB; UPW).
• Ethiopians use the root to prevent typhoid (BIB).
• Ghanans give bark decoction for cough and whooping cough (UPW).
• Ghanans, Senegalese, and Upper Voltans use for snakebite (UPW).
• Hausa Nigerians collect root sap in a cup to treat pediatric cough (UPW).
• Lebanese apply the latex to shallow abrasions and skin infections to ward off tetanus, 
using bark decoction for blood poisoning (HJP).
• Mali natives apply the latex to carious teeth (UPW).
• Senegalese use latex for dysentery, and the bark for chest ache, glandular inafl mmations, 
and stomach problems (UPW).
• Tenda women make leaf soup with millet to ensure adequate lactation (UPW).
Natural History (syCamore Fig ):
For complex reasons, the sycamore gfi is completely dependent on man, who has saved it from extinc -
tion. Fertilization by wasps is necessary for ripening of the fruits, but no seeds are produced in the 
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process, as the ovaries are turned into galls, which are inedible. Ancient Hebrews incised young fruits 
with a special knife, in a process called gashingb (alos), mentioned in the RSV version of Amos 7:14, 
“I am a herdman, and a dresser of sycomore trees,” but missed in the KJV. Cypriots and Egyptians 
use the same method. For some reason, the wasp-dependent variety in Israel was replaced by a pa-r
thenocarpic variety, which has no need for the wasp in ripening its seedless fruits. This species bears 
fruits several times a year in the Holy Land (ZOH). Zohary refutes some scholars’ speculation that the 
sycamore gfi was introduced from Africa, perhaps by Natuafi n Man circa 10,000 years ago. Zohary 
thinks it is more likely a tertiary relic of an earlier coastal tropical ofl ra (withA cacia albida, Ziziphus 
spina-christi) (ZOH). Fruits and leaves are fed to cows to increase the ofl w of milk, especially in arid 
areas (BIB). Most animals and birds eat the fruits; cattle and sheep browse the leaves (UPW).
extra Cts (syCamore Fig ):
Fruit extracts exhibited antitumor activity in potato disc bioassay, and had signicafi nt antibacterial 
activity but no antifungal activity (X8170162).
MANNA (FRo M f r Axinus ornus L.) ++ o LeACeAe
Notes (ma NNa):
Behold, we have sent you money to buy you burnt offerings, and sin offerings, and incense, and 
prepare ye manna.
Baruch 1:10
Manna, at least in this account oFf raxinus, refers to the exudate from the ash tree, not the ash tree 
itself, with many names and indications of its own. According to the Moldenkes, there are three 
distinct types of manna in the Bible, the more familiar first type secured by purchase and trade, con-
sisting of the gummy exudates of Fraxinus ornus, Alhagi maurorum, or Tamarix mannifera. Danin 
(Econ. Bot. 26:373, 1972) adds to this list Acacia raddiana, Anabasis setifera, Astragalus echinus, 
Capparis cartitaginea, Capparis spinosa, Gomphocarpus sinaicus, Hammada salicornica, and 
Pyrethrum santolinoides as sources of manna (BIB). Some of these are treated elsewhere. Zohary 
explains that, etymologically, manna stems from man or man ha = “What is that?” And he too 
fails to answer the question authoritatively. He seems to favor the interpretation that manna was an 
exudate from scaly insects Trabulina mannifera or Najacoccus serpentina feeding on the tamarisk 
or, even more likely, the white hammada, Hammada salicornia, which is widespread in southern 
Sinai. They exude a sweet liquid that hardens and drops to the ground to be gathered by the B-ed
ouins like honey or sugar. Yet another type grew up during the night when the ground was moist, 
but “withered away” and “stank” with the heat of the sun (Exodus 16). The Moldenkes suggest that 
this was Nostoc, a tiny blue-green algae that grows rapidly during the night. Soft and gelatinous, 
these algal growths “disappear as the sun evaporates the dew, only to reappear the next night if 
there is abundant dew.” (Moldenke and Moldenke, 1952) A third type “fell from heaven” (Numbers 
11). Botanists tend to suspect lichens of the genus Lecanora, which after periods of drought dry up, 
curl up, break loose from the ground, and are transported by the wind. Sheep relish these lichens 
and Bedouins make a bread therefrom. Circa 1889, a shower of such lichens fell into Iran during a 
great famine (BIB). Clearly, Fraxinus ornus does produce manna and there has been trade in that 
manna. Only Fraxinus syriaca is reported in the Flora of Palestine (FP3). So if the biblical manna 
was Fraxinus, it would have to have been from that Syrian species, or imported from outside. The 
Fraxinus manna can be secured either as afl kes (“afl ke manna”), fragments (“common manna”), or 
a viscid mass (“fat manna”). A good ash tree can yield a pound or more per season. Annual prod-uc
tion in Sicily, where manna was once produced commercially, was circa 750 tons. The first medicine 
mentioned in the Moldenke’s book, manna is described as a gentle laxative, demulcent, and expe-c
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FIGURe . Fraxinus ornus. Source of manna.
 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
torant. In Grieve’s A Modern Herbal, we read that manna was chiey fl used as a children’s laxative or 
to disguise other medicines. In 1906, Dr. Steinberg is said to have recommended dulcinol, a mixture 
of manna and common salt as a sweetening agent in diabetes. Duke and Wain list the following as 
uses: aperient, debility, laxative, purgative, restorative, and tonic (DAW). The leaves of the manna 
ash contain, in addition to aesculetin, cichoriin, ornol, and sedoheptulose, two marginal antitumor 
compounds: ursolic acid and rutin. Aesuletin and aesculin are anti-inafl mmatory. According to 
Uphof, manna from Fraxinus contains glucose, levulose, manneotetrose, mannite, manninotriose, 
and resin. Ash was recommended by Lebanese for diarrhea and malaria and the bark afl kes for 
fever. Algerians powdered the seeds in olive oil and honey for gonorrhea (BIB).
Commo N Names (ma NNa):
Manna (Eng.; CR2).
a Ctivities (ma NNa):
Aperient (f; DAW); Astringent (f; MAD); Demulcent (f; BIB); Expectorant (f; BIB); Laxative (1; 
KOM; PH2); Purgative (f; MAD); Restorative (f; BIB); Tonic (f; DAW); Vermifuge (f; MAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (ma NNa):
Constipation (f1; KOM; PH2); Debility (f; DAW); Diabetes (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid (1; KOM); Procti-
tis (1; KOM); Scrofula (f; MAD); Worm (f; MAD).
d osages (ma NNa):
FNFF = !
10–50 g manna in milk (HHB); 20–30 g manna (adult) (KOM; PH2); 2–16 g manna (child) 
(KOM; PH2).
d ow Nsides (ma NNa):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2). Can cause atfl ulence in sensitive patients (KOM). Contraindicated in cases of 
bowel obstruction (KOM). Do not take laxatives long term without consulting a physician (KOM).
Natural History (ma NNa):
Manna is extruded from scaly insects feeding on various treesT. rabulina mannifera or Najacoccus 
serpentina feed on the tamarisk. They exude a sweet liquid that hardens and drops to the ground 
and can be gathered as a sweet stuff. Named for manna, mannitol, a sugar, is found in leaves of 
Fraxinus ornus L., F. angustifolia Vahl., Olea europaea L., and Phillyrea media L., all members 
of the olive family. In the two ash species, mannitol content gradually increases in spring, pea-k
ing in summer, followed by a gradual decrease (260–720 µM/g ZMB). Rainfall seems negatively 
correlated with seasonal increase in mannitol content, reaching a maximum at the end of the dry 
season (X12197521).
extra Cts (a sH):
As to the ash itself, Stefanova et al. found antidemic and antiinafl mmatory activity with bark extract 
injections, the inafl mmatory activity partially due to its coumarins (X7650947). Kostova reported 
hydroxycoumarins, secoiridoid glucosides, phenylethanoids, afl vonoids, and signicafi nt antimicro-
bial, antioxidative, photodynamic damage prevention, wound healing, antiinafl mmatory, immuno-
modulatory, and antiviral activities support folkloric use of the bark (X11429238).
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LevANt C otto N (g ossypium herb Aceum L.) + MALvACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Gossypium abyssinicum Watt.; Gossypium africanum Watt.; Gossypium arboreum var. wrightia-
num Tod.; Gossypium cambayense var. wrightianum Tod.; Gossypium eglandulosum Cav.; Gos-
sypium obtusifolium Roxb. & G. Don; Gossypium punctatum var. acerifolium Tod.; Gossypium 
wrightianum Tod. fide HH2
Notes (l eva Nt Cotto N):
And when these days were expired, the king made a feast unto all the people that were present in 
Shushan the palace, both unto great and small, seven days, in the court of the garden of the king’s 
palace; Where were white, green, and blue, hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple 
to silver rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and 
blue, and white, and black, marble.
Esther 1:5–6 (KJV)
And when these days were completed, the king gave for all the people present in Susa the capital, 
both great and small, a banquet lasting for seven days, in the court of the garden of the king’s 
palace. There were white cotton curtains and blue hangings caught up with cords of fine linen 
and purple to silver rings and marble pillars, and also couches of gold and silver on a mosaic 
pavement of porphyry, marble, mother- of- pearl and precious stones.
Esther 1:5–6 (RSV)
And when these days had come to the full, the king held a banquet for seven days for all the people 
that were found in Shu’shan the castle, both the great as well as the small, in the courtyard of the 
garden of the king’s palace. There were linen, fine cotton and blue held fast in ropes of fine fabric 
and wool dyed reddish purple in silver rings and pillars of marble, couches of gold and silver upon 
a pavement of porphyry and marble and pearl and black marble.
Esther 1:5–6 (NWT)
Somehow the KJV left out the cotton and that is precisely why it was not covered in my first book of 
the Bible. Mentioned only once in the Holy Scriptures, cotton was used to wrap Egyptian mummies. 
Zohary notes that it was not grown early in the land of Israel, but was cultivated in the last cen-tu
ries b.c., perhaps under the name tzemer-gefen (vine wool) because its leaves resembled the grape. 
Plants cultivated as an annual for the fiber among the seeds that furnish Asiatic or Levant cotton.
Commo N Names (l eva Nt Cotto N):
Species not necessarily distinguishable; activities and indications often lumped (see, e.g., JFM). 
CRC entries relate to Gossypium hirsutum. MAD entries relafe to Gossypium herbaceum. Many 
JLH entries assigned to Gossypium sp. Algodao (Ocn.; Por.; AH2; KAB); Algodoeiro (Mad.; JAD); 
Algodoeiro Asiático (Por.; USN); Algodon (Sp.; JLH); Algodoneiro (Brazil; Mad.; JLH); Algodo-
nero Herbaceo (Sp.; EFS; USN); Ambara (Kan.; KAB); Anagnika (Sanskrit; EFS; KAB); Arabian 
Cotton (Eng.; USN); Aziatische Katoenplant (Dutch; HH2); Badara (Mal.; KAB); Badarika (Tel.; 
KAB); Balaccastilla (Pam.; KAB); Baumwollenstrauch (Ger.; EFS; HH2); Bombax (?; JLH); Bong 
Se (Annam; KAB); Bulac (Tag.; KAB); Bumbac (Rom.; KAB); Cadaba (Vis.; KAB); Common 
Cotton (Eng.; BUR); Cotone (It.; EFS); Cotone Asiatico (It.; HH2); Cotonnier (Fr.; EFS); Cotonnier 
d’Asie (Fr.; USN); Cotonnier de Malta (Fr.; KAB); Cotonnier Herbace (Fr.; NAD; USN); Cotonnier 
Serere (Fr.; Sen.; UPW); Cotton (Eng.; BUR); Edudi (Tel.; DEP); Fitan (Arab.; KAB); Hlopchatnik 
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FIGURe .0 Levant Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum).
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(Rus.; KAB); Iladambarutti (Tam.; KAB); Indian Cotton (Eng.; KAB); Ingilma (Nig.; UPW); Kabsi 
(Uraon; KAB); Kadsom (Mun.; KAB); Kapas (Beng.; Bom.; Dec.; Guj.; Hindi; Malaya; EFS; KAB; 
NAD); Kapsini (Kon.; KAB); Karpas (Heb.; Sanskrit; EFS; ZOH); Karpasa (Ayu.; AH2); Ka-r
pasi (Sanskrit; DEP); Katoenstruik (Dutch; EFS; HH2); Korono-ni (Mali; UPW); Korpaso (Oriya; 
KAB); Koton Malti (Malta; KAB); Krabas (Cam.; KAB); Krautiger Baumwollstrauch (Ger.; USN); 
Ku Chung (China; EFS); Kupas (Hindi; DEP; KAB); Kurtam Ussul (Arab.; DEP); Kutn (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Kuttun (Arab.; EFS); Levant Cotton (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Maltese Cotton (Eng.; 
USN); Mian Hua (Pin.; DAA); Mien Hua (China; EFS); Pambah (Iran; DEP; EFS); Pamuk (Tur.; 
EFS; HH2); Papas (India; EFS); Parti (Tulu; KAB); Paruthi (Tam.; NAD); Parutti (Tam.; DEP; 
NAD); Paththi (Tel.; NAD); Rimo (Sen.; UPW); Ru (Guj.; DEP); Rui (Hindi; Pun.; Urdu; DEP; 
KAB); Sea Island Cotton (Eng.; BUR); Short Staple American Cotton (Eng.; FAC); Short Staple 
Cotton (Eng.; USN); Syrian Cotton (Eng.; USN); Thao Mien (Ic.; KAB); Ts’ao Mien (China; EFS); 
Tsiahilika (Sakalaave; KAB); Tula (Beng.; DEP); Tzemer Gefen (Heb.; ZOH); Vaum (Sind,; DEP; 
KAB); Wa (Burma; DEP; KAB); Wah (Burma; DEP; KAB); Ya La Po Mien (China; HH2).
a Ctivities (l eva Nt Cotto N):
Abortifacient (f1; BUR; CRC; FNF; PH2); Amebicide (1; X16076104); Antifeedant (f; X15074657); 
Antifertility (f1; HH2; JAC7:405); Antimutagenic (1; X3278214); Antioxidant (1; X15878283); 
Antiproliferant (1; X15878283); Antiseptic (f; BIB); Antispermatogenic (1; JAC7:405); Aphrodisiac 
(f; HJP; PH2); Apoptotic (1; X15949956; X15554914); Astringent (f; CRC); Calcineurin Inhibitor (1; 
X15621416); Contraceptive (f1; CRC; PH2); Cytostatic (1; PH2); Demulcent (f; NAD); Diuretic (f; 
CRC); Emmenagogue (f1; AHP; BUR; CRC; HJP; PH2); Emollient (f; BIB; CRC); Expectorant (f; 
NAD); Hemostat (f; CRC; MAD); Hypercholesterolemic (1; PH2); Hypertriglyceridemic (f; PH2); 
Hypocholesterolemic (f; PH2); Hypoglycemic (1; HH2); Lactagogue (f; CRC; HJP; KAB; NMH); 
Laxative (f; BIB); Nervine (f; BIB); Oxytocic (f; CRC; EFS; PH2); Protisticide (1; (X16076104); 
Uterotonic (f1; AHP; BUR); Vasoconstrictor (f; CRC); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (l eva Nt Cotto N):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Ague (f; BUR); Ameba (1; (X16076104); Amenorrhea (f1; KAB; MAD; 
PH2); Anemia (f; MAD); Asthma (f; CRC; MAD); Bite (f; PH2); Bleeding (f; CRC; MAD; PH2); 
Bronchosis (f; CRC); Burn (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; CRC; FNF; X15878283); Cancer, abdomen (f1; 
JLH; X15812364); Cancer, breast (f1; JLH; X15812364); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH; X15812364); 
Cancer, larynx (1; X15812364); Cancer, lung (1; X15554914); Cancer, nose (f1; JLH; X15812364); 
Cancer, prostate (1; X15713891); Cancer, uterus (f1; JLH; X15812364); Carcinoma (1; X15570010); 
Cerebrosis (f; DAW); Childbirth (f; HHB; PH2); Climacteric (f; PH2); Cold (f; JFM); Constipa-
tion (f; PH2); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; MAD; PH2); Cramp (f; JFM); Cystosis (f; HH2; PH2); 
Debility (f; MAD); Dermatosis (f; KAB); Diarrhea (f; CRC; PH2); Dysentery (f; CRC; JFM; PH2); 
Dyslactea (f; JFM; PH2); Dysmenorrhea (f1; MAD; PH2); Dysuria (f; BUR; JFM); Earache (f; 
JFM); Enterosis (f; JFM); Epilepsy (f; PH2); Fever (f; BUR; HHB; JFM; MAD); Fibroid (1; CRC; 
JLH); Fibroma (f; JLH); Gonorrhea (f; HH2; PH2); Headache (f; CRC; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; CRC; 
JFM); Herpes (f; KAB); High Blood Pressure (f; JFM); High Cholesterol (f; PH2); Hypochondria 
(f; CRC); Infertility (f; MAD); Inafl mmation (f; JFM; PH2); Laryngitis (f; JFM); Leprosy (f; BIB); 
Malaria (f1; BIB; KAB; X15978953); Menorrhagia (f; PH2); Metrorrhagia (f; PH2); Micromastia 
(f; BIB); Morning Sickness (f; MAD; PH2); Nausea (f; PH2); Neuralgia (f; DAW); Neuroblastoma 
(1; X15927359); Neurosis (f; PH2); Pain (f; JFM; PH2); Pharyngosis (f; BIB); Polyp (f; CRC; FNF; 
JLH); Psoriasis (1; X15878283); Pulmonosis (f; JFM; MAD); Rheumatism (f; JFM); Rhinosis (f; 
JLH); Scabies (f; BIB; KAB); Snakebite (f; PH2); Sore (f; BIB; HH2); Sting (f; NAD); Tumor (f1; 
CRC; FNF; HH2); Urethrosis (f; PH2); Uterosis (f; CRC; FNF); UTI (f; JFM); Virus (f; DEP); Wart 
(f; JLH).
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d osages (l eva Nt Cotto N):
FNFF = !
Seeds eaten in Egyptian cuisine; used for extraction of oil, used for cooking, and other purposes, 
roasted as coffee substitute. Oil a source of vitamin E, and used to substitute for sesame oil. O-ical ke 
used as fertilizer and fodder, and to make edible tempeh. Leaves eaten (BIB; FAC). 100 g root in 1 
liter (l) water, reduced by boiling to 0.5 l; take 50 g liquid every half hour. Dangerous formula for 
abortion (CRC). 1–2 Tbsp ufl id extract during childbirth (HHB). Three leaves in 1 liter water for 
hypertension (JFM). 6–8 g seed/150 g water or milk, 3 ×/day as lactagogue (f; JFM); 1.8–3.75 g root 
bark; 20–40 drops liquid extract (PH2); 2–4 ml liquid extract (PH2).
• Africans take the leaf decoction for dysentery and headache (BIB).
• Annamese use ofl wers for amenorrhea and dysmenorrhea, the seed oil for herpes, sca-
bies, and wounds (KAB).
• Asian Indians use the roots for urinary disorders (BUR).
• Ayurvedics view ofl wers as antibilious, antihallucinogenic, lactogogue, refrigerant, and 
tonic, using leaves for anemia, oliguria, and otosis; and view seed as aphrodisiac and 
lactogogue. They use the plant for snakebite, scorpion stings, skin ailments, and uterine 
discharges (KAB).
• Bambas of northern Rhodesia apply the leaves to warts (JLH).
• Brazilians use the root bark for uterine fibromas (JLH).
• French Guianans use seeds in fumigations for indolent tumors (JLH).
• Lebanese use roots for malaria and Malta fever; impotent men use decoction cautiously; 
women use as emmenagogue and lactagogue (HJP).
• Lebanese consider cottonseed oil the more stimulating of the oils (HJP).
• Lebanese applied crushed seed (of Gossypium barbadense) to dermatosis such as poison 
ivy (HJP).
• Senegalese Soce give root macerate to newborn, sick, or rachitic children to make them 
grow big and strong (UPW).
• South American females take root decoction as a contraceptive, the seed as a lactagogue 
or breast enlarger (BIB).
• Unani regard the seeds as aphrodisiac, expectorant, and laxative, using them for orchitis; 
they poultice the ofl wers on burns, scabies, and scalds, and use them in syrup for hypo-
chondria, and insanity; the leaves they take internally for dysentery, externally for gout; 
ofl wers are also used as analgesic for burning eyes and inafl mmation (KAB).
d ow Nsides (l eva Nt Cotto N):
Class 2b; contraindicated in urogenital irritation or tendency to inafl mmation; may sterilize men (AHP). 
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therapeutic 
dosages (PH2). Drug toxic due to gossypol. Animals fed seed press cakes for 3 to 4 weeks showed 
enterosis, gastrosis, hematuria, jaundice, and nephritic and ophthalmic disorders (BUR; PH2).
Natural History (l eva Nt Cotto N):
Bezemer et al. (2004) found that in undamaged plants, terpenoid aldehydes were concentrated in the 
young immature main leaves. Aboveground feeding by Spodopterta exigua larvae on a mature leaf 
enhanced terpenoid (hemigossypolone, heliocides 1 and 4) concentrations in immature leaves but 
not in the damaged leaf. Root herbivory by wireworms (Agriotes lineatus) also resulted in increased 
terpenoid levels in foliage (X15074657).
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extra Cts (l eva Nt Cotto N):
The oilseed cake contains circa 4% glutamic acid. In its free state, -gLlutamic acid is used to 
treat mental decfi iencies in infants and adolescents. Gossypol shows antitumor activity in several 
NCI tumor systems. LD50 Gossypol = 20 mg/kg ipr mus (BIB). This species reportedly contains 
3,500–18,100 ppm gossypol in the embryo, as in most cottons a mix of the (+) and (-) enantiomers. 
Some of this gets into cottonseed oils (X16076104). Talking about cotton in general, Stipanovi cet al. 
(2005) state that in many ways the (+)-enantiomer is positive, from a health point of view and the 
(-)-enantiomer is negative from a food point of view, but positive for biological activities, including 
medicinal activities. For example, (-)-gossypol inhibits various cancer cells more effectively than 
the (+)-enantiomer. (-)-Gossypol is a more effective inhibitor of various enzymes than (+)-gossy-
pol. (-)-Gossypol, but not (+)-gossypol, shows anti-HIV-1 activity in humans (9). (-)-Gossypol is 
effective against ameba. (--)Gossypol, but not (+)-gossypol, has male antifertility activity and is 
more toxic to animals. Broiler chickens fed a diet containing 5% cottonseed [(+-) to (-)-gossypol 
ratio of 83:17] gained weight at the same rate as the 100% soybean control diet. Cumulative weight 
gains of the chickens decreased circa 126 g for each 100-mg increase in (--g)ossypol consumed, 
whereas the cumulative weight gains were not signicfi antly altered with increased (+)-gossypol 
(X16076104).
GUNDeLIA (g undeli A tournefortii L.) + Aste RACeAe
Notes (t our NeFort ’s g u Ndelia ):
O my God, make them like a wheel; as the stubble before the wind.
Psalms 83:13 (KJV)
In the RSV, wheel is replaced by whirling dust. In Isaiah 17:13, Zohary’s and the RSV’s whirling 
dust reads more like “a rolling thing before the whirlwind” in the KJV. All seem appropriate for 
Gundelia, known to travelers as the “steppe monster.” The thistle-like heads, often joined into a 
group, may roll before the wind in the empty desert steppes, rather like a tumbleweed, scattering its 
edible seed. This is the only species in the genus Gundelia, largest of 30 Holy Land species called 
tumbleweed (ZOH).
Commo N Names (g u Ndelia ):
Akov? (Heb..; ZOH); Akub (Arab.; FAC; HJP; ZOH); Akuvith (Heb.; ZOH); Cardi (?; FAC); Galgal 
(Heb.; ZOH); Gundelia (Eng.; HJP); Hakub (Arab.; FAC); K’aub (Arab.; HJP; ZOH); Kenger (?; 
FAC); Ku’ayb (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Steppe Monster (Eng.; ZOH); Tournefort’s Gundelia (Eng.; 
ZOH); Tumbleweed (Eng.; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (g u Ndelia ):
Antiseptic (f; X11378279); Bactericide (f; X11378279); Emetic (f1; HJP; ZOH); MDR Inhibitor (f; 
X11378279); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (g u Ndelia ):
Bacteria (f; X11378279); Infection (f; X11378279); Pseudomonas (f; X11378279); Snakebite (f; HJP); 
Sore (f; HJP); Wart (f; HJP).
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d osages (g u Ndelia ):
FNFF = !
Middle Eastern peasants make a “delicious dish” from the young efl shy heads, rather like the related 
globe artichokes. The oil-rich ripe nuts are edible and tasty. Leaves, thick stems, undeveloped ofl wer 
buds, and roots all eaten. Toasted seeds used as “kenger coffee.” Sold in Lebanese and Syrian m- ar
kets. Anatolians collect and dry the plants for winter fodder (FAC; ZOH).
• Lebanese suggest the latex for burning off warts, drying up sores, as an emetic, and 
snakebite cure (HJP).
d ow Nsides (g u Ndelia ):
Latex emetic.
extra Cts (g u Ndelia ):
Aburjai et al. (2001) screened methanolic extracts combined with seven different antibiotics to check 
the synergic activities againstP seudomonas aeruginosa, including a resistant strain.G undelia 
tournefortii andL epidium sativum inhibited the growth of the resistant strain. Chloramphenicol, gen-
tamicin, and cephalosporin can be given with the plant material, to good advantage (X11378279).
eNGLIsh I vy ( h eder A helix L.) + ARALIACeAe
Notes (eNglis H ivy ):
And in the day of the king’s birth every month they were brought by bitter constraint to eat of the 
sacrifices; and when the fast of Bacchus was kept, the Jews were compelled to go in procession to 
Bacchus, carrying ivy.
II Maccabees 6:7
Zohary comments that ivy, now rare in upper Galilee and Samaria, may once have been more widely 
distributed. In earlier times, the leaves formed the poet’s crown, as well as the wreath of Bacchus, to 
whom the plant was dedicated. Ivy was once bound around the brow to prevent intoxication. Hence, a 
garland of ivy was hung outside olden roadhouses to indicate that wine was sold therein. Greek priests 
presented a wreath of ivy to newly married persons, symbolizing dfi elity. The leaf contains circa 10% 
saponin and has been used for washing wool. Leaves boiled with soda are said to be suitable for was- h
ing clothes. Young twigs are a source of yellow and brown dye. Hardwood can be used as a boxwood 
substitute in engraving. Extracts are found in French massage creams and soaps. Ivy leaves were once 
bruised, gently boiled in wine, and drunk to alleviate intoxication by wine. Flowers, decocted in wine, 
were used for dysentery. Plant said to have been used as an emetic and narcotic on at least three co-nti
nents. Tender ivy twigs, boiled in butter, were a primitive approach to remove sunburn.
Commo N Names (eNglis H ivy ):
Afal (Ber.; BOU); Aise (Fr.; KAB); ‘Amshak (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Arbambal (Hazara; KAB); 
Azemnoun (Ber.; BOU); Bach Euoc Ngo Cong (Ic.; KAB); Banda (Kum.; Barga; Arab.; BOU); 
Barren Black (Eng.; BUR); Barren Ivy (Eng.; KAB); Beglet el-berba (Arab.; BOU); Benewithtree 
(Eng.; KAB); Bentwood (Eng.; EFS); Bindwood (Eng.; KAB); Birdwood (Eng.; BUR); Black Ivy 
(Eng.; KAB); Bluszcz (Pol.; KAB); Borostyan (Hung.; KAB); Bourreau des Arbres (Fr.; KAB); 
Brumbrumdakari (Beas; KAB); Ch’ang Ch’ung T’eng (China; KAB); ‘Cisus (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Common Ivy (Eng.; BOU); Creeping Ivy (Eng.; BUR); Dudela (Nepal; KAB); Duvar Sarma¸sig? 
(Tur.; EFS); Edera (It.; KAB); Eevy (Eng.; KAB); Efeu (Ger.; EFS); Eibhean (Ire.; KAB); Ellera (It.; 
EFS); English Ivy (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; BOU); Epheu (Ger.; EFS); Euné (Fr.; KAB); Eura (Cat.; KAB); 
Eurré (Fr.; KAB); Fai-Borostyan (Hung.; KAB); Ground Ivy (Eng.; KAB); Habl el-masakin (Arab.; 
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FIGURe . English Ivy (Hedera helix).
BOU; HJP); Halbambar (Jhelum; KAB); Hera (Por.; KAB); Hiedra Comun (Sp.; EFS); Hyven (Eng.; 
KAB); Iedere (Rom.; KAB); Immergroen (Ger.; KAB); Ivin (Eng.; KAB); Ivory (Eng.; KAB); Ivy 
(Eng.; CR2); Kadloli (Sutlej; KAB); Kaneri (Sutlej; KAB); Kaniuri (Sutlej; KAB); Karbaru (Sutlej; 
KAB); Karmora (Kas.; KAB); Karur (Ravi; KAB); Klimop (Dutch; EFS); Klyf (Dutch; KAB); Ko-s
sos (Ger.; KAB); Koubbar (Ber.; BOU); Kuri (Ravi; KAB); Kurol (Chenab; KAB); Lablab (Behar; 
KAB); Lablab Kibir (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Labiab Kebir (Arab.; BOU); Lablab (India; EFS); Leblab 
(Arab.; BOU); Leouno (Lan.; KAB); Liedna (Malta; KAB); Lierré (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Lierre Com-
mun (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Lierre d’es Poe?tes (Fr.; KAB); Lierre d’Europ (Fr.; KAB); Lierre Grimpant 
(Fr.; BOU; EFS); ‘Maddada (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Mandia (Kas.; KAB); Maravala (Mal.; KAB); M-ara
valai (Mal.; KAB); Mithiari (Jaunsar; KAB); Murgroen (Swe.; KAB); Parwata (Pushtu; KAB); P- li
usch (Rus.; KAB); Qessous (Arab.; BOU); Small Ivy (Eng.; BUR); Tassouafl l (Ber.; BOU); Vedbende 
(Den.; KAB); Wintergroen (Ger.; KAB); Woodbind (Eng.; BUR); Yedra (Sp.; KAB); Yedra Comun 
(Sp.; EFS).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
a Ctivities (eNglis H ivy ):
Abortifacient (f; AAH); Allergenic (1; APA; CRC; PH2; X14513244); Amebicide (1; BGB; PNC); 
Anodyne (1; APA; BGB); Anthelmintic (f; BGB; PH2; PNC); Anticancer (1; BGB); Antiexudative 
(f; PH2); Antiinafl mmatory (f12; KOM; X12834000) Antileishmannic (1; BGB); Antimelanomic (1; 
BGB); Antioxidant (1; X15241892); Antiparasitic (1; BGB); Antitussive (f12; AAH; APA; X12006725); 
Antiseptic (f1; APA; BIB; CRC); Antispasmodic (f12; APA; KOM; PH2; PIP; PM10:213); Aphrodi-
siac (f; CRC; HJP); Astringent (f1; BUR; CRC); Bactericide (1; APA; PH2; PM10:213); Bronchodil-a
tor (1; PM10:213); Cathartic (f; CRC; BGB; PNC); Contraceptive (f; CRC); Cytotoxic (f; BGB; PH2; 
PNC); Diaphoretic (f; CRC); Emetic (f1; BOU; CRC); Diuretic (1; X12730261) Emmenagogue (f; 
BOU; CRC); Expectorant (f12; APA; KOM; PH2; PIP; X12006725); Febrifuge (f; BGB; DAA; PNC); 
Fungicide (1; APA; BGB; PH2; PNC); Hemolytic (1; CRC); Hemostat (f; AAH); Intoxicant (f; EFS); 
Irritant (2; KOM; PH2); Laxative (f; CRC); Litholytic (f; MAD); Molluscicide (1; BGB; PH2; PNC); 
Mucoirritant (2; KOM); Mucolytic (f; PM10:213); Narcotic (f; CRC); Natriuretic (1; X12730261); 
Pediculicide (f; CRC; KAB); Poison (f; BUR); Protisticide (1; APA); Purgative (f; CRC); Secretolytic 
(f; BIS; PM10:213); Sedative (1; APA; BGB); Stimulant (f; CRC); Sudoricfi (f; CRC; DAA); Tricho -
monicide (1; BGB); Vasoconstrictor (f; CRC); Vasodilator (f; CRC); Vermifuge (f; CRC).
iNdi Catio Ns (eNglis H ivy ):
Abscess (f; KAB); Adenopathy (f; KAB); Amenorrhea (f; APA; BOU); Arthrosis (f; APA); Asthma 
(12; PM10:213; X12725580); Backache (f; AAH); Boil (f; BOU); Bronchosis (f12; APA; PHR; PIP; 
X12725580); Bunion (f; AAH); Burn (f; APA; MAD; PHR); Cacoethes (f; JLH); Callus (f; JLH; MAD; 
PHR; PH2); Cancer (f; BOU; CRC; JLH; KAB); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; X15740080; 
X15796588); Cancer, lymph (f; JLH); Cancer, nose (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Catarrh (2; KOM; 
MAD; PH2; PIP); Cellulitis (f; PHR; PH2); Chilblain (f; AAH); Cholecystosis (f; PH2); Conjunctivosis 
(f; AAH); Corn (f; JLH; MAD); Cough (f12; APA; CRC; PHR; X12006725); Cramp (f12; BOU; KOM; 
MAD); Dermatosis (f1; APA; BOU); Dysentery (f; CRC; GMH); Dysmenorrhea (f; APA; BOU); Dys-
pnea (12; X12006725); Eczema (f; AAH); Favus (1; MAD); Fever (f; BOU); Gout (f; MAD; PHR; PH2); 
Headache (f; JLH; MAD); Hemoptysis (f; CRC); Hepatosis (f; PHR; PH2; PNC); High Blood Pressure 
(1; CRC); Hydrocephaly (f; MAD); Impotence (f; HJP); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; APA); Inafl m -
mation (f12; BGB; KOM; MAD; PH2; X12834000); Intoxication (f; BGB; CRC; GMH); Jaundice (f; 
CRC; MAD); Leishmania (1; BGB; PR15:298); Leukorrhea (f; MAD); Lice (1; CRC); Liver Flukes (1; 
PNC); Malaria (f1; BIB; CRC; MAD); Measles (f; AAH); Menorrhagia (f; MAD); Mucososis (f; MAD); 
Mycosis (f; AAH); Nephrosis (f; AAH); Neuralgia (f; PHR; PH2); Pain (12; APA; X12006725); Parasites 
(1; APA; PHR; PH2); Parotitis (f; AAH); Pertussis (f1; AAH; APA; BIS); Phlebitis (f; PHR; PH2); Polyp 
(f; JLH; MAD); Rachitis (f; PH2); Respirosis (f12; APA; KOM; PH2; PIP; X12006725); Rheumatism (f; 
APA; BGB; PHR; PH2); Rhinosis (f; MAD); Ringworm (f; AAH); Scabies (1; APA; MAD); Sclerosis (f; 
CRC); Scrofula (f; BGB; CRC; PHR; PH2); Sore (f; BOU; PHR); Spasm (f; BOU); Splenosis (f; MAD; 
PHR; PH2); Sprain (f; AAH); Stomachache (f; MAD); Stone (f; MAD); Sunburn (f; CRC; GMH); Tetters 
(f; AAH); Toothache (f; APA; CRC; MAD); Tuberculosis (f; HJP; MAD); Wart (f; JLH; MAD); Wen (f; 
JLH); Worm (f; CRC); Wound (f; BOU; PHR).
d osages (eNglis H ivy ):
FNFF = ?
According to Tanaka (TAN), “leaves are said to be added to beer to make it strong”; or bruised and 
boiled in wine to render it less intoxicating (GMH). 0.5 g/cup tea/1–3× /day (APA); 0.3 g/day leaf (KOM; 
PIP); 1/2 tsp (1 g) powdered leaf (MAD). 1 tsp herb/1/4 cup; steep 10 minutes 1–3 ×/day (PHR). 
• British apply vinegar leaf macerate (or wear leaf in sock) for corns, bunions, and warts (AAH).
• British ingest berries for aches and pains, cold and cough (AAH).
• Devons take leaf/berry infusion for mumps (AAH).
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• Lebanese (educated northerners) consider the plant an aphrodisiac (HJP).
• Lebanese believe crushed leaves and berries help tuberculosis (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest tendrils in yogurt as a skin lotion and bleach (HJP).
• Mediterraneans hint that ingesting 1 g powdered fruit induces sterility (BIB).
• Scots and Irish make a hat of ivy for children with eczema (AAH).
• South African whites apply the vinega-rsteeped leaves to cancerous growths and corns (BIB).
d ow Nsides (eNglis H ivy ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2). None known or indicated (KOM; PIP). Can cause contact allergy (BIS). Pales-tin
ians regard the fruit as toxic to children (BIB).
Natural History (eNglis H ivy ):
Sheep and deer will eat the leaves in winter, although cows often will not (BIB).
extra Cts (eNglis H ivy ):
Suleyman et al. (2003) demonstrated antiinafl mmatory effects of a crude saponin extract and saponin 
(IC77 = 100–200 mg/kg) (X12834000). Hofmann et al. (2003), in a review of randomized controlled 
trials, found that ivy drops were signicfi antly superior to placebo in reducing airway resistance. Cough 
syrup and suppositories were modestly useful, and can improve respiratory functions of children with 
chronic bronchial asthma (X12725580). Hecker, Runkel, and Voelp (2002), studying a proprietary cough 
tablet (585–780 mg tablet corresponding to circa 100–130 mg of dried ivy leaf extract), reported relief in 
cough 92.2%; expectoration 94.2%; dyspnea 83.1%; and respiratory pain 86.9% (X12006725). Ridoux et 
al. (2001) reported antileishmanial activity of three ivy saponins (alpha-hederin, beta-hederin, and h-ed
eracolchiside A) in association with pentamidine and amphotericin B. The saponins exhibited a strong 
antiproliferative activity on all stages of development of the parasite but demonstrated a strong toxicity to 
human cells. Association of subtoxic concentrations of saponins with antileishmanial drugs such as pe-nt
amidine and amphotericin B demonstrated that saponins could enhance the efcfi iency of conventional 
drugs (X11406851). Polyacetylenes, especially falcarinol (also allergenic), may prevent colon cancer; 
and are also reportedly allergenic, analgesic, antileukemic, antimelanomic, antimycobacterial, anti-sep
tic, antitubercular, antitumor, bactericide, chemopreventive, cytotoxic, and sedative (FNF; X15740080; 
X15796588). Gepdiremen et al. (2005) demonstrated antiinafl mmatory activity of four of the saponins: 
alpha-hederin, hederasaponin-C, hederacolchiside-E, and hederacolchisid-eF in edema (0.02–20mg/kg). 
Indomethacin was the most potent drug in the rfi st phase. For the second phase of acute inafl mmation, 
indomethacin and hederacolchisid-eF were both very potent. Alpha-hederin was relatively ineffective. 
Hederasaponin-C, -E, and -F may block bradykinin or other inafl mmation mediators (X16008120).
BARLey (h ordeum vulg Are L.) ++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Hordeum aegiceras Watt.; Hordeum coeleste Watt.; Hordeum deficiens Steud.; Hordeum distichon 
L.; Hordeum gymnodistichum Watt.; Hordeum hexastichon L.; Hordeum intermedium Kornicke; 
Hordeum sativum Jessen; Hordeum zeocriton L.
Notes (barley ):
Let thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of barley. The words of Job are ended.
Job 31:40 (KJV)
Let thorns grow instead of wheat, and foul weeds instead of barley. The words of Job are ended.
Job 31:40 (RSV)
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Barley (Hordeum vulgare).
Instead of wheat, let the thorny weed go forth, and instead of barley stinking weeds. The words 
of Job have come to an end.
Job 31:40 (RSV)
Here among the weeds and thorns, we have two, barley and wheat, of the “seven species.” Jewish 
folklore calls them the “seven species,” the barley, wheat, vines, gfi s, pomegranate, oil (olive), and 
honey (date) of Deuteronomy. Mentioned more than 30 times in the Bible, at least 13 times with 
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wheat, barley was considered inferior to wheat. Ripening a month or so earlier than wheat, it was 
taken for omer offerings at Passover, but the first grains of wheat were offered at the Feast of the 
Pentecost. Cultivation reportedly began circa 8000 b.c. in southwestern Asia (ZOH). Barley may 
be less important since the internal combustion engine replaced the horse, but stalks of the wild 
varieties still wave on the hills of Galilee and Judea, ancestors of the world’s barley (BIB). Barley 
is the fourth most important cereal in the United States, but probably half of the production is used 
for livestock fodder, a quarter for the brewing industry (80% for beer, 14% distilled alcohol, and 
6% malt syrup). Winter barley furnishes nutritive pasturage without seriously reducing yields (BIB; 
ZOH). Barley grain is demulcent and easily assimilable, and used in invalid and convalescent diets. 
Pearl barley is commonly used. Powdered parched grains used in the form of a gruel for painful and 
atonic dyspepsia. Barley water with honey is prescribed for bronchial coughs, and with gum arabic 
used for soothing irritations of the bladder and urinary passage. The seed meal is a folk remedy for 
cancer of the uterus, inafl mmatory tumors and gatherings, parotid gland tumors, and hard tumors. 
The seed ofl ur is said to be a cure for anal condylomata, tumors behind the ears, scirrhus of the 
testicles, and spleen, whitlows, and tumors. Seed cataplasms are said to help breast cancers. Le-ba
nese mix barley with olive oil for indolent ulcers (BIB).
Commo N Names (barley ):
Akshata (Sanskrit; KAB); Alcacer (Sp.; EFS); Arbus (Ashkobi; KAB); Arpa (Hun.; Tur.; DEP; KAB; 
EB49:406); Arpah (Tartary; KAB); Baarli (Kon.; NAD); Barley (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Barliarisi 
(Tam.; WOI); Barlibiyam (Tel.; KAB; WOI); Barliyarisi (Tam.; KAB; WOI); Béchette (Fr.; KAB); 
Biugg (Swe., KAB); Brehnajau (Bagwana; KAB); Buza (Pun.; KAB); Byg (Den.; KAB); Cebada (Sp.; 
Peru; EGG; KAB); Cebada Común (Sp.; EFS); Cevad (Kon.; KAB); Cevada (Por.; KAB); Cevada das 
Cuatro Carreras (Por.; EFS); Cevada Sancta (Brazil; KAB); Cheno (Guj.; NAD); Da Mai (Pin.; DAA); 
Dhanya Bhedam (Tel.; DEP); Divya (Sanskrit; SKJ); Farro (It.; KAB); Garsten (Ger.; KAB); Gerst 
(Dutch; EFS; KAB); Gerste (Ger.; EFS); Gort (Dutch; EFS); Hadaka Mugi (Japan; TAN); Indarjawu 
(Nwp., KAB); Jab (Beng.; Iran; KAB; WOI); Jan (Hindi; NAD); Jao (Afg.; Iran; DEP; EFS; KAB); 
Jaon (Pun.; WOI); Jaoshirin (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Jaotursh (Afg.; KAB); Jau (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Nepal; 
Nwp.; Pun.; KAB; NPM; SKJ; WOI); Jav (Beng.; Bom.; Guj.; Hindi; Urdu; KAB; WOI); Java (Mar.; 
WOI); Jave (Hindi; NAD); Jave Godhi (Kan.; KAB; WOI); Jawa (Sin.; NAD); Jenczmien (Pol.; KAB); 
Jetschmen (Rus.; KAB); Jowakhar (Bihar; KAB; WOI); Kari (Arm.; KAB); Kordne (Lapland; KAB); 
Krithari (Greek; KAB); Kung Mai (China; EFS; KAB); Mai Ngai (Malaya; KAB); Mai Ya (Pin.; 
AH2); Mu Yao (Burma; DEP); Muyau (Burma; KAB); Nas (Bhutan; Tibet; DEP; TIB); Nigo omugi 
(Japan; TAN); No Mai (China; EFS); Ohva (Fin.; KAB); Omugi (Japan; TAN); Ordi (Cat.; KAB); 
Ordigal (Lan.; KAB); Orge (Fr.; EFS; TAN); Orge Anguleuse (Fr.; NAD); Orz (Rom.; KAB); Orzo 
di Spagna (It.; EFS); Orzo Nudo (It.; EFS); Pachcha Yava (Tel.; DEP); Pachcha Yavulu (Tel.; NAD); 
Paighambari (Tibet; DEP); Pearl Barley (Eng.; DEP; EFS); Perlgraupen (Ger.; EFS); Rasuli (Tibet; 
DEP); Rokuju omugi (Japan; TAN); Rollgerste (Ger.; EFS); Satu (Bom.; Dec.; Mar.; DEP; KAB); 
Sechszeilige Gerste (Ger.; NAD); Seorah (Heb.; ZOH); Seorim (Heb.; ZOH); Shaair (Arab.; DEP; 
KAB); Shijo Omugi (Japan; TAN); Situshaka (Sanskrit; WOI); Soah (Lassa; DEP; KAB); Suj (Hindi; 
KAB); Ta Mai (China; EFS; TAN); Tosa (Nepal; DEP; KAB); Urbusha (Harboi; Jhalawan; Sharig; 
KAB); Xghei (Malta; KAB); Yava (Ayu.; Sanskrit; EFS; KAB; NAD; WOI); Yavaka (Sanskrit; Tel.; 
DEP; WOI); Ymvah (Guj.; WOI); Ymwah (Guj.; DEP; KAB); Yurk (Nwp.; KAB).
a Ctivities (barley ):
Abortifacient (f; BIB); Antiinafl mmatory (f; EGG); Antilactagogue (f; BIB; NMH); Antioxidant 
(1; X10888490); Aphrodisiac (f; EGG; KAB); Astringent (f; TIB); Demulcent (f; BIB; EFS); Diges-
tive (f; BIB; TIB); Diuretic (f; BIB); Emollient (f; BIB; EFS); Expectorant (f; BIB); Febrifuge (f; 
BIB); Hypocholesterolemic (1; X12566485); Lactagogue (f; NMH); Refrigerant (f; TIB); Sedative 
(f; EGG); Stomachic (f; BIB); Tonic (f; SKJ; TIB).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
iNdi Catio Ns (barley ):
Abscess (f; EB51:195); Acrochordon (f; BIB); Adenopathy (f; BIB); Anemia (f; KAB); Anorexia 
(f; KAB); Asthma (f; KAB); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bladder (f; BIB); Bronchosis (f; BIB); Burn (f; 
BIB); Cancer (f; BIB); Cancer, bladder (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; BIB); Cancer, colon (f1; BIB; 
JLH; X834216); Cancer, feet (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, parotid (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; BIB; 
JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; BIB; JLH); Carcinoma (f; BIB; JLH); Catarrh (f; BIB; DEP; EFS); Chest (f; 
BIB); Chilblain (f; BIB); Cholera (f; BIB); Cold (f; EB49:406); Colitis (f; PH2); Condyloma (f; BIB); 
Cough (f; BIB); Cystosis (f; BIB); Debility (f; BIB; DEP); Dermatosis (f; EB51:195); Diabetes (1; 
X8632219); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Dyspepsia (f; BIB; SKJ; WOI); Dysuria (f; KAB; EB51:195); Entero-
sis (f; JLH; PH2); Fever (f; BIB); Fig (f; BIB); Fistula (f; NAD); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Gingivosis (f; 
KAB); IBD (f; PH2); High Cholesterol (1; X12566485); Hyperlipidemia (1; X8632219); Impotence 
(f; EGG; KAB); Induration (f; BIB; JLH); Infection (f; BIB); Inafl mmation (f; BIB; EGG); Insomnia 
(f; EGG); Itch (f; EB51:195); Measles (f; BIB; EGG); Obesity (1; X8632219); Orchosis (f; BIB); Pain (f; 
KAB); Parotitis (f; BIB); Phthisis (f; BIB); Proctosis (f; BIB; NAD); Puerperium (f; BIB); Rheumatism 
(f; EB51:195); Scirrhus (f; BIB; JLH); Smallpox (f; EGG); Sore (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH; BIB); 
Swelling (f; BIB); Syndrome X (1; X8632219); Thirst (f; KAB); Tuberculosis (f; BIB); Tumor (f; 
BIB); Urogenitosis (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; BIB); UTI (f; NAD); Wart (f; BIB); Whitlow (f; BIB).
d osages (barley ):
FNFF = !!!
Cereal widely eaten, ground for breadstuffs, pearled for soups, brewed for beer; afl ked for stout, 
fermented for Bavarian vinegars, or scorched for coffee; diastatic malt (malted barley ofl ur) is added 
to feed the yeast in rising breads. Barley sprouts are often added to salads. Faddists use barley juice 
expressed from young seedlings as a health food (e.g., BarleyGreen or greenmagmax). It is essential 
in making miso. (Steamed barley is inoculated with koji fungus, added to steamed soybeans, and 
fermented into miso. Miso is supposed to be extra rich in estrogenic isoafl vones.) In India, a cooling 
drink called sattu is made. Ashes of leaves used in Patna (India) to make sherbets (BIB; FAC; JAD; 
TAN; EB54:155). The biblical barley cake looks substantial, although not so good from the Atkins 
or Weston Price points of view: “Take thou unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentiles, and 
millet, and tfi ches, and put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof … And thou shalt eat it 
as barley cakes …” (Ezekiel 4:9 and 12). 450 mg (PH2).
• Algerians used barley after trepanning, and in poultices for fractures and swollen t-es
ticles and abscesses; and applied to the head for sunstroke (BIB).
• Asians use powdered seed for abdominal tumors (JLH).
• Ayurvedics use barley for anorexia, anemia, asthma, biliousness, bronchosis, burns, dy-s
uria, impotence, and ulcers (KAB).
• Cereal boiled in yogurt is taken internally for rheumatism (EB51:195).
• Chinese use malt or germinated barley with the radicle attached as demulcent, expect-o
rant, and stomachic (KAB).
• Iranians say, “What has disease to do with men who live upon barle-ybread and butte-r
milk?” (BIB).
• Lebanese use cultivated barley for infections and tuberculosis (HJP).
• Peruvians apply barley flour to measles and smallpox (EGG).
• Peruvians suggest “mazamorra de cebada” for sexual debility (EGG).
• Peruvians view toasted barley decoction as antiinflammatory, depurative, and diuretic 
(EGG).
• Turks recommend the grain decoction for colds (EB49:406).
• Unani use barley for biliousness, chest pain, fever, headache, inafl med gums, and thirst 
(KAB).
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d ow Nsides (barley ):
Class 2b (AHP). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2).
Natural History (barley ):
Many fungi attack barley and some cause serious damage in some areas. Agricultural agents should 
be consulted as to methods for control. Those reported on barley include the following species: 
Alternaria tenuis, Ascochyta hordei, Aspergillus minutus, Botrytis cinerea, Calonectria gramini-
cola, Camarosporium umbonatum, Candida variabilis, Cephalosporium curtipes, C. gramineum, 
Cephalothecium roseum, Cercosporella herpotrichoides, Cerebelia andropogonis, Cladosporium 
herbarum, Claviceps purpurea, Cochliobolus sativus, Corticium gramineum, C. solani, Crypto-
ascus graminis, Curvularia geniculata, Dendryphion laxum, Drechslera graminea, D. teres (Hel-
minthosporium teres, Pyrenospora teres), Erysiphe graminis f. sp. hordei, Fusarium acuminatum, 
F. aquaeductum, F. avenaceum, F. concolor, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. graminearum, F. het-
erosporum, F. oxysporum, F poae, F. redolens, F. roseum f. cerealis, F. sambucinum and var .coe-
ruleum, F. scirpi, F. solani, F. sporotrichioides, Gibberella saubinetti, G. zeae, Griphosphaeria 
nivalis, Helminthosporium oryzae, H. sativum, H. sorokinianum, H. teres, H. tetramera, H. zonatum, 
Heterosporium hordei, Lagena radicicola, Leptosphaeria herpotrichoides, Linocarpon cariceti, 
Macrophoma hennebergii, Marssonia graminicola (Rhynchosporium secalis), Monilia sitophila, 
Mucor spp., Mycosphaerella hordeicola, M. tassiana, M. tulasnei, Nigrospora sphaerica, Oidium 
monilioides, Olpidiaster radicis, Ophiobolus cariceti, O. graminis, O. herpotricus, Paecilomyces 
varioti, Papularia sphaerosperma, Penicillium spp., Phoma glomerata, Pleospora trichostoma, 
Puccinia coronata and f. sp., secalis, P. glumarum and f. sp. hordei, P. graminis and several f. spp., 
P. anomala, P. hirsutum, P. hordei, P. kapuscinski, P. purpurogenum, P. rubigovera (P. recon-
dita), P. sanguineum, Pullularia pullulans, Pyrenophora grainea, P. japonica, P teres, Pythium 
aphanidermatum, P. arrhenomanes, P. debaryanum, P. iwayamai, P. volutum, Ramularia hordei, 
Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizophus arrizus, R. elegans, R. nigricans, Rhynchosporium graminicola, R. 
secalis and f. sp. hordei, Sclerophthora macrospora, Sclerotinia borealis, S. delphinii, S. sclero-
tium, S. rolfsii, Selenophoma donacis var. stomaticola, Selenophoma everhartii, Septoria avenae, 
S. hordei, S. nodorum, S. passerini, Sordaria finicola, Spongospora subterranea, Stemphyllium 
botryosum, Tilletia hordei, T. panicii, Torula antennata, T. graminicola, Trichoderma glaucum, 
T. kongingi, Ustilago avenae, U. hordei, U. nigra, U. segetum, U. tritici, U. zeae, and Wojnowicia 
graminis. Virus diseases include the following: Barley stripe mosaic (False stripe), Oat pseudo-
rosette, Rice streak, Rice black-streaked dwarf, Wheat green mosaic, Wheat rosette, Barley yellow 
dwarf, Barley yellow mosaic, Yellows, and False stripe. Bacterial diseases include those caused by 
the following species: Bacillus hordei, Pseudomonas atrofaciens, P. hordei, P. striaefaciens var. 
japonica, P. translucens and var. undulosa, and Xanthomonas translucens and f. sp. hordei and 
hordei-avenae. Plants may also be parasitized by Cuscuta pentagona and Strigna lutea. Nematodes 
isolated from barley include the following species: Acrobeloides buetschlii, A. enoplus, Anguina 
tritici, Aphelenchoides parietinus, Aphelenchus avenae, Belonolaimus gracilis, Chiloplacus sym-
metricus, Criconemoides mutabile, Ditylenchus dipsaci, D. radicicola, Dorylaimus laetificans, 
D. nothus, D. obtusicaudatus, Eucephalobus striatus, Helicotylenchus dihystera, H. erythri-
nae, H. pseudorobustus, Heterodera avenae, H. hordecalis, H. latipons, H. zeae, Hoplolaimus 
galeatus, H. tylenchiformis, Meloidogyne artiellia, M. chitwoodi, M. incognita, M. incognita var. 
acrita, M. naasi, M. arenaria, Merlinius brevidens, Mesorhabditis monhystera, Mirolaimus mirus, 
Neocriconella mutabilis, Panagrolaimus rigidus, Pelodera lambdiensis, Plectus granulosus, Prat-
ylenchus crenatus, P. neglectus, P. neocapitatus, P. penetrans, P. pinguicaudatus, P. pratensis, P. 
minyus, P. thornei, Punctodera punctata, Rhabditis gongyloides, Rotylenchtis erythrinae, Stiban-
guina radicicola, Trichodoras christiei, Tylenchus scandens, T. pratensis, T. spiralis, T. hordei, 
Tylenchorhynchus claytoni, and T. dubius (HOE).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
extra Cts (barley ):
Behall et al. (2004) demonstrated that as with oats, increased soluble bfi er via barley consump-
tion in a healthy diet can reduce cardiovascular risk factors. Total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol 
after the high-soluble bfi er diet were signicfi antly lower (X14963054). Behall’s research suggests 
that a biblical barley bread (beans, tfi ches, lentils, millet, and wheat) with exercise might be a nice 
herbal alternative to Zocor for high cholesterol. The following hierarchy of antioxidant activity 
was provided for 80% methanolic extracts originated from whole grain: buckwheat > barley > oat 
> wheat congruent with rye. (X10888490). Spent barley grain was very protective against colon 
cancer relative to wheat bran and commercial barley bran (X8234216).
hy ACINth ( h yAcinthus orient Alis n Ame L.) + LILIACeAe
Notes (Hya CiNt H):
I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys.
Song of Solomon 2:1
Zohary does not index this species, so I may have to reconsider this as the biblical lily of the valley. 
It is a handsome ornamental, regarded as the biblical lily of the valley by some. It has long been a 
source of perfume, once extracted from the ofl wers in France and Holland. In classical mythology, 
Hyacinthus was a handsome young man, adored by Apollo as by Zephyrus. When the boy seemed 
to prefer Apollo, Zephyrus became jealous and deefl cted a quoit, which killed Hyacinthus. Apollo 
then transformed the body into the blue ofl wers whose beauty and fragrance were to be his eternal 
memorial. Grieving, Apollo sighed the universal eastern grieving wail “Ai, Ai,” letters said to be 
inscribed to this day on the tepals. Because Ai was similar to the Greek word for eternal, the hy-a
cinth is often carved into Greek tombs (BIB). Roots of the relatedH yacinthus nonscriptus are used 
for leucorrhea; dried and powdered, they are used as a styptic (BIB; GMH).
Commo N Names (Hya CiNt H):
Bassal Sambal (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Eastern Hyacinth (Eng.; HJP); Khuzam (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Wild Hyacinth (Eng.; HJP); Nscn.
iNdi Catio Ns (Hya CiNt H):
Dysuria (f; BIB; HHB); Jaundice (f; BIB; HHB); Venereal Disease (f;HJP).
d osages (Hya CiNt H):
FNFF = X
• Lebanese treat venereal disease both topically and with dilute infusions (HJP).
extra Cts (Hya CiNt H):
The essential oil contains the antitumor compound benzaldehyde.
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FIGURe . Hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Go LDeN he NBANe (h yoscy Amus A ureus L.) x so LANACeAe
Notes (g olde N HeNba Ne):
And the border went out unto the side of Ekron northward: and the border was drawn to Shicron, 
and passed along to mount Baalah, and went out unto Jabneel; and the goings out of the border 
were at the sea.
Joshua 15:11 (KJV)
Zohary relates that Shicron can be identiefi d as a place name in Judea, where this species of 
Hysoscyamus, the most common of vfi e species in Flora of Palestine, is abundant, often growing 
in cracks in old ruins and walls, right there in Jerusalem. Zohary also mentionsH . muticus, also 
a possibility, as the most poisonous species, widely used as a medicine and narcotic (ZOH). In 
a review of Israeli Solanaceae used medicinally, Dafni and Yaniv (1994) interviewed 106 local 
Israeli healers. Only four species (Lycium europeaum, Solanum nigrum, Hyoscyamus aureus, and 
Hyoscyamus albus) are still extensively used today; while the use of some species has been almost 
abandoned D( atura spp., Mandragora autumnalis, and Withania somnifera). Today, all the plants 
are applied externally, they are rarely used as narcotics, and most uses are variable and localized. 
Extensive distribution of safer modern anesthetics, narcotics, and sedatives reduced reliance on 
Solanaceae (X7990499). Apparently, all contain the dangerous but biologically active alkaloid, 
hyoscyamine (ZOH). If all contain hyoscyamine, andH yoscyamus muticus is most poisonous, it 
may be best endowed with hyoscyamine, and probably exhibits many of the activities of hyoscy-a
mine. Activities of hyoscyamine are listed below under “Extracts.”
Commo N Names (g olde N HeNba Ne):
Banj (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Golden Flowered Henbane (Eng.; HJP); Golden Henbane (Eng.; JAD); 
Saccharus (Greek; ZOH); Sakaran es Shar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shicron (Heb.; KJV); Shikkeron 
(Heb.; RSV; ZOH); Shikrona (Heb.; ZOH); Nscn.
iNdi Catio Ns (g olde N HeNba Ne):
Cancer, breast (f; HOC); Epilepsy (f; HJP).
d osages (g olde N HeNba Ne):
FNFF = X
• Lebanese consider the Egyptian species is better for epilepsy (HJP).
• Lebanese midwives harvest and utilize this common wild weed (HJP).
• Lebanese smoke a pinch of leaf powder to relieve headache (HJP).
extra Cts (g olde N HeNba Ne):
Hyoscyamine: analgesic (WBB); anticholinergic 150–300 µg 4 ×/day/man (M29); antidote (anticho-
linesterase) (M29); antiemetic (JBH); antiherpetic (EMP5:193); antimeasles (EMP5:193); antimu-s
carinic (M29); antineuralgic; antiparkinsonian (JBH); antipolio (EMP5:193); antisialogogue (JBH); 
antispasmodic (JEB26:75); antiulcer (M29); antivertigo; antivinous; bronchodilator; bronchorela- x
ant; cardiotonic; CNS Depressant (KCH); CNS Stimulant (JBH); mydriatic (JBH); photophobig-
enic; psychoactive (WBB); sedative; toxic (PJB1(1):177); viricide (EMP5:193).
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
eGypt IAN he NBANe (h yoscy Amus muticus L.) x so LANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Hyoscyamus insanus fide EFS; Hyoscyamus muticus L. subsp. falezlez (Coss.) Maire fide USN; 
Scopolia datora Dunal; Scopolia mutica Dunal fide HHB
Notes (egyptia N HeNba Ne):
And the border went out unto the side of Ekron northward: and the border was drawn to Shicron, 
and passed along to mount Baalah, and went out unto Jabneel; and the goings out of the border 
were at the sea.
Joshua 15:11 (KJV)
Zohary relates that Shicron can be identiefi d as a place name in Judea, where this species oHf yo-
scyamus, the most poisonous and narcotic of vfi e species in the Flora of Palestine, occurs. While 
favoring H. aureus, Zohary also mentions H. muticus as a possibility, as the most poisonous species, 
widely used as a medicine and narcotic (ZOH). In a review of Israeli Solanaceae used medicinally 
in Israel, Dafni and Yaniv (1994) interviewed 106 local Israeli healers in Israel. They suggest that 
today all such plants are applied externally, and rarely used as narcotics (X7990499). Apparently, 
all contain the dangerous but biologically active alkaloid, hyoscyamine (ZOH). If all contain h-yo
scyamine, and Hyoscyamus muticus is most poisonous (reportedly it contains the most alkaloids; 
WOI), it may be best endowed with hyoscyamine, and probably exhibits many of the activities of 
hyoscyamine as reported in my CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs (2nd edition) for Hyoscyamus 
niger.  HHB suggests that its uses are similar to those of belladonna (HHB). EFS suggests that 
leaves of the toxic H. muticus, smoked by Faquirs, are used as H. niger (EFS). Sometimes used as a 
narcotic instead of opium (UPH). The plant is so poisonous as to have been used in Saharan warfare 
(BOU), and in cult rituals such as Datura (HJP).
Commo N Names (egyptia N HeNba Ne):
Afalehlé (Ber.; BOU); Ägyptisches Bilsenkraut (Ger.; EFS); Banj (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Betina 
(Arab.; BOU); Egyptian Henbane (Eng.; JAD; WOI); Egyptisch Bilzenkruid (Dutch; EFS); Fal-e
zlez (Arab.; BOU); Folhas de Meimendro (Por.; HHB); Genegi (Ber.; BOU); Giusquiamo Egiziano 
(It.; HHB); Goungat (Arab.; BOU); Hojas de Beleño (Sp.; HHB); Indian Henbane (Eng.; KAB); Ju-s
quiame d’Egypt (Fr.; EFS); Jusquiame du Désert (Fr.; BOU); Jusquiame Faleslez (Fr.; BOU); Koh 
Bana (Kharan; KAB); Koheebhang (Bal.; KAB); Kohibhang (Bal.; KAB); Kohibung (India; EFS); 
Saccharus (Greek; ZOH); Sakaran (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Sakaran Masrj (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Samm 
ul Far (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shicron (Heb.; KJV); Shikkeron (Heb.; RSV; ZOH); Shikrona (Heb.; 
ZOH); Sikran (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Tataruh Sakaran (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (egyptia N HeNba Ne):
Analgesic (f; BOU); Anesthetic (f; BOU); Antidote (Lead) (f; BOU); Antispasmodic (f1; BOU; 
HJP); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU); Deliriant (1; KAB); Hallucinogenic (f; BOU); Hypnotic (1; EFS); 
Intoxicant (f; DAW); Mydriatic (1; EFS); Narcotic (1; EFS); Parasympathetic (f; HJP); Sedative (1; 
EFS); Toxic (1; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (egyptia N HeNba Ne):
Asthma (f; BOU; EB22:167); Bunion (f; HJP); Cancer (f; HJP); Cerebrosis (f; DAW); Colic (f; BOU); 
Corn (f; HJP); Cough (Lead) (f; BOU); Cramp (f; BOU); Cystosis (Lead) (f; BOU); Hemorrhoid (f; 
HJP); Hysteria (f; BOU); Insomnia (f; DAW); Nervousness (f; UPH); Neurosis (f; BOU); Pain (f; 
BOU); Spasm (f1; BOU; HJP); Spine (f; DAW); Toothache (f; DAW).
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
d osages (egyptia N HeNba Ne):
FNFF = X
200–400 mg leaf (HHB).
• Asians Indians use the plant as an intoxicant (KAB).
• North Africans poultice fresh leaves onto painful areas of the body (BOU).
• North Africans smoke the leaves for asthma (BOU).
• North African women use the seed to gain weight (BOU).
yeLLo W FLAG (iris p seud Acorus L.) + IRIDACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Iris longifolia Lam. & DC; Iris lutea Lam.; Iris palustris Moench.; Xiphium pseudoacorus Schrank. 
fide HH3
Notes (yellow Flag ):
He shall grow as the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon.
Hosea 14:5 (KJV)
One of the most handsome wild ofl wers of Europe, the yellow afl g has been equated with the lily of Hosea 
by Moldenke and Moldenke, but not by Zohary. Who knows which scholars were correct? Remember, 
my reader, that when I drafted my rfi st Medicinal Plants of the Bible (BIB; 1985), I had the Moldenke 
book but not the more recent Zohary book (ZOH). Ms. Duke’s beautiful illustration of the yellow afl g 
graced the cover of that book sold. I invested at least $4000 in that book, expecting 10, 12, or 15% of 
royalties after the rfi st 1200 were published. However, the publisher never published that many, let alone 
sold that many. I did get ten copies of the book, nothing more. Now even I do not have a hard copy of this 
collector’s item. But because this species was the cover picture on that collector’s item, I retain the sp-e
cies in this new, faith-based revision (BIB; ZOH). The roots were once used like orris to scent linen clo-s
ets. They are used also as a source of tannin and blue and black dyes. The ofl wers offer a yellow dye.
Commo N Names (yellow Flag ):
Acoro bastardo (Por.; EFS); Ácoro Falso (It.; Sp.; EFS); Akoron (?; JLH); Arab’s Iris (Eng.; HJP); 
Burbit (Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Butter and Eggs (Eng.; EFS); Daggers (Eng.; GMH); Dragon 
Flower (Eng.; GMH); Espadaña Fina (Sp.; EFS); Falscher Kalmus (Ger.; HH3); False Acorus (Eng.; 
JLH); Flaggon (Eng.; GMH); Flambe Bâtarde (Fr.; BOU); Flambe d’Eau (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Flambe 
des Marais (Fr.; BOU); Fleur-de-Lis (Fr.; USN); Fliggers (Eng.; GMH); Flower de Luce (Eng.; 
EFS); Gelbe Schwertlillie (Ger.; EFS; HH3); Gele Lis (Dutch; EFS); Giglio Gialla (It.; HH3); Giglio 
Gialla delle Paludi (It.; EFS); Gladon (JLH); Gladiolus (Eng.; JLH); Gladyne (Eng.; GMH); Glaieul 
des Marais (Fr.; BOU); Hashishet Yakub (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Iride Gialla (It.; EFS); Iris des M-au
rais (Fr.; EFS); Iris Faux-Acore (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Iris Jaune (Fr.; BOU; EFS; USN); Jacob’s Sword 
(Eng.; BOU; GMH); Levers (Eng.; GMH); Lirio Espadañal (Sp.; EFS); Livers (Eng.; GMH); Meklin 
(Eng.; GMH); Myrtle Flower (Eng.; GMH); Pale-yellow Iris (Eng.; USN); Pakhana Bheda Lakri 
(Guj.; NAD); Sari Stisen (Tur.; EFS); Sawsan Asfar (Arab.; BOU); Segg (Eng.; GMH); Shalder 
(Eng.; GMH); Sheggs (Eng.; GMH); Siyaf (Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Sowsan Asfar (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Spadella d’Acqua (It.; EFS); Sumpf Schwertlillie (Ger.; HH3); Susan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Wasser Schwertlillie (Ger.; EFS; HH3); Water Flag (Eng.; EFS; USN); Yellow Flag (Eng.; EFS; 
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FIGURe . Yellow Flag (Iris pseudacorus).
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GMH; HH3; TAN; USN); Yellow Flag Iris (Eng.; USN); Yellow Iris (Eng.; EFS; USN); Yellow 
Sedge (Eng.; EFS); Yellow Water Iris (Eng.; USN); Yreos (?; JLH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (yellow Flag ):
Analgesic (f; GMH); Analeptic (f; BOU); Antidote (f; BOU); Astringent (f; EFS); Carminative (f; EFS); 
Cercaricidal (1; X15880993); Diuretic (f; BOU; EFS; NAD); Emetic (f; EFS; HJP); Febrifuge (f; EFS); 
Insecticide (1; X15880993); Larvicide (1; X15880993); Laxative (f; EFS); Miracide (1; X15880993); Mo- s
quitocide (1; X15880993); Purgative (f; BOU; HJP); Schistosomicide (1; X15880993); Sternutatory (f; 
EFS); Stimulant (f; NAD); Stomachic (f; EFS); Tonic (f; EFS); Vermifuge (f; EFS); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (yellow Flag ):
Arthrosis (f; BOU); Bite (f; GMH); Bruise (f; BIB; GMH); Cacoethes (f; JLH); Cancer (f; JLH); Can-
cer, gum (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Childbirth (f; HJP); Cholera (f; BIB); 
Condyloma (f; JLH); Constipation (f; EFS); Convulsion (f; BIB); Cough (f; BIB); Cramp (f; BOU); Diar-
rhea (f; BIB; UPH); Dropsy (f; BOU); Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB; GMH); Epilepsy (f; HJP); Fever (f; EFS); 
Gas (f; EFS); Gingivosis (f; JLH); Halitosis (f; HJP); Headache (f; GMH); Hepatosis (f; BOU; JLH; 
NAD); Hypothermia (f; BOU); Infection (f; HJP); Jaundice (f; HJP); Leukorrhea (f; BIB; GMH; UPH); 
Myalgia (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Pain (f; GMH); Polyp (f; JLH); Rabies (f; BOU); Rheumatism 
(f; BOU); Schirrus (f; JLH); Schistosoma (1; X15880993); Sciatica (f; BOU); Snakebite (f; BIB); Sore (f; 
HJP); Splenosis (f; JLH); Swelling (f; GMH); Toothache (f; AAH; BIB); Worm (f; EFS).
d osages (yellow Flag ):
FNFF = ?
“Minced rhizomes mixed with couscous, a popular dish in North Africa, to serve as a condiment 
and to increase the girth of women” (BOU). Seeds have been used as a coffee substitute. Powdered 
root was once used as a snuff, and as a breath freshener (BIB; TAN).
• English use the root for toothache (AAH).
• Moroccans consider it a general antidote to poisons (BOU).
• Moroccans mix powdered rhizome with vinegar as diuretic and purgative (BOU).
• North Africans boil the fragmented rhizomes (one of Morocco’s favorite alexiterics) for 
rheumatism and sciatica (BOU).
Natural History (yellow Flag ):
Flowers adapted to both honey bees and bumblebees, as well as long-tongued hover flies (Rhingia 
rostrata). Seeking honey, they push through the outer perianth segments and the style, the interme-
diate anther dusting pollen on the back (GMH).
eNGLIsh WALNU t ( Jugl Ans regi A L.) ++ JUGLANDACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Juglans duclouxiana Dode; Juglans fallax Dode; Juglans kamaonica (C. DC.) Dode; Juglans ori-
entis Dode; Juglans regia subsp. kamaonica (C. DC.) Mansf.; Juglans regia var. orientis (Dode) 
Kitam. Juglans regia var. sinensis C. DC.; Juglans sinensis (C. DC.) Dode
Notes (eNglis H w al Nut ):
I went down into the garden of nuts to see the fruits of the valley, and to see whether the vine 
flourished, and the pomegranates budded.
Song of Solomon 6:11 (KJV)
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FIGURe . English Walnut (Juglans regia).
I went down to the nut orchard, to look at the blossoms of the valley, to see whether the vines had 
budded, whether the pomegranates were in bloom.
Song of Solomon 6:11 (RSV)
To the garden of nut trees, I had gone down to see the buds in the torrent valley, to see whether 
the vine had sprouted, whether the pomegranate trees had blossomed.
Song of Solomon 6:11 (NWT)
Apparently this was the nut, a nut so common and important that it needed no denominator. One of 
King Solomon’s most valuable fruit trees was the walnut, a handsome tree with smooth gray bark 
and fresh green leaves. Walnuts were widely cultivated in biblical times for the nuts and timber. 
Still, walnut is not mentioned by that name at all in the KJV, and the word nut only appears twice. 
In Jesus’s time, walnut trees reportedly grew on the shores of the Sea of Galilee. There is a place 
called Valley of the Walnuts in eastern Jerusalem. Jesus’s seamless coat was a rich brown, the dye 
allegedly of walnut leaves and nuts. The heavy green rind encasing the nut is steeped in boiling 
water to produce a brown dye. Walnuts are also used to tint gray hair black (BIB; ZOH). The Súbah 
of Kashmir use walnuts in divination; they throw a walnut into a pond; if it ofl ats; it is a good omen; 
if it sinks, a bad omen (DEP).
Commo N Names (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Ak (Nwp.; KAB); Akhoda (Sanskrit; DEP); Akhor (Gurung; Hindi; KAB; NPM); Akhrot (Beng.; 
Guj.; Hindi; KAB; TAN); Akroda (Mar.; DEP; KAB); Akrodu (Kan.; DEP); Akrottu (Tam.; Tel.; 
DEP; KAB); Akschoda (Sanskrit; KAB); Akshota (Ayu.; AH2); Ankus (Arm.; KAB); Carpathian 
Walnut (Eng.; USN); Ceviz (Tur.; EB51:195; EB49:406); Ceviz A?gaci (Tur.; EFS); Chaharmaghz 
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(Iran; Pun.; KAB); Ch’iang T’ao (China; EFS); Circassian Walnut (Eng.; FAC); Dio (Hun.; KAB); 
Diólevél (Hun.; EFS); Djouz (Arab.; BOU); Dun (Kas.; KAB); Echter Walnußßaum (Ger.; USN); 
Egoz (Walnut; ZOH); English Walnut (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Gemeiner Walnussbaum (Ger.; EFS); 
Gerga’ (Arab.; BOU); Girdagan (Iran; DEP); Gognier (Fr.; KAB); Goz (Arab.; ZOH); Hardy Walnut 
(Eng.; FAC); Hup Thor (Malaya; KAB); Hu Tao (China; Pin.; AH2; TAN; USN); Hu Tao Ren (Pin.; 
AH2; DAA); Jaoz (Shingar; KAB); Jauz (Arab.; Quetta; KAB; ZOH); Jawz (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Jbuz (Arab.; KAB); Jouz (Arab.; EFS); Joz (Arab.; GHA); Kabsing (Assam; DEP; KAB); Kado 
(Tamang; NPM); Karaunt (Garhwal; KAB); Karydia (Greek; KAB); Kato (Tamang; NPM); Katu 
(Gurung; NPM); Khaisi (Rai; NPM); Kharat (Nwp.; DEP); Kharot (Kum.; DEP; KAB); Khayusing 
(Limbu; NPM); Khejik (Limbu; NPM); Khonsi (Newari; NPM); Knau (Lan.; KAB); Kolpot (Lep-
cha; NPM); Kotasi (Sherpa; NPM); Kowal (Lepcha; DEP; KAB); Krot (Kas.; DEP); Madeira W-al
nut (Eng.; USN); Naksh (Arab.; GHA); Noce (It.; KAB); Noce Comun (It.; EFS); Noeddetrae (Den.; 
KAB); Nogal (Sp.; KAB); Nogal Común (Sp.; USN); Nogal Europea (Sp.; USN); Nogal Inglés (Sp.; 
USN); Nogueira-comum (Por.; USN); Noguera (Cat.; Por.; KAB); Noix Commune (Fr.; EFS): Noyer 
(Fr.; BOU); Noyer Comun (Fr.; BOU; USN); Nuc (Rom.; KAB); Nussbaum (Ger.; KAB); Ockernoo-
tenboom (Dutch; KAB); Okhar (Bhojpuri; Chepang; Danuwar; Jaunsar; Majar; Nepal; Tharu; KAB; 
NPM; SUW); Orechovve Derevo (Rus.; KAB); Orzeszuma Wloska (Pol.; KAB); Persian Walnut 
(Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; USN); Phoro (Sunwar; NPM); Seiyo Gurumi (Japan; TAN); Siskhyasi (Burma; 
KAB); Sowak (Arab.; BOU); Starga (Lad.; MKK); Star-ga (Tibet; NPM); Tadjoudjte (Ber.; BOU); 
Tagashing (Bhutan; DEP; KAB); Than (Pangi; KAB); Thanka (Pun.; DEP); Thitkya (Burma; DEP); 
Tsouik (Ber.; BOU); Ughz (AFG); Vadnód (Den.; EFS); Valnoettraed (Swe.; KAB); Waghz (Afg.; 
DEP; KAB); Walnootboom (Dutch; EFS); Walnuss (Ger.; MAD); Yanggulk (Tur.; KAB).
a Ctivities (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Alterative (f; PNC); Analgesic (f1; BIB; X14522443); Anthelmintic (f; DEP; NPM); Antiaatfl oxin (1; 
X15053524); Antiaggregant (1; BIB; FNF); Anticancer (f1; BGB); Antidepressant (1; MAM); An-ti
dote (f; BOU; DEP); Antifatigue (f1; MAM); Antiherpetic (1; BGB); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; APA; 
X14522443); Antioxidant (1: X10616967); Antiparasitic (f1; X15619562); Antiperspirant (1; APA; 
PH2); Antiradicular (1; X10616967); Antiseptic (f1; BIB; JAD; PNC); Antispasmodic (f; NAD); 
Antitumor (f1; APA; JAD); Antiulcer (f1; MAM); Antiviral (1; BGB; X14727919); Anxiolytic (1; 
MAM); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU; PH2); Astringent (f1; APA; BGB; HHB; NPM; PH2); Bactericide (1; 
BIB; X15068416; X14727919); Candidicide (1; BGB; BIB); Carcinogenic (1; BGB; PH2); Cardi-o
protective (f1; X15294495); Cardiotonic (f; KAB); Carminative (f; KAB); Cerebrotonic (f; EFS); 
Chemoprotective (1; X14580007); Cholagogue (f; NAD; NUT); COMT Inhibitor (1; MAM); Cyto-
toxic (1; X14727919); Dentifrice (f; BOU); Depurative (f; NUT; PHR; PH2); Digestive (f; NUT); 
Diuretic (f; NUT); Emollient (f; BGB); Euphoriant (1; MAM); Expectorant (f; KAB); Fungicide (1; 
APA; JAD; PH2); Hair Dye (1; PNC); Hemostat (f1; JAD; MAD; NUT); Herbicide (1; JAD); Hypo-
cholesterolemic (1; X15294495); Immunostimulant (1; MAM); Insecticide (f; NUT); Lactifuge (f; 
NAD); Laxative (f; BIB; JAD; PNC); Leukoplakogenic (1; PH2); Lipolytic (1; X15294495); Litho-
lytic (f; NUT); MAO (1; BIB; FNF); Molluscicide (1; WOI); Mutagenic (1; BGB; PH2); Myorelaxant 
(1; MAM); Myotonic (f; MAD); Neuroprotective (f1; MAM); Piscicide (1; WOI); Serotoninergic (1; 
MAM); Stimulant (f; NUT); Taenicide (f; NAD); Tonic (f; NPM; NUT); Vermifuge (f1; HHB; JAD; 
PH2); Vulnerary (f; JAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Acne (f1; APA; X15974479); Adenopathy (f; MAD); Aegilops (f; JLH); Alopecia (f; BIB; BOU); Ane-
mia (f; MAD); Anthrax (1; NUT; WOI); Anxiety (1; MAM); Aphtha (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; MAD); 
Asthma (f; NUT; PH2); Atherosclerosis (1; BIB; FNF); Bacillus (1; WOI); Bacteria (1; BIB); Bac-k
ache (f; NUT); Bacteria (1; X15068416); Beriberi (f; PH2); Bleeding (f; HJP); Bronchosis (f; KAB); 
Bruise (f; KAB); Burns (f; BGB; X15664457); Caligo (f; NAD; NUT); Cancer (f1; BIB; BGB; JLH); 
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Cancer, breast (f1; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH); Cancer, intestine (f1; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, lip (f1; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f1; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; JLH); Candida (1; BGB); Carbuncle (f; BIB); C-ar
diopathy (f1; BIB; X15294495); Caries (f; BIB; MAD); Catarrh (f; MAD; PHR; PH2); Chancre (f; 
NUT); Cholera (1; WOI); Colic (f; NUT; PH2); Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; APA; BGB; 
NUT); Constipation (f; NAD; PH2); Corn (f; JLH); Coryza (f; BOU); Cough (f1; BIB; FNF; NUT); 
Dandruff (f; BGB; MAD); Depression (1; FNF); Dermatosis (f12; HJP; KOM; PHR; PH2; PNC); Dia-
betes (f; BOU; MAD); Diarrhea (f1; APA; HHB); Diptheria (1; WOI); Dogbite (f; BGB); Dysentery (f; 
NUT; PH2); Eczema (f1; APA; BGB; GHA; MAD; PNC); Enterosis (f; HHB; PHR; PH2); Epilepsy (f; 
PNC); Epithelioma (f; JLH); Escherichia (1; BIB; WOI); Exanthema (f; MAD); Favus (f; NUT); Fever 
(f; EB49:406); Fistula (f; MAD); Flu (f; BIB; BOU); Fungus (f; BIB; KAB); Gangrene (f; BIB; HJP); 
Gastrosis (f; HHB; MAD; PHR; PH2); Gingivosis (f1; APA; BIB; BOU); Gout (f; MAD); Gray Hair 
(1; PNC); Halitosis (f; BIB; BOU); Headache (f; BIB; NPM; PNC); Heartburn (f; KAB; NUT); Helic-o
bacter (1; X15068416); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB); Herpes (f1; BGB; KAB; PNC); High Blood Pressure (1; 
BIB; FNF); High Cholesterol (1; X15294495); Hunger (f1; BIB); Hyperemesis (f; NAD); Impotence (f; 
MAD; NUT; PH2); Infection (f1; BGB; KAB); Infertility (f; BIB; EB51:195); Inafl mmation (f1; APA; 
BIB; PH2; X14522443); Insomnia (1; MAM); Laryngitis (1; BIB; FNF); Leprosy (f; KAB); Leukor-
rhea (f; NUT); Lupus (f; MAD); Lymphopathy (f; MAD); Malaria (f; EB49:406); Mercury Poisoning 
(f; MAD); Mycosis (f1; APA; KAB); Nephrosis (f; NUT); Nervousness (f; GHA; MAD); Neurosis (f1; 
MAD; MAM); Obesity (f1; BIB; FNF); Ophthalmia (f; HHB); Pain (f; NUT; EB49:406; X14522443); 
Parasite (f1; X15619562); Plaque (1; BIB); Pruritus (f; BGB); Pulmonosis (f1; BIB; FNF; MAD); Pyor-
rhea (f; BOU); Rabies (f; KAB); Rheumatism (f; APA; DEP; NUT; SUW); Rhinosis (1; BIB; FNF); 
Rickets (f; HHB; NAD); Ringworm (f1; APA; KAB); Salmonella (1; WOI); Scrofula (f; APA; BGB; 
BOU; HHB); Snakebite (f; BGB); Sore (f1; BGB; NUT; PNC; SUW); Sore Throat (f; KAB); Spasm 
(f; NAD); Spiderbite (f; BGB); Staphylococcus (1; BIB); Stomatosis (1; APA); Streptococcus (1; BIB); 
Sunburn (f; BGB); Sunstroke (f; EB49:406); Sweating (2; KOM; PHR); Swelling (f; BIB); Syndrome 
X (1; X15294495); Syphilis (f; BIB; MAD); Tapeworm (f1; BAD; WOI); Tuberculosis (f; MAD); Ulcer 
(f1; MAM; X15068416); Venereal Disease (f; BIB; MAD); Virus (1; X14727919); Wart (f; JLH); Whi-t
low (f; JLH); Worm (f1; APA; MAD); Wound (f1; APA); Yeast (1; BIB).
d osages (eNglis H w al Nut ):
FNFF = !!!
Nuts consumed fresh, roasted, or salted; used in candies, pastries, and afl vorings. Ground nut shells 
used as adulterant of spices. Fruits, when dry pressed, yield a valuable oil used in paints and soaps; 
when cold pressed, yield a light yellow edible oil, rich in omega-3s; used in foods as afl voring. Young 
fruits pickled. French make a liqueur from the green nut; green nuts also pickled; leaves rarely co-n
sumed as tea (FAC, TAN; EB54:155); 1/2 tsp chopped leaf/cup water (externally only; APA); 2–3 g 
leaf/100 ml water for compresses (KOM); 3–6 g (PHR); 4–8 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC).
• Algerians use leaf shampoo against alopecia (BOU), fresh leaves and bark as styptic 
(HJP), and burning sugar with the shells for headache (HJP).
• Arabians believed in the famed antidote of Mithridites: two walnuts, two gfi s, and twenty 
leaves of rice, rubbed together with a grain of salt (DEP).
• Arabians inhale fumes from burning nut shells for coryza and u fl (BOU); or to repel 
insects (GHA).
• Asian Indians suggest spirits distilled from leaves or fruits as antispasmodic and in 1 to 
2 drachms used to check morning sickness (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest the edible cold pressed oil for dimness of vision. (NAD).
• Ayurvedics and/or Unani regard the therapeutic properties as analgesic, antibilious, 
aperitif, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, carminative, constipating, expectorant used for blood 
disorders, bronchosis, bruises, cardiopathy, hemorrhoids, rabies, and ringworm (KAB).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Chinese use leaves and powdered hull as astringent and depurative in syphilis (BIB).
• Greeks and Romans regarded walnuts as symbols of fecundity, and scattered walnuts 
about at weddings.
• Italians use the plant as an antiparasitic in cheeses (X15619562).
• Lebanese think the nut increases fertility, and use rancid old oil to treat old ulcers (HJP).
• Malayans say the kernels fatten the body and strengthen the muscles, suggesting them for 
colic, dysentery, and heartburn (KAB).
• Turks clothe nude patients in leaves for fever, rheumatic pain, and sunstroke (EB49:406).
• Orientals use the kernels for laryngeal and lung disorders, and mix them with almond 
and ginseng for chronic cough; they used the oil for skin ailments (BIB).
• Saudis used bark (bambar in Saudi Arabia, dandosa in Pakistan) soaked in water and 
rubbed on gums and teeth, both as cleanser and cosmetic, imparting reddish color to 
gums, considered attractive (GHA).
• Turks take the fruit decoction internally for malaria (EB49:406).
• Yemeni eat the nuts for nervous tension (GHA).
d ow Nsides (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Class 2d. Juglone is mutagenic. External carcinogenic effects noted after chronic external use (AHP, 
1997). None known for the leaf at proper dosage (KOM; PHR; PH2). Commission E reports fruit 
shell not permitted for therapeutic use; usefulness not documented adequately. Fresh shells contain 
the naphthoquinone constituent juglone, which is mutagenic and possibly carcinogenic. The juglone 
content of dried shells has not been studied adequately (AEH).
Natural History (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Pollination is often a problem, as English walnuts are monoecious, with separate staminate and pist-il
late ofl wers in different parts of the same tree. Staminate catkins are 10 to 15 cm long and produce 1 
to 4 million pollen grains each. Sometimes, freshly picked catkins are put on paper in a room at 21°C 
and the shed pollen stored in a desiccator at 0°C. Then pollen is blown on trees by a fan mounted on a 
truck. Helicopters are sometimes used to blow pollen over an orchard. Seedlings are very susceptible 
to mushroom root rot, and Walnut girdle disease (“Blackline”) is thought to occur when certain ho-r
ticulture varieties of Juglans regia are grafted on rootstocks ofJ uglans hindsii and its hybrids, asso-
ciated with graft incompatibility. Fungi known to attack Persian walnuts includAel ternaria nucis, 
Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta juglandis, Aspergillus flavus, Auricularia auricula-judae, A. mes -
enterica, Cerrena unicolor, Cladosporium herbarum, Coniophora cerebella, Coprinus micaceus, 
Coriolus tephroleucus, Cribaria violaceae, Cryptovalsa extorris, Cylindrosporium juglandis, C. jug-
landis, C. uljanishchevii, Cytospora juglandina, Cytosporina juglandina, C. juglandicola, Diplodia 
juglandis, Dothiorella gregaria, Erysiphe polygoni, Eutypa ludibunda, Exosporina fawcetti, Fomes 
fomentarius, F. igniarius, F. ulmarius, Fusarium avenaceum, F. lateritium, Ganoderma applana-
tum, Glomerella cingulata, Gnomonia ceratostyla, G. juglandis, G. leptostyla., Hemitricia leioty-
ichia, Hypoxylon mediterraneum, Inonotus hispidus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinus cyathiformis, 
Licea tenera, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis carthusiana, M. juglandis, Melanconium juglandis, 
M. oblongum, Melanopus squamosus, Microsphaera alni, M. juglandis, Microstroma juglandis, 
Mycosphaerella saccardoana, M. woronowi, Nectria applanata, N. cinnabarina, N. ditissima, Oxy-
porus populinus, Phellinus cryptarum, Phleospora multimaculans, Phoma juglandis, Phomopsis 
juglandis, Phyllactinia guttata, Phyllosticta juglandina, P. juglandis, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, 
Phytophthora cactorum, P. cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, Pleospora vulgaris, Pleurotus ostreatus, 
Polyporus hispidus, P. picipes, P. squamosus, Polystictus versicolor, Rhizopus nigricans, Stereum 
hirsutum, Trametes suaveolens, Tubercularia juglandis, T. vulgaris, Verticillium albo-atrum. Bacte-
ria attacking Persian walnut includ Aegrobacterium tumefaciens, Bacillus mesentericus, Bacterium 
juglandis, Pseudomonas juglandis, Xanthomonas juglandis, Cuscuta pentagona, also parasitized 
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the tree. The following nematodes have been isolated from Persian walnut :Cacopaurus pestis, 
Diplogaster striatus, Diplogaster coronata, Ditylenchus intermedius, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. 
javanica, M. sp., Pratylenchus coffeae, P. pratensis, P. vulnus, Rhabditis debilicauda, R. spicu-
ligera, and Tylolaimophorus rotundicauda. Among the insect pests of this walnut are the follow-
ing: Walnut Blister mite (Eriophytes tristriatus), Walnut aphid (Chromaphis juglandicola), Italian 
pear scale (Diaspis iricola), Calico scale E( ulecanium cerasorum), Frosted scale (Parthenolecanium 
Pruinosum), Walnut scale (Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae), Codling moth (Cydia pomonella), Fruit 
tree leaf-roller (Archips argyrospila), Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), Walnut caterpillar 
(Datana integerrima), Red-humped caterpillar (Schizura concinna), Walnut span worm (Phigalia 
plumigeraria), and Walnut husk yfl ( Rhagolestis completa).
extra Cts (eNglis H w al Nut ):
Guarrera et al. (2005) mention walnut’s antiparasitic use for cheeses (X15619562). Regular nut 
consumption can result in a 10% reduction in LDL cholesterol in a few weeks. Nuts often rich in 
arginine, vitamin E, folate, befi r, potassium, magnesium, tannins, and polyphenols. Although nuts 
contain approximately 80% fat, the nut feeding trials have not shown any associated weight gain in 
those ingesting nuts, suggesting that the addition of nuts in the diet may have a satiating effect. Daily 
ingestion of a small quantity is an acceptable lifestyle intervention to prevent coronary heart disease 
(X15294495). Gallic acid in the pellicle shows potential for inhibiting of aafl toxigenesis (X15053524). 
Colaric et al. (2005) list chlorogenic, caffeicp, -coumaric, ferulic, sinapic, ellagic, and syringic acid 
as well as syringaldehyde and juglone from ripe fruits of ten walnut cultivars. Not only in the k-er
nel, but also in the pellicle, did syringic acid, juglone, and ellagic acid predominate (average values 
of 33.83, 11.75, and 5.90 mg/100 g of kernel; and 1003.24, 317.90, and 128.98 mg/100 g of pellicle, 
respectively), and the contents of ferulic and sinapic acid (average values of 0.06 and 0.05 mg/100 g 
of kernel and 2.93 and 2.17 mg/100 g of pellicle, respectively) were the lowest in all cultivars. It was 
found that the walnut pellicle is the most important source of walnut phenolics. The ratio between the 
contents in pellicle and kernel varied by at least 14.8-fold for caffeic acid (cv. Adams) and by up to 
752.0-fold for p-coumaric acid (cv. Elit) (X16076123). One study indicates an absence of tocotrienol, 
while another found it consistently but at levels below 2 ppm (X15941326; X15969535). Good source 
of dietary serotonin, quickly broken down in the gut (where there are serotonin receptors). Serotonin is 
reportedly analgesic, antiaggregant, anticholinesterase, anticonvulsant, antiendotoxic, antigastr-isec
retogogic, antireserpinic, bronchoconstrictor, cardiovascular, coagulant, euphoriant, myorelaxant, 
myostimulant, neurotransmitter, oxytocic, teratogenic, ulcerogenic, and vasoactive [LD50 = 117 ipr 
rat; LD50 = 160 ivn mus; LD50 = 868 ipr mus]. Juglone reportedly is allelochemic, allergenic, anti-
cariogenic, antidermatophytic, antiEBV, antifeedant, antiherpetic, antiparasitic, antiseptic, antitumor, 
antitumor-promoter, antiviral, bactericide, chemopreventive, dermatitigenic, fungicide, keratolytic, 
molluscicide, sedative, sternutatory, and viricide [LD50 = 2.5 ppm (orl mus)]. The combination of tan-
nin with all its pesticidal activities and juglone may be pretty potent. Aqueous extracts of fresh walnut 
leaves, free of juglone, possess strong bactericidal activity againsBta cillus anthracis and Corynebac-
terium diptheriae, weaker activity againstB acillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus pyogens, 
Pneumococci, Proteus, Salmonella typhosa, S. typhimurium, S. dysenteriae, Streptcocci, and Vibrio 
(WOI). Phillips et al. (2005) quantiefi d the phytosterols in walnut: delta-5-avenasterol 73 ppm; delta-
7-avenasterol; campestanol 24; campesterol 49; phytosterols 1060–1200; poriferasta-7,25-dienol 54; 
poriferasta-7,22,25-dienol; sitostanol <17; and beta-sitosterol 889 ppm (X16302759).
so Ft RU sh (Juncus effusus L.) ++ CypeRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Juncus bogotensis Humb.; Juncus communis Mey.; Juncus laevis Wallr. fide HHB
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Notes (s o Ft r us H):
And they shall turn the rivers far away; and the brooks of defence shall be emptied and dried up; 
the reeds and the flags shall wither.
Isaiah 19:6 (KJV)
And the parched ground shall become a pool, and the thirsty land springs of water: in the habita-
tion of dragons, where each lay, shall be grass with reeds and rushes.
Isaiah 35:7 (KJV)
Moldenke and Moldenke list this first among vfi e candidates for the afl gs and rushes of Isaiah and Job, 
doubting that any of them are the “nutritious river grass of Egypt” (BIB). Zohary does not even list this 
species, but rather the prickly sea rush (Juncus acutus) as a prominent member of aquatic vegetation 
along the edges of water bodies, with the papyrus C( yperus papyrus), giant reed (Phragmnites austra-
lis), bramble bush (Rubus sanguineus), clammy inula (Inula viscosa), and even the oleander N( erium 
oleander), but no mention of Juncus effusus (ZOH). In China, the pith is used for lamp wicks and mat 
making. Indians in California use the rush for domestic utensils and fodder.
Commo N Names (so Ft rus H):
Binse (Ger.; HHB); Bog Rush (Eng.; BUR); Bulrush (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Common Rush (Eng.; 
BUR); Deng Xin Cao (Pin.; AH2); Flatter Binse (Ger.; EFS); Flattersinse (Ger.; HHB); Giunco (It.; 
EFS); Hu Hsu Ts’ao (China; EFS); Jonc à Lier (Fr.; USN); Jonc à Mèche (Fr.; HHB); Jonc Commun 
(Fr.; HHB); Jonc Épars (Fr.; USN) Jonc Étenndu (Fr.; EFS); Junco de Esteiras (Sp.; EFS); Junquera 
(Sp.; EFS); Lamp Rush (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Pit Rush (Dutch; EFS); Rush (Eng.; EFS); Saz (Tur.; 
EFS); Soft Rush (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; BUR);  Steinbinse (Ger.; HHB); Teng Hsin Ts’ao (China; EFS).
a Ctivities (s o Ft r us H):
Antiinafl mmatory (f; DAW); Antiseptic (1; X12126307); Bactericide (1; X12126307); Candidicide 
(1; X12126307); Cathartic (f; BUR); Depurative (f; WOI); Discutient (f; DAW); Diuretic (f; BUR; 
DAW; HHB); Fungicide (1; X12126307); Lenitive (f; DAW); Litholytic (f; EFS); Nervine (f; DAW); 
Pectoral (f; DAW); Sedative (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (s o Ft r us H):
Anuria (f; BIB); Candida (1; X12126307); Convulsion (f; DAW); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dysuria (f; 
DAW); Fear (f; DAW); Fistula (f; DAW); Fungus (1; X12126307); Hepatosis (f; DAW); Infec-
tion (1; X12126307); Insomnia (f; DAW); Jaundice (f; DAW); MDR (1; X12126307); Mycosis (1; 
X12126307); Sore (f; DAW); Sore Throat (f; BIB); Staphylococcus (1; X12126307); Stone (f; EFS; 
WOI); Strangury (f; DAW); Yeast (1; X12126307).
d osages (s o Ft r us H):
FNFF = ?
Not indexed by FAC or TAN, but not listed as poisonous either.
• Chinese use the pith, depurative and diuretic, to keep sfi tulous sores open. The pith 
decoction is considered antilithic, discutient, and pectoral, and is prescribed for anuria, 
cough, dropsy, insomnia, micturition, and sore throat (BIB).
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FIGURe . Soft Rush (Juncus effusus).
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d ow Nsides (s o Ft r us H):
In South Africa, the herb is suspected of causing “vlei poisoning” (WBB).
extra Cts (s o Ft r us H):
Hanawa et al. (2002) found a phenanthrene (dehydroeffusol) and a dihydrophenanthrene (juncusol), 
both of which display enhanced antimicrobial activities in light. The antimicrobial activities against 
methicillin-resistant and -sensitive Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans were increased 
16- and 2-fold, respectively, by irradiation with ultraviolet-A irradiation (X12126307).
GReCIAN JUNIpeR (Juniperus excels A M. BIeB) + CUpRess ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Juniperus excelsa Wall.; Juniperus excelsa var. depressa O. Schwarz; Juniperus excelsa var. farreana 
P.N. Mehra; Juniperus excelsa var. polycarpos (K. Koch) Silba; Juniperus excelsa subsp. polycarpos 
var. pendula (Mulk.) Imkhanitskaya; Juniperus excelsa subsp. seravschanica (Komarov) Imkhanits-
kaya; Juniperus excelsa subsp. turcomanica (B.A. Fedtsch.) Imkhanitskaya; Juniperus foetida var. 
excelsa (M.-Bieb.) Spach.; Juniperus isophyllos K. Koch; Juniperus gossainthaneana Loddig fide DEP; 
Juniperus macropoda Boiss.; Juniperus olivieri Carr.; Juniperus polycarpos K. Koch; Juniperus poly-
carpos var. pendula Mulk.; Juniperus polycarpos var. seravschanica (Komarov) Kitamura; Juniperus 
recurva Buch.-Ham; Juniperus sabina var. excelsa (M.-Bieb.) Georgi; Juniperus sabina var. taurica 
Pall.; Juniperus seravschanica Komarov; Juniperus taurica (Pall.) Lipsky; Juniperus turcomanica 
B.A. Fedtsch.; Sabina excelsa (M.-Bieb) Ant.; Sabina isophyllos (K. Koch) Ant.; Sabina olivieri Ant.; 
Sabina polycarpos Ant.; Sabina religiosa Ant.; Sabina seravschanica (Komarov) Nevski fide CJE.
Notes (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
They have made all thy ship boards of fir trees of Senir: they have taken cedars from Lebanon to 
make masts for thee.
Ezekiel 27:5 (KJV)
Zohary suggests that Juniperus excelsa (or Juniperus foetidissima), a stately Lebanese conifer, 
should fall under the collective term of conifers, berosh. Lebanese call i tbrotha, a “name surely 
identical with the berothim of the Song of Solomon” (ZOH). The Accadian word burasu could also 
refer to this species, as it was reportedly imported from the Zaigros mountains near Eilam where 
it still occurs. It also grows on Mt. Senir, mentioned in the quote above. Will we ever know what 
ancient non-botanical historians meant when they chose their words in recording and translating?
Commo N Names (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
Al’Allan (Arab.; Oman; GHA); Apurs (Bal.; DEP); Berosh (Heb.; ZOH); Berothim (Leb.; ZOH); 
Broth (Leb.; ZOH); Burasu (Accadian; ZOH); Cedrelate (?; JLH); Cedrus (?; JLH); Chandan 
(Nepal; WOI); Charai (Hazara; DEP); Chher Syukpa (Tibet; NPM); Chundun (Kum.; DEP); Dhang 
Ling (Tamang; NPM); Dhup (India; CJE); Dhupi (Nepal; DEP); Eastern Savin (Eng.; ZOH); Gre-
cian Juniper (Eng.; HJP; USN); Greek Juniper (Eng.; CJE); Himalayan Pencil Cedar (Eng.; DEP); 
–
–
Indian Juniper (Eng.; WOI); Juniper (Eng.; JLH); Kutran (Arab.; Yemen; GHA); Lewar (Pun.; 
WOI); Lizzab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Luir (Pun.; DEP); Padam (India; WOI); Paddam (Nwp.; DEP); 
Shukpa (Tibet; DEP); Syukpa (Sherpa; NPM); Weeping Blue Juniper (Eng.; NPM); Nscn.
a Ctivities (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
Analgesic (f; GHA); Antiseptic (f1; HJP; X10234860); Bactericide (1; X10234860); Carminative 
(f; HJP); Diuretic (f; HJP; UPH); Emmenagogue (f; HJP); Hemostat (f; HJP); Hydragogue (f; HJP); 
Stimulant (f; HJP); Stomachic (f; HJP); Vermifuge (f; HJP); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
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FIGURe . Grecian Juniper (Juniperus excelsa).
iNdi Catio Ns (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
Amenorrhea (f; HJP); Arthrosis (f; HJP); Bacteria (1; X10234860); Cancer (f; JLH); Condyloma 
(f; JLH); Cough (f; HJP); Cystosis (f; HJP); Delirium (f; DEP; NAD; WOI); Dropsy (f; HJP); Dys -
menorrhea (f; UPH); Dyspepsia (f; HJP; UPH); Enterosis (f; HJP); Epistaxis (f; HJP); Excrescence 
(f; JLH); Hepatosis (f; HJP); Infection (f1; HJP; X10234860); Jaundice (f; HJP); Myalgia (f; GHA); 
Mycobacterium (1; X10234860); Nephrosis (f; HJP); Pain (f; GHA); Paralysis (f; GHA); Polyp (f; 
JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Rheumatism (f; HJP); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; HJP); Tuberculosis (1; 
X10234860); Venereal Disease (f; HJP); Wart (f; JLH); Worm (f; HJP); Wound (f; HJP).
d osages (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
FNFF = ?
Although I find nothing on this as food in FAC or TAN, I suspect it parallels the edibility of other 
junipers: some relatively toxic, some relatively benign. WOI comments that the fruits and essential 
oil are very similar to the gin juniper, J. communis, but for gin afl voring, the pinene, smelling of 
turpentine, must be removed (WOI).
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• Algerians snuff the powdered leaves for nosebleed (HJP), dressing wounds with leaves, 
olive oil, and saliva (HJP).
• Algerians sprinkle powdered leaves on circumcisions (HJP).
• Algerians steep boiled leaves and take with 1/2 cup Turkish coffee for cough (HJP).
• Arabians rub oil-soaked leaves on muscular pain and massage them onto paralyzed limbs 
or face (GHA).
• Asian Indians suggest inhaling smoke from burning branches in delirium of fever (DEP; 
NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest its uses are similar to the common juniper, J. communis (DEP).
• Lebanese think this is the best source of huile de cade, used in topical liniments and 
salves, and internally in cough and liver medicines (HJP).
Natural History (g re Cia N Ju Niper ):
Wood rotting fungus (Fomes juniperus) may be a nusiance (WOI).
CADe JUNIpeR (Juniperus oxycedrus L.) + CUpRess ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
J. macrocarpa fide CJE.
Notes (Cade Ju Niper ):
For he shall be like the heath in the desert.
Jeremiah 17:6 (KJV)
In the Flora of Palestine, Zohary and associates list only two species of Juniperus native to the 
Holy Land:
•  Plant monoecious shrub or small tree; mature cones with six to eight scales; mature 
leaves ares cale-like — Juniperus phoenicia
•  Plant dioecious tree; mature cones with three to six scales; mature leaves are acicular, 
prickly — Juniperus oxycedrus (FP1)
Not even indexing Juniperus excelsa, which some books have identiefi d as the biblical cedar, nor 
the common juniper, Juniperus communis, on which medicinal literature focuses, Zohary seems to 
have selected J. phoenicia as the most likely equivalent of the Aroer of the Arnon, but confesses 
that “[t]he identicatfi ion of the biblical arar with Juniperus is based solely on the Arabic name given 
to this and other species of Juniperus in several Arabic-speaking countries” (ZOH). Other scholars 
have dwelt on J. oxycedrus, which led me to do likewise in my second biblical book (BI2) and in 
this newer compilation.
Commo N Names (Cade Ju Niper ):
Algum (Bib.; Eng.; BI2); Appegggi (It.; EFS); ‘Ar’ar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ardic Giligilisi (Tur.; 
EB49:406); Ardic Katrani (Tur.; EB49:406); ‘Ar’or’ (Heb.; BI2); Branket Enebaer (Den.; EFS); 
Cada (Sp.; VAD); Cade (Dutch; EFS); Cade Juniper (Eng.; USN); Ceder Wacholder (Ger.; CJE); 
Cedre Piquant (Fr.; CJE); Cedro de Espanha (Por.; EFS); Cirti (Tur.; EB51:195); Crvena Kleka 
(Serbia; CJE); Dikenli Ardic Evi (Tur.; EB49:406); Enebro de Bayas Rojas (Sp.; USN); Enebro 
de la Miera (Sp.; EFS); Genévrier Cade (Fr.; EFS; USN); Genévrier Epineux (Fr.; USN); Ginepro 
Pungente (It.; CJE); Kade (Ger.; USN); Kade (Ger.; EFS); Karaakatran (Tur.; EB49:406); Kedros 
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(Greek; JLH); Kyklan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Oxicedro (Por.; EFS); Oxycèdre (Fr.; EFS); Prickly 
Cedar (Eng.; HOC); Prickly Juniper (Eng.; CJE; USN); Red-berry Juniper (Eng.; USN); Red Juni-
per (Eng.; EFS); Rotbeeriger Wacholder (Ger.; USN); Roter Wacholder Sariardic (Tur.; EB49:406); 
Sariardicevi (Tur.; EB49:406); Tikenardici (Tur.; EB49:406).
a Ctivities (Cade Ju Niper ):
Abortifacient (f1; VAD); Analgesic (f1; EFS; X9498241); Antiedemic (1; X9498241); Antiinflamma -
tory (1; VAD; X9498241); Antipruritic (f; AYL; BIB); Antiseptic (f1; BRU; FNF; HOC); Bactericide 
(1; X12639746); Candidicide (1; X12639746); Carminative (f; BIB); Contraceptive (f; BIB); Diuretic (f; 
BIB; EFS); Emmenagogue (f1; VAD); Empyreumatic (f; HOC); Expectorant (f; VAD); Hypoglycemic 
(f; VAD); Insectiphile (1; X15279265); Keratolytic (f1; AYL; BIB; VAD); Parasiticide (1; BRU; FNF; 
HOC); Stimulant (f; BIB; EFS); Stomachic (f; BIB); Vermifuge (f; BIB; EFS); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cade Ju Niper ):
Abscess (f; EB49:406); Alopecia (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; VAD); Asthma (f; VAD); Bacillus (1; 
X12639746); Bacteria (1; X12639746); Bronchosis (f; VAD); Brucella (1; X12639746); Candida (1; 
X12639746); Cancer (f; BIB; JLH); Catarrh (f; VAD); Cold (f; EB49:406); Cough (f; EB49:406); 
Cystosis (f; BIB; VAD); Dermatosis (f1; BRU; VAD); Dislocation (f; EB51:195); Dysuria (f; 
EB49:406); Eczema (f; BRU; HOC); Edema (1; X9498241); Enteromonas (1; X12639746); Esch-
erichia (1; X12639746); Favus (f; BIB); Fistula (f; EB49:406); Fracture (f; EB51:195); Fungus (1; 
X12639746); Gout (f; HOC; VAD); Hemorrhoid (f; HJP; EB49:406); Hepatosis (f; AYL; BIB); High 
Blood Pressure (f; VAD); Infection (1; BRU; FNF; X12639746); Inafl mmation (1; X9498241); Itch 
(f1; VAD); Jaundice (f; BIB); Keratosis (f; BRU; VAD); Leprosy (f; BIB); Mycosis (1; X12639746); 
Nephrosis (f; BIB); Neuralgia (f; VAD); Neurodermatosis (f; BRU; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Pain 
(f1; X9498241); Parasite (f1; BRU; FNF; EB51:195); Pediculosis (f; BIB); Pharyngosis (f; VAD); 
Proctosis (f; EB49:406); Pseudomonas (1; X12639746); Psoriasis (f; BIB; HOC); Rheumatism (f; 
HOC; VAD; EB51:195); Rhinosis (f; VAD); Scabies (f1; BIB; VAD); Seborrhea (f; BIB); Sinusosis 
(f; VAD); Snakebite (f; BIB); Sore (f; BIB); Staphylococcus (1; X12639746); Stone (f; VAD); Stran-
gury (f; VAD); Toothache (f1; BIB; EFS; VAD); Tumor (f; BIB); Urethrosis (f; VAD); Wound (f; 
HJP; EB49:406); Xanthomonas (1; X12639746); Yeast (1; X12639746).
d osages (Cade Ju Niper ):
FNFF = ?
3–5 drops cade oil in a little water, followed by a weak purgative, for worms (BIB). 3 cups deco-c
tion/day (20 g/l; boiled 3 minutes). 10–20 drops ufl id extract 3 ×/day (VAD); 35–50 drops 1:10 tinc-
ture, 1–3 ×/day (VAD); 1–2 drops essential oil in oil or alcohol carrier or on a sugar cube (VAD).
• Algerians apply powdered rotten bark to facial cuts, leaf ashes in oil or water to piles 
(HJP).
• Lebanese crush and boil the berries, then soaking in oil for use in bladder and kidney 
ailments, or in alcohol as carminative and stomachic (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest berries crushed in sheep fat as an antiseptic vulnerary salve for wounds 
(HJP).
• Lebanese suggest the tea for jaundice and liver problems (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest crushed berries in tar or turpentine for sores and venereal disease (HJP).
• Palestinians use the dark brown tar (cade oil) for healing skin ailments (FP1).
• Turkish take fruits like a pill for bronchosis and colds (EB49:406).
• Turkish mix resin or tar mixed with honey for cough (EB49:406).
• Washingtonians apply the oil to external cancers (JLH).
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d ow Nsides (Cade Ju Niper ):
Contraindicated in pregnancy (may be oxytocic), lactation, infancy, or neurologic patients or neph- ri
tis. Essential oil can be allergenic or irritant. Long-term use may lead to albuminuria and hematuria 
(VAD). The principal component of Juniperus oxycedrus tar is cadinene, a sesquiterpene, but cresol 
and guaiacol are also found. The oils derived from Juniperus oxycedrus tar were not skin irritants 
in animals. Juniperus oxycedrus tar was genotoxic in several assays. Clinical tests showed no e-vi
dence of irritation or sensitization with any of the tested oils, but some evidence of sensitization 
to the tar. A 2-year dermal carcinogenicity assay performed using National Toxicology Program 
(NTP) methods is needed. It was concluded that the available data are insufcfi ient to support the 
safety of these ingredients in cosmetic formulations (X11558640).
Natural History (Cade Ju Niper ):
Arceuthobium oxycedri (Loranthaceae) is a (semiparasitic) mistletoe found only on this juniper 
species.
phoe NICIAN JUNIpeR (Juniperus phoenici A L.) + CUpRess ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Juniperus bacciformis Carr.; Juniperus lycia L.; Juniperus oophora Kunze;  subsp. eumediterrea-
nea P. Lebreton et S. Thivend; Juniperus phoenicia L. var. lobelii Guss.; Juniperus phoenicia L. 
var. malacocarpa Endl; Juniperus phoenicia L. var. sclerocarpa Endl.; J. phoenicia L. subsp. tur-
binata (Guss.) Nyman 1881; Juniperus terminalis Salisb. Juniperus tetragona Moench; Juniperus 
turbinata Guss.; Sabina bacciformis (Carr.) Antoine; Sabina lycia (L.) Antoine; Sabina phoenicia 
(L.) Antoine; Sabina turbinata (Guss.) Antoine; Sabinella phoenicia (L.) Nakai. fide GJE.
Notes (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
From Aroer, which is by the brink of the river of Arnon.
Deutoronomy 2:36 (KJV)
In the Flora of Palestine, Zohary and associates list only two species of Juniperus native to the 
Holy Land:
•  Plant monoecious shrub or small tree; mature cones with six to eight scales; mature 
leaves scale-like — Juniperus phoenicia
•  Plant dioecious tree; mature cones with three to six scales; mature leaves acicular, 
prickly — Juniperus oxycedrus (FP1)
Not even indexing Juniperus excelsa, which some books have identiefi d as the biblical cedar, nor 
the common juniper, Juniperus communis, on which medicinal literature focuses, Zohary seems to 
have selected J. phoenicia as the most likely equivalent of the Aroer of the Arnon, but confesses 
that “[t]he identicatfi ion of the biblical arar with Juniperus is based solely on the Arabic name given 
to this and other species of Juniperus in several Arabic-speaking countries” (ZOH). Other scholars 
have dwelt on J. oxycedrus.
Commo N Names (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
Aifz (Ber.; BOU); Arar (Arab.; ZOH); ‘Ar’ar (Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Aroer (Heb.; ZOH); Dafran 
al ‘Arr’arr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); ‘Djineda (Arab.; BOU); Fausse Rouge (Fr.; BOU); French Cade 
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Tree (Eng.; HOC); Genévrier Phénicie (Fr.; CJE); Genévrier Rouge (Fr.; BOU); Phoenician Juniper 
(Eng.; ZOH); Shurbin (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Zimbreiro (Mad.; Por.; PST); Zimbro (Mad.; Por.; PST); 
Zimeba (Ber.; BOU); Nscn.
a Ctivities (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
Abortifacient (f; HJP); Analgesic (f; BOU); Anticancer (f1; JLH; X6253598); Antiinafl mmatory (f; 
BOU); Antiseptic (1; X12720394); Astringent (f; BOU); Bactericide (1; X12720394); Candidicide 
(1; X12720394); Diuretic (f; DAW); Emmenagogue (f; BOU); Fumigant (f; DAW); Fungicide (1; 
X12720394); Hemostat (f; HJP); Stomachic (f; DAW); Tonic (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
Bacteria (1; X12720394); Bleeding (f; HJP); Burn (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; JLH; X6253598); Ca-n
dida (1; X12720394); Childbirth (f; BOU); Constipation (f; BOU); Cough (f; HJP); Dermatosis (f; 
BOU; HJP); Diarrhea (f; BOU); Dropsy (f; HJP); Dysuria (f; BOU); Enterosis (f; BOU); Epistaxis 
(f; HJP); Fungus (1; X12720394); Infection (1; X12720394); Inafl mmation (f; BOU); Mycosis (1; 
X12720394); Nephrosis (f; HJP); Pain (f; BOU); Polyp (f; JLH); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus 
(1; X12720394); Strangury (f; DAW); Wart (f; JLH).
d osages (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
FNFF = ?.
• Algerians boil berries and steep overnight, taking with a half cup of Turkish coffee, 
morning and evening, for cough (HJP).
• Algerians use powdered dry leaves, presumably in decoction or tea, to dilate the urinary 
tract to disinfect the intestines, and to treat mild dermal infections (BOU).
• Algerians snuff powdered leaves for nosebleed (HJP).
• Algerians sprinkle powdered leaves on circumcisions (HJP).
• Egyptians apply the berries to burns and cancers (JLH).
• Lebanese use boiled leaves as diuretic (HJP).
• Lebanese boil crushed berries and steep in oil as soothing vulnerary for skin conditions 
(HJP).
• North Africans consider the leaves emmenagogue, increasing uterine contractions during 
parturition.
• North Africans use hot leaf tea for children’s diarrhea (BOU).
• Southern Europeans use the plant for nasal polyps and warts (JLH).
d ow Nsides (pHoe NiCia N Ju Niper ):
The International Journal of Toxicology (2001) published on the safety of Juniperus phoenicea 
extract, one of several juniper extracts used as biological additives in cosmetics. No genotoxicity 
data were available for extracts. Available data are insufcfi ient to support the safety in cosmetic 
formulations (X11558640).
Lett UCe (lA ctuc A sAtiv A L.) ++ Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Lactuca sativa var. angustana Lam.; Lactuca sativa var. capitata L.; Lactuca sativa var. crispa L.; 
Lactuca L.H. Bailey sativa var. longifolia
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Notes (l ettu Ce):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day in the evening they shall keep it; they shall eat it with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (RSV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day between the two evenings, they should prepare it. 
Together with unfermented cakes and bitter greens they should eat it.
Numbers 9:11 (NWT)
Lettuce is the most popular of the salad vegetables, yet one of the bitter herbs of the Bible, at 
least according to some American writers, including myself. For example, Moldenke and Mol-d
enke believed that Cichorium endivia, Cichorium intybus, Lactuca sativa, Nasturtium officinale, 
Rumex acetosella, and Taraxacum officinale were among the bitter green herbs of the Bible. More 
discriminating Israeli writers seem to favor chicory. (Such scholars regard endive as the bitter herb 
of Moses. Apparently, Zohary does not (ZOH), more convinced that C. pumilum Jacq. was the 
bitter herb. Not to worry. That is just a variety or subspecies of endive.) Zohary lists six species of 
Lactuca that could be called “wild lettuce,” and are, I would wager, bitter, and many are consumed 
at times as bitter herbs. Lactuca sativa could be cultivated in Israel with irrigation. So I retain it as a 
remotely possible bitter herb of the Bible. Boulos tells us that in ancient Egypt, lettuce was a symbol 
of fertility (BOU). Primitive wild edible (bitter) lettuces L. scariola and L. serriola are reported 
in the Flora of Palestine, and even more probably bitter herbs of the Bible, at least in my book. 
Cultivated lettuce seems to cross readily with (or degenerate with reseeding into )L. scariola and 
L. serriola, which are themselves regarded as synonyms (USN; WOI); these being generally more 
bitter than derived lettuce and probably having more medicinal activities, especially compared to 
iceberg lettuce, which is mostly water.
Commo N Names (l ettu Ce):
Alface (Ma.; Por.; JFM; USN); Alface Comun (Ma.; Por.; JFM); Alface Cultivada (Ma.; Por.; JFM); 
Bazr ul Khas (Arab.; EFS); Cabbage Lettuce (Eng.; EFS); Ch’ien Chin Ts’ai (China; EFS); Chisha 
(Japan; TAN); Garden Lettuce (Eng.; USN); Garten Lattich (Ger.; EFS); Garten Salat (Ger.; EFS); 
Grüner Salat (Ger.; USN); Hakkarike (Kan.; NAD); Harouka (Arab.; BOU); Hovedsalat (Den.; 
EFS); Huvudsallat (Swe.; EFS); Insulata (It.; EFS); Kaha (Sin.; DEP); Kahu (Beng.; Hindi; Iran; 
DEP; EFS; WOI); Kavu (Tel.; DEP; WOI); Khas (Arab.; Hindi; DEP); Khass (Arab.; BOU); Khuss 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kopfsalat (Ger.; EFS; USN); Kropsia (Dutch; EFS); Laitue (Fr.; USN); Laitue 
Cultive (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Laitue Pommee (Fr.; EFS); Lattich (Ger.; TAN); Lattuga (It.; TAN); Lat-
tuga a Capuccio (It.; EFS); Lechuga (Cuba; Peru; Sp.; EGG; JFM; RyM; USN); Lechuga Acogollada 
(Sp.; EFS); Lechuga Arepollada (Sp.; EFS); Leti (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Lettuce (Eng.; USN); Marul 
(Tur.; EFS; EB54:155); Mesiouka (Arab.; BOU); Salad (India; WOI); Salada (Singh.; DEP); Salattu 
(Tam.; WOI); Saleet (Kan.; NAD); Shallatu (Tel.; NAD); Shatlatu Virai (Tam.; NAD); Sla (Dutch; 
EFS); Tuinsia (Dutch; EFS); Tukm-i-kahu (Iran; EFS); Wo Chu (China; TAN); Wo Ts’ai (China; 
EFS); Zaub (Hmong; EB57:365).
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FIGURe . Lettuce (Lactuca sativa).
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a Ctivities (l ettu Ce):
Alexiteric (f; BIB); Anaphrodisiac (f; BIB; DAW); Anodyne (f1; DAW; JFM; FT67:215); Antidote 
(f; DAW); Antispasmodic (f; BIB); Anxiolytic (1; FT67:215); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU); Cardiac (f; 
BIB); Carminative (f; DAW); Demulcent (f; NAD); Diaphoretic (f; BIB); Digestive (f; EGG; HJP); 
Diuretic (f; EFS; SOU); Emollient (f; BOU; EFS; EGG); Expectorant (f; JFM; NAD); Febrifuge (f; 
BIB); Hypnotic (f; EFS); Lactagogue (f; BIB); Narcotic (f; EFS); Parasiticide (f; BIB); Poison (f; 
EFS); Psychdelic (f; BIB); Purgative (f; BIB); Refrigerant (f; DAW); Sedative (f; BOU; EFS; SOU; 
FT67:215); Stomachic (f; JFM); Tranquilizer (f; VOD).
iNdi Catio Ns (l ettu Ce):
Asthma (f; DAW; WOI); Bronchosis (f; JFM; WOI); Bubo (f; BIB); Burn (f; WOI); Cancer (f1; JLH); 
Cancer, breast (f1; JLH; X15546249); Cancer, colorectal (f1; X15546249); Cancer, face (f; JLH); 
Cancer, gastric (f1; X15546249); Cancer, lung (f1; X15546249); Cancer, tongue (f; JLH); Cancer, 
uterus (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; DAW; JFM); Catarrh (f; JFM); Circulosis (f; DAW); Conjunctivosis 
(f; JFM); Constipation (f; JFM); Cough (f; JFM); Cystosis (f; JFM); Delirium (f; NAD); Dysmenor -
rhea (f; DAW; VOD); Dyspepsia (f; NAD); Edema (f; BIB); Fever (f; DAW); Hepatosis (f; NAD); 
High Blood Pressure (f; JFM); Hyperglycemia (f; DAW); Impotence (f; BOU); Infertility (f; BOU); 
Inafl mmation (f; JFM); Insanity (f; NAD); Insomnia (f1; DAW; SOU; VOD; FT67:215); Nephrosis 
(f; JFM); Nervousness (f; HJP; NAD; VOD); Neuralgia (f; DAW); Pain (f1; DAW; FT67:215); Palp-i
tation (f; DAW; JFM; NAD); Pertussis (f; DAW); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; WOI); Spasm (f; WOI); 
Spermatorrhea (f; NAD); Stress (1; FT67:215); Strangury (f; SOU); Swelling (f; BIB); Tuberculosis 
(f; BIB); Tumor (f; JLH); Typhoid (f; DAW); Urogenitosis (f; DAW).
d osages (l ettu Ce):
FNFF = !!!
Leaves widely used as a salad, sometimes as vegetable. Leaves also eaten braised or wilted, or used 
in soups with broth, with bouillon cubes or spices. In stem lettuce varieties, young stems are peeled 
and cooked, but not the coarse unpalatable leaves (BIB; EGG; FAC; TAN).
• American hustlers sometimes promote the milky exudate as an opium substitute (BIB).
• Asian Indians suggest lettuce juice for nervousness and palpitations of the heart (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest hot lettuce tea for dyspepsia and hepatoses (NAD).
• Asian Indians recommend one part lettuce seed and two parts poppy seed steeped to 
render a mucilage sweetened with sugar for insomnia (NAD).
• Dominicans consider the lettuce salad or tea as tranquilizer (VOD).
• Haitians take leaf tea for dysmenorrhea, insomnia, nervousness, and ophthalmia (VOD).
• Iranians suggest the seeds for typhoid (BIB).
• Lebanese occasionally apply wilted lettuce to abrasions, swellings, and wounds (HJP).
• Lebanese druggists keep powdered lettuce seed to calm feverish patients, and to deter 
boys from excessive masturbation, “but it is not strong enough to help mad people, those 
with fits, or excited women” (HJP).
• North Africans consider the plant a symbol of fertility, and the seed oil aphrodisiac (BOU).
• Panamanians claim that merely eating lettuce salad will promote sound sleep (JFM).
• Peruvians place lettuce with olive oil on the forehead for insomnia (VOD).
• Peruvians suggest the tea, sweetened with scorched sugar, for insomnia and strangury 
(SOU).
• Venezuelans suggest leaf decoction for cystosis, dysuria, and nephrosis (JFM).
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d ow Nsides (l ettu Ce):
Bolted lettuce eaten as a vegetable has been reported to cause coma (BIB).
extra Cts (l ettu Ce):
Frequent intake of fruits, raw vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, cabbage, and lettuce, and frequent 
physical exercise, are associated with decreased risk for gastric, breast, lung, and colorectal cancer 
(X15546249).
CALABAsh G o URD (lA gen Ari A sicer Ari A 
(Mo LINA) st ANDL.) ++ CUCURBIt ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cucurbita lagenaria L.; Cucurbita leucantha Duchesne; Cucurbita longa hort.; Cucurbita siceraria 
Molina; Lagenaria lagenaria (L.) Cockerell; Lagenaria leucantha Rusby; Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.
Notes (Calabas H g ourd ):
And Dilean, and Mizpeh, and Joktheel …
Joshua 15:38 (KJV)
After my first book was published, I was fascinated to read in Zohary that “the town-name of 
Dilean” was derived from delaath, a term occurring in postbiblical literature for the bottle-gourd, 
long and extensively cultivated. Specimens from Egyptian tombs date circa 3500 to 3,000b .c., 
but in America date back to circa 7000b .c. Zohary adds that scientists believe that these fruits 
ofl ated from Africa to the other side of the Atlantic, the seeds remaining viable for 2 years. Be it an 
American or un-American species, Julia Morton’s comments pushed it back even earlier, saying it 
was known and utilized in the Old World for 12,000 years, here in the New World for 15,000 years. 
It is now widely cultivated in the tropics and warm temperate zone as food, utensil, and medicine 
(JFM). AH2 has designated the standardized common name to be Calabash Gourd. So be it! I used 
Bottle Gourd in my CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs (Edition 2). Appropriately bowing to AHP, 
the American Herbal Products Association, for the betterment of the herbal industry, I will now 
use its standardized common name, Calabash Gourd, a vine, not to be confused with the Calabash 
tree (Crescentia). According to Dr. Max Beauvoir (VOD), rattles made from this gourd are very 
important in Haitian Voodoo. The rattle, known asa sson, made from the shell of this gourd, is the 
symbol of the spiritual power of the priest (houngan) or priestess (mambo). The rattle is usually 
covered with a network of bead strings representing the world at large. There are also several snake 
vertebrae representing Damballah, and a bell to summon the attention of Iwa when rung. The gourd 
is reportedly the container of the Ossâim in the Afro-Brazilian Candomblé religion (VOD quoting 
Voeks, 1997).
Commo N Names (Calabas H g ourd ):
Abóbora Branca (Por.; AVP; KAB); Abóbora Carneira (Por.; POR); Abóbora d’Agua (Por.; 
AVP); Adanggu (Ewe; KAB); Akpaki (Ga; KAB); Alabu (Sanskrit; SKJ); Alaburu (Tel.; KAB); 
Alahko (Koasiti; AUS); Alava (Sanak; DEP; KAB); Anapa Kai (Mal.; NAD); Apakyi (Twi; KAB); 
Asmakabag?i (Tur.; EFS); Bagaña (Dr.; AUS); Bairntua (Fanti; KAB); Bangaña (Dr.; AVP); Bau 
(Vn.; POR); Bau Nam (Annam; KAB); Bella Shora (Mal.; DEP; KAB); Benares Pumpkin (Eng.; 
NAD); Bhopala (Mar.; WOI); Bhopla (Mar.; KAB); Birsuku (Mun.; KAB); Boga Lao (Assam; 
DEP; SKJ; WOI); Bottiglia di Zucca (It.; AVP); Bottle Gourd (Eng.; Ocn.; BOU; CR2; FAC; USN; 
VOD); Bouteille (Fr.; BOU); Brujito (Pan.; IED); Bule (Ma.; JFM); Busin Swai (Burma; DEP; 
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KAB); Cabaceira (Brazil; AVP); Cabaceiro Amargóso (Brazil; AVP); Cabaço (Brazil; Por.; MPB; 
POR; USN); Cabaço Amargosa (Brazil; MPB); Cadungo Amargo (Sp.; Pr.; AVP); Cajombre (Sp.; 
POR; USN); Calabash (Eng.; FAC; USN); Calabash Cucumber (Eng.; BOU; IHB; NPM); Calabash 
Gourd (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Calabaza (Peru; Sp.; EGG; POR; RAR; USN); Calabaza de San 
Roque (Sp.; EFS; POR); Calabaza Vinatera (Sp.; AVP; KAB; POR); Calabazo (Col.; Dr.; AVP); C-al
bas Largu (Creole; JFM); Calebasse (Fr.; BOU; POR); Calebasse Courant (Fwi.; AUS); Calebasse 
Courge (Guad.; Mart. AVP); Calebasse d’Europe (Fr.; BOU); Calebasse d’Herbe (Fr.; KAB) Ca-le
basse Douce (Guad.; Mart.; AVP); Calebasse Franc (Haiti; AUS; AVP); Calebasse Longe (Guad.; 
Mart.; AVP); Calebasse Longue (Haiti; AUS; AVP); Calebasse Musquée (Guad.; Haiti; Mart.; AUS; 
AVP); Calebasseterre (Fr.; Guiana; KAB); Calebassier (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; POR; USN); Calebassier 
Grimpant (Fr.; POR); Camasa (Sp.; Ven.; EFS; JLH); Camaza (Ma.; JFM); Caracho (Pr.; AVP); 
Carracho (Pr.; AVP); Chappu P’ege (Bol.; Callawaya; DLZ); Chiti Anab (Tel.; NAD); Chucña 
(Peru; EGG; RAR; SOU); Cocombro (Brazil; KAB); Cogorda (Sp.; POR); Cojombro (Ma.; JFM); 
Cojudito (Peru; EGG); Cojudo (Peru; EGG); Colombro (Por.; EFS); Colondro (Por.; EFS); Con-
gourde (Fr.; Haiti; AHL; BOU); Cougourde (Fr.; POR); Courge Bouteille (Fr.; EFS; POR); Courge 
de Perelin (Fr.; AVP); Courge Massue (Fr.; POR); Courge Pélerine (Fr.; POR); Courge Siphon (Fr.; 
POR); Cucurbita (Sp.; RAR); Cucuzzi (It.; FAC); Cucuzzi Caravasi (It.; FAC); Cuia (Brazil; MPB); 
Cuieté (Brazil; MPB); Delaath (Isr.; ZOH); Diya Laba (Sin.; DEP); Diya Labu (Sin.; KAB; POR); 
Dodi (Hindi; POR); Douma (Sudan; AVP); Dubb’a (Arab.; BOU); Dudhi (Guj.; Hindi; India; POR; 
USN; WOI); Dudhiyun (Kathiawar; KAB); Dudhya (Mar.; DEP; WOI); Dudi (Hindi; POR); Dum 
(Chepang; NPM); Efepe (Creek; Muskogee; AUS); Fepe (Creek; Muskogee; AUS); Flaschenkürbis 
(Ger.; POR; USN); Flaskegræskar (Den.; POR); Flaskkurbits (Swe.; POR); Fleskalebas (Dutch; 
EFS; POR); Flessepompoen (Dutch; POR); Fran (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Geöhnlicher Flaschenkür-
bis (Ger.; USN); Ghiya (Pun.; WOI); Golkaddu (Bijnor; Hindi; DEP; KAB); Gourd (Eng.; JFM); 
Gourde (Fr.; BOU; POR); Gourde Bouteille (Fr.; POR; USN); Gourde Calebasse (Fr.; EFS); Gourde 
des Pèlerins (Creole; Haiti; AUS; VOD); Gourde Massue (Fr.; POR); Gourde Trompette (Haiti; 
AHL); Gourdo (Lan.; KAB); Gros Calebasse (Haiti; AHL); Gubba Kaya (Tel.; DEP); Güícharo 
(Pr.; AUS; AVP); Güiro (Cuba; Dr.; Haiti; Taino; AUS; AVP); Güiro Amargo (Sp.; POR; USN); 
Güiro Cimarrón (Cuba; AUS; AVP); Güiro Dulce de Nueva Guinea (Cuba; RyM); Güiro Guyaro 
(Cuba; AUS); Guyaro (Cuba; AUS); Halagumbala (Kan.; NAD; WOI); Healing Squash (Eng.; FAC); 
Hefepe (Creek; Muskogee; AUS); Hefepe-Nerkv (Creek; Muskogee; AUS); Hipfi a (Mikasuki; AUS); 
Ho Lo (Ic.; KAB); Horoto (Arawak; Sur.; AUS); Hu Gua (China; PR); Hu Lu (China; PR); Hu Lu 
Gua (China; PR); Hu Zi (Pin.; DAA); Hurreakadu (Sin.; KAB); I’niizhe (Osage; AUS); Irao (Sin.; 
DEP); Iselwa (Zulu; ZUL); Italian Edible Gourd (Eng.; FAC); Jamaru (Brazil; MPB); Jomatapheng 
(Lepcha; NPM); Ka-Bed (Tibet; NPM); Kaddú (Hindi; Iran; DEP; NAD); Kadu (San.; DEP; KAB); 
Kadu Duddi (Kon.; NAD); Kaduasuki (Naguri; KAB); Kadubhopla (Bom.; SKJ); Kadugol (Urdu; 
KAB); Kadulau (Beng.; SKJ); Kadutalkha (Iran; KAB); Kadwitumbade (Guj.; NAD); Kahisore 
(Kan.; NAD); Kalabas (Den.; POR); Kalbas (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Kalbas di Core Abao (Ma.; JFM); 
Kalbas Kouran (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Kalbas Largoe (Ma.; JFM); Kalebass (Swe.; POR); Ka- le
bassenkürbis (Ger.; POR); Kalubay (Vis.; POR); Karehulmar (Arab.; ?); Kashiphal (Hindu; Mah.; 
NAD; SKJ); Katutumbi (Sanskrit; DEP); Keedú (Pun.; DEP); Khaddu (Hindi; NAD); Khi Luu Saa 
(Thai; POR); Khlôôk (Khmer; POR); Ko (Biloxi; AUS); Kochi (Alabama; AUS); Kodu (Beng.; 
NAD); Kohla (Sin.; NAD); Koro (Carib; Sur.; AUS); Kukuk (Java; Sunda; IHB; POR); Kurlaru 
(Sanskrit; EFS); Labu (Malaya; IHB); Labu Air (Dei.; POR); Labu A?yr eBe?rleher (Malaya; IHB); 
Labu Ay?er (Java; IHB); Labu Ay?er Puteh (Malaya; IHB); Labu Botol (Malaya; POR); Labu Ja- n
tong (Malaya; IHB); Labuka (Sanskrit; KAB); Labu ?Knedi (Malaya; IHB); Labu Puteh (Malaya; 
EFS); Labu Putih (Dei.; POR); La Guasu (Chiriguano; DLZ); Lakttine (Ber.; BOU); Lau (Assam; 
Beng.; Nwp.; DEP; WOI); Lauka (Magar; Nepal; Newari; Sunwar; Tamang; Tharu; NPM); Laukaa 
(Nepal; POR); Lauki (Bhojpuri; Hindi; India; Nwp.; EFS; KAB; NPM; POR); Lek (Dwi.; JFM); 
Lokhi (Hindi; POR); Long White Gourd (Eng.; NAD); Lova (Chiriguano; DLZ); Lyiquisigua (Bol.; 
Chiriguano; DLZ); Mambiro (Cr.; AVP); Manamtao (Thai; POR); Mao Gua (China; POR); Mardudi 
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(Kon.; KAB); Marimbo (Pr.; AVP); Marimbo Almizcle (Sp.; AVP); Mate (Peru; EGG; RAR; SOU); 
Mathi (Bol.; Que.; DLZ); Mati (Bol.; Peru; Que.; DLZ; EGG; RAR; SOU); Matti (Peru; RAR); 
Mazon (Sp.; EFS); Mekuri (Naga; DEP; KAB); Mirango (Mandingo; KAB); Mo Kwa (Canton; 
POR); Naam Tao (Thai; POR); Nambiro (Cr.; Pr.; AUS; JFM); Namtao (Thai; IHB; POR); Namz 
Taux (Laos; POR); Ndopote (Manjia; KAB); New Guinea Bean (Eng.; FAC); New Guinea Butter 
Vine (Eng.; FAC); Oo Lo Kwa (Canton; POR); Opo (Tag.; FAC; KAB); Ouowi (Ber.; BOU); P’ao 
(China; EFS); Pehe (Omaha; Ponca; AUS); Peh Poh (Singapore; POR); Pepino Chino (Ma.; JFM); 
Phusi (Nepal; DEP; KAB); Pierna de Pobre (Sp.; EFS); Pilgrim Bottle (Eng.; AVP; IED); Poro (Bol.; 
Peru; DLZ; EGG; RAR; SOU); Porongo (Bol.; Brazil; DLZ; MPB); Poto (Peru; EGG; RAR); Poto 
Pate (Peru; EGG); Pullokurpitsa. (Fin.; POR); Pulu (Aym.; Bol.; DLZ); Púnu (Aguaruna; Peru; 
EGG); Pura (Peru; EGG; RAR); Puru (Peru; EGG; RAR; SOU); Purunga (Brazil; MPB; RAR); 
Qar’a Aslawiya (Arab.; BOU); Qar’a Dubba (Arab.; BOU); Qar’a Duruf (Arab.; BOU); Qar’a Tawil 
(Arab.; BOU); Qer’aa (Arab.; BOU); Qer’aa Beida (Arab.; BOU); Qer’aa el leben (Arab.; BOU); 
Qer’aa Gardousi (Arab.; BOU); Qer’aa Medwen (Arab.; BOU); Saffed Kadu (India; EFS); Shokshi 
(Chickasaw; AUS); Shora Kai (Tam.; DEP); Shorakkai (Tam.; KAB; SKJ; WOI); Shukshi Okpulo 
(Chickasaw; AUS); Shukshubok (Choctaw; AUS); Sicay (Vis.; KAB); Sinu (Sakai; IHB); Sísira 
(Garifuna; Nic.; IED); Sorakai (Tam.; NAD); Sorakaya (India; SKJ); Sorekayi (Kan.; WOI); S-or
rakaya (Tel.; WOI); Su Kabagi (Tur.; EB54:155); Tafe-qeloujla (Ber.; BOU); Takhsait (Ber.; BOU); 
Tä ‘Mbacti’ (Yuchi; AUS); Taquera (Brazil; MPB); Tarro (Ma.; Sal.; AUS; JFM); Tecomate (Ma.; 
Sal.; AUS; JFM); Tecomatillo (Ma.; Sal.; AUS; JFM); Tembephutra (Limbu; NPM); Tikta Tumbi 
(Sanskrit; NAD); Tito Tumba (Nepal; POR); Tokal (Semang; IHB); Tol (Guat.; Ma.; Sal.; AUS; 
JFM); Totumo (Ma.; Sal.; Ven.; AUS; JFM); Trompetenkürbis (Ger.; POR); Tukal (Besisi; Pangan; 
IHB); Tula de Mate (Pan.; IED; JFM); Tumada (Guj.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Tumba (Pun.; KAB); 
Tumri (Hindi; Kum.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Upo (Tag.; POR); Vinotera (Peru; EGG; RAR); Voambahy 
(Sakalave; KAB); Voata Vomanta (Hova; KAB); Wachekalasi (Rai; NPM); Waluh ?nKti e(Java; 
IHB); Wamnuha (Dakota; AUS); White-ofl wer Gourd (Eng.; USN); White Pumpkin (Eng.; NAD); 
Woo Lo Gwa (Canton; POR); Woo Lo Kwa (Canton; POR); Wu Lo Gwa (Canton; POR); Xataan 
(Amahuaca; Peru; EGG; RAR); Yumí (Aguaruna; Peru; EGG; SOU); Yuugao (Japan; FAC; POR); 
Zucca da Pescare (It.; HHB); Zucca da Tabacco (It.; POR); Zucca Lunga (It.; AVP).
a Ctivities (Calabas H g ourd ):
Analgesic (f; AUS; DEM); Anthelmintic (f; BOU; WBB); Antibilious (f; WOI); Antidote (f; LMP); 
Antiperiodic (f; KAB); Antitussive (1; FNF; HAD); Antiulcer (1; FNF; HAD); Bitter (1; JFM); 
Carminative (f; JFM); Cardiotonic (f; KAB); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Cholinergic (1; FNF; HAD); 
Demulcent (1; FNF; HAD); Diuretic (f; AUS; BOU; EFS); Emetic (f; EFS); Febrifuge (f; EFS); 
Hemostat (1; FNF; HAD; KAB); Hepatoprotective (1; FNF); Laxative (f; AUS); Litholytic (f; EFS); 
Pectoral (f; WBB); Purgative (1; EFS; JFM); Ribosome Inactivator (1; X11104364); Taenicide (f; 
KAB); Tonic (f; KAB); Trypsin Inhibitor (1; X7889483); Vulnerary (f; DLZ; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Calabas H g ourd ):
Adenopathy (f; NAD); Alopecia (f; IHB; WOI); Alzheimer’s (1; HAD); Asthma (f; AHL; AUS; KAB); 
Atheroma (1; HAD); Biliousness (f; EFS; KAB); Body ache (f; DEM); Boils (f; DEM); Bronchosis (f; 
KAB); Cancer (f1; HAD; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; FNF; JLH; X7889483); Childbirth (f; MPB); Colic 
(f; LMP); Constipation (1; JFM); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f1; AHL; AUS; FNF; HAD; LMP); Delirium 
(f; IHB; WOI); Dermatosis (f; DLZ; IHB; JFM); Diarrhea (f1; DEP; FNF; HAD); Dropsy (f; AUS; 
WOI); Dyskinesia (1; FNF; HAD); Dysuria (f; KAB); Earache (f; KAB); Favus (f; DLZ); Fever (f; 
BOU; IHB; LMP); Gas (f; JFM); Gastrosis (f; HHB); Gingivosis (f; LMP); Headache (f; DEM; JFM); 
Heart Problems (f; JFM); High Cholesterol (1; HAD); Hepatosis (1; FNF); Hoarseness (f; AHL); 
Hyperacidity (f; NPM); Inafl mmation (f; KAB); Insanity (f; DEM); Itch (f; AUS; DLZ); Jaundice (f; 
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NAD; SKJ); Leukorrhea (f; KAB); Malaria (f; KAB); Mange (f; JFM); Myalgia (f; KAB); Nephrosis 
(f; DAV; EGG; MPB; RAR); Nyctalopia (f; NAD); Ophthalmia (f; KAB); Pain (f; AUS; KAB); Pim-
ple (f; IHB; LMP; WOI); Pregnancy (f; JFM); Rheumatism (f; WOI); Rhinosis (f; NAD); Ringworm 
(f; DLZ); Scabies (f; DLZ); Scrofula (f; NAD); Sore (f; MPB); Stomachache (f; HHB); Strangury (f; 
KAB); Thirst (f; IHB); Toothache (f; LMP); Tumors (f; JLH); Typhoid (f; HAD; IHB); Typhus (f; 
LMP); Ulcer (f; KAB; NPM); Uterosis (f; KAB); Vaginosis (f; KAB); Worm (f; BOU).
d osages (Calabas H g ourd ):
FNFF = !!!
Young fruits widely eaten; seeds edible, yielding an oil that can be rendered into a tofu-like curd; 
leaves and young shoots cooked as potherbs (FAC, TAN; EB54:155). Young leaves and fruits, cooked, 
could (or maybe even should) be one of our five daily fruits and vegetables (100 g servings).
• Amazonians, Bolivians, and Brazilians all report the use of seeds for nephritis (MPB).
• Asian Indians apply the pulp around the seeds to the head in delirium (IHB).
• Asian Indians boil fruit juice with an equal amount of oil to massage scrofulous glands 
(NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest nose drops of the fruit juice for “atrophic rhinosis” (NAD).
• Asian Indians use fruit ashes with honey as collyrium for night blindness (NAD).
• Ayurvedic practitioners consider the leaves useful in biliousness, earache, leukorrhea, 
strangury, uterosis, and vaginosis; the fruit for asthma, bronchitis, cardiopathy, inafl m-
mation, pain, and ulcers (KAB).
• Bolivians apply the powdered seed in a lard pomade to favus, ringworm, scabies, and 
other dermatoses (DLZ).
• Brazilians apply heated leaves to aid labor and heal sores (MPB).
• Dominicans suggest the syrup of powdered fruits for asthma, cough, and hoarseness (AHL).
• East Asians apply the fruit juice with lime to pimples, and leaf juice to bald heads (IHB).
• Hindus prescribe the leaf decoction for jaundice (DEP).
• Indonesians use young fruit juice to quench thirst of typhoid patients (IHB).
• Malayans eat the fruits for colic and fever, also bathing their heads in the potlikker (IHB).
• Nepalese consider the fruit pulp emetic and purgative, using the juice for acid stomach, 
dyspepsia, and ulcers (NPM).
• Nicaraguan Garifuna use leaf and root decoction orally and topically as a digestive and 
laxative, and for skin rashes and sores (IED).
• Unani consider the fruits antibilious, diuretic, and febrifuge, and the seeds useful for 
ardor urinae, cough, earache, fever, inafl mmation, and strangury (KAB).
• Venezuelans poultice leaves with coconut oil onto tumors (JLH).
• Zulu use leaf and root infusion for stomachache (HHB).
d ow Nsides (Calabas H g ourd ):
Processed fruits and leaves and ofl wers eaten on many continents, but still reported as potentially 
toxic, especially green fruits. Fruit efl sh fed to rabbits, leads to restlessness and dyspnea, with 
paralysis and death from asphyxia (WBB).
extra Cts (Calabas H g ourd ):
Leaves contain 1300 ppm steroidal steroids (ZMB; JFM). If data cited in WOI are correct, this 
remains my best source of choline in vegetables. For the many possible benetfi s of choline, see the 
USDA Phytochemcial database h(ttp://www.ars-grin.gov/duke). Dietary bfi er from the fruit sup -
pressed colonic carcinogenesis in mice by lowering the bile acid concentration and pH in the colon. 
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The mechanisms of action differ from those of wheat bran (X7889483). Pectin is, of course, an 
anticancer compound. On a zero-moisture basis, the fruits can contain up to 21% pectin, cf. 35% 
for marshmallow roots; 19% for carrots; 14% for hops; and 11% for eggplant, rosehips, and sun-
ofl wer; and 10% for afl xseed. Genetically targeted for colon cancer, I would enjoy more frequent 
indulgence, cooking these (minus the hops; instead, I might have a glass of beer) to make a pectin 
potpourri. At levels of 250 mg/kg, various extracts, including the ethanol extract of the fruits, exhib-
ited liver-protecting properties.
BAy (lA urus nobilis L.) ++ LAURACeAe
Notes (bay ):
I have seen the wicked in great power, and spreading himself like a green bay tree.
Psalms 37:35 (KJV)
I have seen a wicked man overbearing, and towering like a cedar of Lebanon.
Psalms 37:35 (RSV)
I have seen the wicked a tyrant and spreading himself as a luxuriant [tree] in native soil.
Psalms 37:35 (NWT)
Zohary, noting that the laurel abounds on Mt. Carmel and in stony soils around Galilee, suggests 
that the word orem in Isaiah 44:14 is bay, although it is rendered as cedar in the RSV, and today orem 
means pine. Further complicating things, Zohary suggests that the cedar of Isaiah 44:14 (RSV) is 
laurel, as in the following quote: “He cuts down cedars; or he chooses a holm tree or an oak and lets 
it grow strong among the the trees of the forest; he plants a cedar and the rain nourishes it” (RSV). 
Zohary further comments that generally scholars think the laurel is not mentioned in the Bible, and 
then draws evidence to suggest that laurel in RSV is rendered acse dar (while in modern Hebrew oren 
= pine). In Aramaic, it is aranye; in Arabic, ar; and in Accadiane, ru, according to Zohary (ZOH). 
Although not a huge tree, the evergreen bay can attain a height of more than 20 feet, maybe even 
60 feet (GMH). Hence, I use the quote above as possibly referring to Laurus nobilis as the biblical 
green bay. Even in modern languages identifying a plant by nothing more than its common name is 
perilous at best. In biblical times, the bay was symbolic of wealth and wickedness. And that is why 
I use the Psalms quote above. The evergreen leaves, when broken, emit a sweet scent and furnish an 
extract used by the Orientals in making perfumed oil. In the ancient Olympic games, the victorious 
contestant was awarded a chaplet of bay leaves, placed on his brow. The Roman gold coin of 3b4.2 c. 
has a laurel wreath modeled on its surface. Oil replaces dried leaves to great advantage because it 
can be measured more precisely and provides more uniform results. The fat derived from the fruits 
has been used for soap making and veterinary medicine. Leaves twined into wreaths by ancient 
Greeks and Romans were used to crown their victors in sports and wars. The wood, resembling 
walnut, can be used for cabinetry.
Commo N Names (bay ):
Alloro (It.; EFS); Alloro Poetico (It.; HH3); Ar (Arab.; ZOH); Ar Atzil (Heb.; PAY); Aranye (Aramaic; 
ZOH); Asa musa (Arab.; BOU); Bahia (Sp.; EFS); Bakelaar (Dutch; EFS); Bay (Eng.; Scn.; AH2); Bay 
Laurel (Eng.; EFS); Bayleaf (Eng.; CR2); Bayleaf Laurel (Eng.; CR2; USN); Baz (India; EFS; NAD); 
Daphne (Greek; GMH; HJP); Defne (Tur.; EFS); Edler Lorbeerbaum (Ger.; EFS); Eru (Accadian; ZOH); 
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Habbula Ghara (Iran; EFS); Laurierboom (Dutch; EFS); Gekkeiju (Japan; HH3); Ghar (Arab.; BOU; 
HJP); Grecian Laurel (Eng.; BIB; EFS); Green Bay (Eng.; BIB; KJB); Hab el Ghar (Arab.; EFS); Habb 
Ghar (Arab.; BOU); Habul Ghar (India; DEP); Habula Ghara (Iran; NAD); Laurbaer (Den.; EFS); L- au
rel (Eng.; BOU); Laurél Común (Sp.; EFS); Laurier (Fr.; BOU); Laurier d’Apollon (Fr.; BOU; EFS); 
Laurier des Poetes (Fr.; BOU); Laurier Franc (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Laurier Sauce (Fr.; BOU; GMH; HH3); 
Laurierboom (Dutch; EFS); Lauro (Sp.; EFS); Lauro Franco (It.; EFS); Lauro Poetico (It.; EFS); Lauro 
Regale (It.; HH3); Lauro Regio (It.; EFS); Lorbeer (Ger.; HH3); Lorbeerbaum (Ger.; HH3; USN); Lor-
beerstrauch (Ger.; USN); Loureiro (Mad.; Por.; EFS; USN); Louro (Por.; USN); Maraget Musa (Arab.; 
BOU); Noble Laurel (Eng.; HH3); Old World Bay (Eng.; HOC); Orem (Heb.; ZOH); Rand (Arab.; Syria; 
BOU; HJP); Roman Laurel (Eng.; BOU; GMH; HH3); Sweet Barg (Eng.; DEP); Sweet Bay (Eng.; BIB; 
BOU; EFS); Sweet Laurel Tree (Eng.; EFS); Taset (Ber.; BOU); True Laurel (Eng.; GMH); Victor’s La-u
rels (Eng.; NAD); Yue Gui Zi (Pin.; DAA); Zafui (India; DEP).
a Ctivities (bay ):
Abortifacient (f; HJP; SPI); Allergenic (1; CRC; PH2; TAD); Analgesic (f; PAY); Anodyne (f; CRC); 
Antioxidant (1; TAD); Antiperspirant (f; PAY); Antiseptic (f1; CRC; HHB; PAY; PH2); Antirheumatic 
(f; PHR); Antispasmodic (f; BOU; EFS); Antiulcer (1; PR14:581); Antiviral (1; APA); Aperitif (f; APA; 
CRC); Aphrodisiac (f; PAY); Bactericide (1; APA; CRC); Bitter (f; HHB); Candidicide (1; HH3); C-ar
diodepressant (1; PAY); Carminative (f1; APA; CRC; HHB; HJP; JFM); Cholagogue (f; PNC; VAD); 
Diaphoretic (f; APA; CRC; PNC; SPI); Digestive (f; BOW; JFM); Diuretic (f; CRC; HHB); Emetic (f; 
CRC); Emmenagogue (f; APA; BOU; CRC; HHB; JFM); Ethanol-Absorption Inhibitor (X11003152); 
Expectorant (f; GAZ; VAD); Febrifuge (f; APA); Fungicide (1; APA; CRC; PAY); Gastrotonic (f; BOU; 
CRC; JFM); Hepatotonic (f; CRC; HJP); Hypotensive (1; APA; PAY); Insectifuge (f1; HH3; PH2; TAD); 
Laxative (f; PAY); Molluscicide (1; HH3; PH2); Narcotic (f1; BIB; CRC); Nervine (f; CRC; EFS); NO 
Inhibitor (1; X10834299); Orexigenic (1; APA; CRC; VAD); Parasiticide (1; BOU; HHB); Pediculicide (1; 
VAD); Rubefacient (1; PHR; PH2); Sedative (f1; APA; CRC; JFM); Stimulant (f; CRC; PNC); Stomachic 
(f; BOU; CRC; PNC); Sudoricfi (f; BOU; CRC); Tonic (f; SPI); Vermifuge (f; PAY).
iNdi Catio Ns (bay ):
Ague (f; GMH); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Amenorrhea (f; BOU; CRC; SPI); Anorexia (f1; APA; 
BOW; GMH; VAD); Arthrosis (f1; APA; COX; FNF; VAD); Asthma (f; VAD); Bacteria (1; CRC; 
HHB); BO (f; PAY); Bronchosis (f; VAD); Bruises (f; APA); Bug bite (f; APA); Cancer (1; CRC; JLH); 
Cancer, anus (1; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; COX; FNF); Cancer, eye (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, face (1; 
CRC; JLH); Cancer, joint (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; JLH); Ca-n
cer, parotid (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, spleen (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, 
testicle (1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; CRC; JLH); Candida (1; HH3; SPI); Catarrh (f; BOU); Ch-ei
losis (f; HH3); Cold (f; PAY); Colic (f; APA; CRC; SPI); Condyloma (f; CRC); Cough (f; CRC; HJP); 
Cramp (f; BOU); Cystosis (f; GAZ); Dandruff (f; APA); Deafness (f; JFM); Debility (f; JFM; PAY); 
Dermatosis (f; APA; HOC; SPI); Diabetes (1; FNF); Diarrhea (f; PAY); Dislocation (f; HJP); Dropsy 
(f; NAD); Dyspepsia (1; APA; JFM); Dysuria (f; NAD); Earache (f; CRC; GMH; PAY); Emphysema (f; 
VAD); Enterosis (f; VAD); Escherichia (1; X10438227); Fibroid (f; CRC; JLH); Fungus (1; BIB; CRC); 
Furuncle (f; HH3); Gas (f1; APA; BIB; SPI); Gastrosis (f; CRC; PAY); Halitosis (f; GAZ); Headache 
(1; FNF; HAD); Hemorrhoid (f; VAD); Hepatosis (f; CRC); High Blood Pressure (1; APA); Hysteria (f; 
CRC; GMH; SPI); Impostume (f; CRC; JLH); Impotence (f; PAY); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; 
CRC; SPI); Jaundice (f; PAY); Klebsiella (1; X10438227); Leukorrhea (f; GAZ; NAD); Lice (1; VAD); 
Mange (f; JFM); Migraine (1; FNF; HAD); Mycosis (f; CRC; SPI); Neuralgia (f; PAY); Ophthalmia 
(f; PAY); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; APA; NAD; PAY); Parasite (1; BOU; HHB; SPI); Pediculosis (f; 
HH3); Pharyngosis (f; VAD); Polyp (f; CRC); Proctosis (f; JLH); Rheumatism (f; BOU; CRC; HH3; 
HJP; NAD; PHR; PH2; SPI); Salmonella (1; HH3); Scabies (f; BOW); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Sclerosis 
(f; CRC); Sinusosis (f; VAD); Sore (f; APA; HH3; JFM); Spasm (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; HOC; JLH); 
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FIGURe . Bay (Laurus nobilis).
Sprain (f; APA; CRC; WOI); Staphylococcus (1; HH3; SPI); Sting (f; HOC; PAY); Stomachache (f; 
PAY); Stomatosis (f; HH3); Swelling (f; HOC); Ulcer (1; JFM; PR14:581); Urethritis (f; GAZ); Uterosis 
(f; JLH); Wen (f; CRC); Worm (f; PAY); Wound (1; APA); Yeast (1; X10438227).
d osages (baylea F):
FNFF = !!!
Dried bay leaves are used to afl vor meats, sfi h, poultry, vegetables, soups, and stews, and are espe -
cially popular in French dishes; also as an ingredient in pickling spices and vinegars. Leaves once 
used as a tea substitute. Priestesses of Apollo at Delphi in ancient Greece chewed laurel leaves to 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
better prophecy (PAY). An essential oil, distilled from the leaves, is used for afl voring food products, 
such as baked goods, confectionary, meats, sausages, and canned soups, and in perfumery. Bay 
leaves GRAS (generally recognized as safe) at 1000 ppm, the oil at 200 ppm (BIB; TAD). 1–2 tsp 
leaf/cup water to 3 ×/day (APA); 1–2 drops essential oil added to brandy, honey, or tea (APA).
• Asian Indians suggest the oil expressed from boiling seeds is applied to rheumatic pain 
(NAD).
• British suggest bay oil for bruises, earache, and sprains (GMH).
• British suggest the berries as abortifacient, deobstruent, emmenagogue, and orexigenic 
(GMH).
• French use the leaves as carminative (GMH).
• Israelis drink fruit and leaf decoction to prevent diarrhea (PAY).
• Israelis massage joint and nerve pain with fruit oil (PAY).
• Israelis take laurel leaf tea to enhance potency (PAY).
• Israelis use vapor bath (laurel, rue, savory, three-lobed sage) for colds and debility (PAY).
• Israelis wash head with laurel decoction to strengthen the hair (PAY).
• Israelis wash with laurel decoction to expel perspiration odor (PAY).
• Lebanese mountaineers use raw berries to induce abortion (HJP).
• Lebanese tightly cork and steep leaves and berries in brandy in the sun for several days, 
then distill, and use as liniment for rheumatism and sprains, or as an emmenagogue 
(HJP).
• Spaniards suggest the fruit oil for arthritis and pediculosis (VAD).
d ow Nsides (bay ):
Class 1 (AHP). None known at proper dosage (PHR). No health hazards or side effects known with 
proper therapeutic dosages (no dosage given, however) (PH2). Leaf and berry oil may cause severe 
lesions of the skin. Contact dermatosis from handling leaves or essential oil reported. Diarrhea, 
nausea, and vomiting from excessive doses of the essential may occur. Sesquiterpene lactones are 
aromatic compounds widely distributed in certain plant families, with highest concentrations–ge-n
erally found in leaves and ofl wers. Sheep and cattle poisonings due to sesquiterpene lactone–con-
taining species have been reported. Cases of allergic contact dermatosis in humans have also been 
reported (AEH1). There have been a few unfortunate fatalities to people perforating their intestines 
with fragmented laurel leaves. Always remove them from your spaghettis and stews (JAD, TAD). 
Artemorin, costunolide, costuslactone, deacetlylaurenobiolide laurenobiolide, reynosin, santam-a
rin, and verlorin are eight alpha-methylene-gamma-butyrolactones documented to be the chief 
cause of allergy (contact dermatosis) in Laurus (TAD).
extra Cts (bay ):
EO LD50 = 3950 mg/kg orl rat (HH3). Leaves bacteriostatic to Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, 
Hafnea alnei, Micrococcus luteus, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteri-
dis, Staphylococcus aureus, and fungistatic or fungicidal toward Aspergillus niger, A. terreus, Can-
dida albicans, Fusarium moniliforme, Phytophthora capsici, Rhizoctonia solani, and Sclerotinia 
sclerotiorum. Leaf extracts reduce aatfl oxin production by Aspergillus parasiticusm and botulin 
toxin from Clostridium botulinum (HH3). Extracts active againsAt cinetobacter baumanii, Aeromo-
nas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia col, Klebsiella 
pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, 
Serratia marcescens, and Staphylococcus aureus at concentrations at or below 2% (X10438227). With 
compounds like parthenolide and santamarin, this shares many of the antimigraine compounds of 
feverfew 3-alpha-acetoxyeudesma-1,4(15),11(13)-trien-12,6-alpha-+ ++olide (X11003152). Confirming 
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my contention that it is a suite of phytochemicals rather than a single silver bullet, in this case for 
inhibiting absorption of ethanol, Yoshikawa et al. (2000) reported that sesquiterpenes having an 
alpha-methylene-gamma-butyrolactone moiety, costunolide, dehydrocostus lactone, zaluzanin D, 
reynosin, santamarine, and others, isolated from laurel leaves, selectively inhibit ethanol abso-rp
tion (X11003152). Italian Scientists De Marino et al. (X15675799) reported several phytochemcials, 
some new, and their inhibitory effects on nitric oxide, a major component of inafl mmation. The 
leaves, widely used in Italian cooking and folk medicine, had vfi e new megastigmane glucosides 
named laurosides A through E. The effects of isolated compounds on nitric oxide production in 
macrophages were examined (X15675799).
he NNA (lA wsoni A inermis L.) ++ Lyth RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Lawsonia alba Lam.
Notes (HeNNa):
My beloved is unto me as a cluster of camphire in the vineyards.
Song of Solomon 1:14 (KJV)
Mentioned only once, in the very botanical Song of Solomon, henna (RSV; camphire in the KJV) 
was early used by the Egyptians as a cosmetic. Egyptian mummies were wrapped in henna-colored 
cloth. Mummies entombed for more than 3000 years still show the henna used on their nails Henna 
powder is on sale in all great Arab cities even today. Henna is valued, especially by women of Egypt, 
for it yields a powerful dye of a dark dusky red, rather like iron rust in color. The women use it to 
stain the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet. It is also an effective check to excessive 
perspiration. Distilled perfumes from the ofl wers lead to an essential oil, mehendi, important in reli-
gious feasts (BIB; ZOH). The dye itself was calledp uker (I am reminded of puca for red in Quechua) 
by ancient Eyptians, kupr or kufer by the Copts, and kufra in Aramaic and Accadian, a name that 
survived in postbiblical literature. The Hebrew word isk opfer (ZOH). Mohammedens claim that the 
prophet called it syyadu riáhín (= the best of herbs). The young leaves, dried, powdered, and then 
soaked in water with a little lime juice, constitute the dye. Leaves may be harvested in the second 
year, and the plants may live 15 years. In India and Pakistan, henna is widely used by both men and 
women for coloring nails, fingers, hands, and hair. Hair is dyed a brownish-chestnut shade, which 
turns black in conjunction with indigo. To dye the hair, an infusion of dried leaves to which has been 
added a little lime juice is used. Henna leaves dyed fingers, nails, hands, and feet a dull orange. A 
deep red color may be obtained when henna is mixed with catechu. Infusion of leaves also used for 
dyeing cotton fabrics is a light reddis-hbrown. Wool and silk may also be dyed by henna. Leaves also 
used in manufacture of perfumed oils and as a tanning agent. The rose-scented ofl wers, attractive 
to bees, give an essential oil (mehndi oil) long used in Indian perfumery. Plants are grown as hedge 
plants throughout India. Wood is used to make tool handles, tent pegs, and other articles (BIB).
Commo N Names (HeNNa):
Al Qatab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Alcana (Sp.; USN) Alcana d’Oreint (Fr.; KAB); Alcanna (Eng.; Fr.; 
BOU); Alfeneiro (Por.; USN); Alheña (Sp.; USN); Alhenna (Arab.; KAB); Bapar (Heb.; KAP); Ben-
jati (Oiya; WOI); Bhurara (Lambadi; KAB); Bri-mog (Tibet; NPM); Camphire (Eng.; BIB; BOU; 
KAB; KJV; NPM); Chi Giap Hoa (Ic.; KAB); Cinamomo (Pi.; KAB); Cypress Shrub (Eng.; KAB); 
Dambin (Burma; NAD) Dan (Burma; DEP); Danbin (Burma; KAB); Diabe (Ber.; BOU); Dvivan-
tra (Sanskrit; KAB); Egyptian Privet (Eng.; Bhojpur; BOU; KAB; NPM); Faghia (Arab.; BOU); 
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FIGURe .0 Henna (Lawsonia inermis).
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
Flè Jalouzi (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Fleurs Jalousie (Haiti; AVP); Foudeoum (Ber.; BOU); Foundemm 
(Woloff; KAB); Góranta (Tel.; DEP); Górante (Kan.; DEP); Goranti (Kan.; MPI); Hamella (Ber.; 
BOU); Hana (Arab.; Yemen; X15890471); Henna (Arab.; Eng.; Pr.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; GHA; HJP; 
RSV; USN; ZOH); Hennastrauch (Ger.; USN); Henne (Bom.; Sp.; KAB); Henné (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; 
BOU; USN); Hina (Arab.; GHA); Hiná (Iran; DEP; NAD); Hinie (Mal.; NAD); Hinná (Arab.; Syria; 
DEP; GHA; HJP); Inai (Malaya; Sumatra; IHB; KAB); Inai Parasi (Sumatra; IHB); Iswan (B-el
gaum; KAB); Jamaica Mignonette (Eng.; KAB; USN); Kopfer (Heb.; ZOH); Korandam (Tam.; 
KAB); Korate (Kan.; KAB); Krapeu (Cam.; KAB); Krommi (Tel.; KAB); Kufer (Coptic; ZOH); 
Kufra (Accadian; Aramaic; ZOH); Kupf (Coptic; ZOH); Kuravaka (Sanskrit; DEP); Kuravamu (Tel.; 
NAD); Kuruvamum Goranti (Tel.; MPI); Kypros (Greek; KAB); Laincha (Newari; NPM); Lalle 
(Ber.; Hausa; BOU; KAB); Madarangi (Kan.; NAD); Madayanti (Ayu.; AH2); Madayantikaa (-San
skrit; MPI); Madirengi (Tulu; KAB); Mailanchi (Mal.; NAD); Manghati (Oriya; DEP); Marithondi 
(Tam.; DEP); Maritondi (Sin.; DEP); Maritondo (Sin.; KAB); Maruthani (Tam.; MPI; WOI); Ma-y
ilanchi (Mal.; DEP); Mayilangi (Mal.; KAB; MPI); Medi (Guj.; KAB); Médi (Guj.; DEP); Mehandi 
(Bhojpur; Danuwar; Mooshar; Nepal; Tharu; NPM); Mehendi (Raj.; Urdu; DEP; KAB); Mehndi 
(Hindi; Mar.; DEP); Mendí (Sin.; DEP); Mendika (Sanskrit; WOI); Methhi (Kon.; NAD); Meti 
(Kon.; KAB); Meritondi (Sin.; NAD); Mignonette (Eng.; St. Bart.; AVP; NPM); Mignonette Tree 
(Eng.; AVP); Mihndi (San.; DEP); Mindi (Mun.; KAB); Mindie (Eng.; KAB); Minyonèt (Creole; 
Haiti; VOD); Mohuz (Kas.; WOI); Monjuati (Oriya; KAB); Monz (Kas.; MPI); Muhanone (Swahili; 
KAB); Nakrize (Pun.; KAB); Pachar Kuku (Java; Sunda; IHB); Palphung (Limbu; NPM); Panwár 
(Dec.; Guj.; Mah.; Pun.; DEP); Parasi (Sumatra; IHB); Pontaletsche (Mal.; NAD); Pontlasi (Mal.; 
WOI); Puker (Egypt; ZOH); Raktagarba (Sanskrit; NAD); Reseda (Creole; Ger.; Haiti; AVP; VOD); 
Reséda (It.; AVP); Resedá (Cr.; Cuba; Dr.; Mex.; Por.; Pr.; Sp.; AVP); Réséda de Cayenne (Fr.; Gu-i
ana; KAB); Réséda de France (Guad.; Mart.; AVP); Réséda des Antilles (Fr.; AVP); Réséda du Pays 
(Fr.; AVP); Resedá Falso (Por.; AVP); Reseda Miñoneta (Sp.; AVP); Rhanni (Ber.; BOU); Shudi 
(Beng.; DEP); Simrú (Bhote; DEP); Syadu Riáhín (Arab.; BIB); Tanbalaksun (Rai; NPM); Tche Kia 
–
Hoa (China; KAB); Tien D?eng (Thai; IHB); Tien Kao (Thai; IHB); Tien King (Thai; IHB); Tihure 
(Magar; NPM); Tiure (Gurung; NPM); Tiuri (Tamang; NPM); Tree Mignonette (Eng.; KAB); Tyure 
(Nepal; Sunwar; NPM); Yoranná (Arab.; DEP); Zhi Jia Hua Ye (Pin.).
a Ctivities (HeNNa):
Abortifacient (f; AHP; CRC; PH2); Allergenic (1; CRC; MPI; X10632222); Alterative (f; CRC); 
Analgesic (f1; X8966192); Anesthetic (f; GHA); Anthelmintic (f; BIB); Antiedemic (1; MPI); Anti-
fertility (1; CRC; MPI); Antihyaluronidase (1; MPI); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; DEP; MPI; X8966192); 
Antileukemic (1; X7524165); Antioxidant (1; X15267142; X15813363); Antipapillomic (1; 
X12708740); Antiperspirant (f; CRC); Antiseptic (f1; BOU; X2125156; X15812867); Antispasmodic 
(1; CRC); Antitumor (1; X12708740); Antitussive (f; X15890471); Antiviral (1; X7524165); Astrin-
gent (f1; BOU; CRC; DEP; PHR; PH2); Bactericide (1; PHR; PH2; WOI; X2125156); Candidicide 
(1; MPI); Cardiodepressant (1; CRC); Cerebrotonic (f; CRC; KAB; WBB); Chemopreventive (1; 
X12708740); Collyrium (f; BIB); Deodorant (f; NAD); Diuretic (f1; IHB; PHR; PH2; KAB); Emetic 
(f; KAB); Emmenagogue (f; CRC; KAB); Emollient (f; KAB); Expectorant (f; KAB); Febrifuge 
(f1; KAB; X8966192); Fungicide (1; X620734); Gram(+)-icide (1; X11167035); Gram(-)-icide (1; 
X11167035); Hepatoprotective (1; X1620739; X15267142); Hypotensive (f1; CRC; HJP); Insecticide 
(f; BOU); Molluscicide (1; X15253044); Nematicide (1; MPI); Nitrate-Reductase Inhibitor (1; MPI); 
Peroxidase Inhibitor (1; MPI); Propecic (f; DEP); Protopectinase Inhibitor (1; MPI); Refrigerant (f; 
CRC; MPI); Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitor (IC60 = 125 µg/ml) (1; X7524165); Sedative (f; CRC); 
Soporic fi (f; CRC); Sunscreen (f; CRC); Trypanocide (f; JEB79:279; JEB90:91); Trypsin Inhibitor 
(1; X12490230); Tuberculostatic (1; X2125156); Uterosedative (1; CRC); Vulnerary (f; BOU; KAB; 
VOD; X15890471).
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iNdi Catio Ns (HeNNa):
Abscess (f; HJP); Alopecia (f; DEP); Ameba (f; PHR; PH2); Amenorrhea (f; KAB; PH2); Anemia 
(f; PH2); Bacteria (1; CRC; PHR; X15812867); Baldness (f; KAB); Beriberi (f; CRC); Bleeding (f; 
MPI); Blenorrhea (f; BIB); Boil (f; WOI); Bronchosis (f; KAB; PH2); Bruise (f; DEP; WOI); Burn 
(f; BOU; DEP; KAB; NPM; WOI); Calculus (f; KAB); Cancer (f1; JLH; X12708740); Cancer, di-a
phragm (f; JLH); Cancer, joint (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, 
sinew (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Candida 
(f1; BIB; MPI; X15756356); Childbirth (f; CRC; IHB); Cholera (1; MPI); Circumcision (f; IHB); 
Condyloma (f; JLH); Cough (f; PH2); Dandruff (f; GHA; PHR; PH2); Delirium (f; DEP); Derma-
tosis (f; APA; CRC; GHA; MPI; NPM); Dropsy (f; HJP); Dysentery (f; PHR; PH2); Dysmenorrhea 
(f; PH2); Dyspepsia (f; CRC); Dysuria (f; PH2); Eczema (f; GAZ; PHR; PH2); Edema (1; MPI); 
Enterosis (f; GAZ; PHR; PH2); Epilepsy (f; VOD); Escherichia (1; WOI; X15756356); Fever (f1; 
GHA; PH2; X8966192); Fibroid (f; JLH); Foot (Hot Foot) (f; KAB); Fungus (1; PHR); Gastrosis (f; 
CRC; GAZ; PHR; PH2; VOD); Gingivosis (f; GHA; KAB); Glossosis (f; GHA); Gonorrhea (f; DEP; 
IHB; KAB); Gray Hair (f1; APA; NAD); Headache (f; DEP; GHA; KAB; MPI); Hemicrania (f; 
KAB; PH2); Hepatosis (1; X1620739); Herpes (f; CRC; IHB); High Blood Pressure (f1; BIB; CRC; 
HJP); Hoarseness (f; IHB); Hysteria (f; BIB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; CRC; PHR; PH2; 
X15812867); Inafl mmation (f1; DEP; GHA; JLH; MPI); Insanity (f; KAB); Itch (f; NPM); Jaundice 
(f; CRC; DEP; MPI); Leprosy (f; BOU; CRC; DEP; PH2; WBB); Leukemia (1; X7524165); Leuko-
derma (f; KAB); Leukorrhea (f; IHB; MPI); Lumbago (f; KAB); Malaria (f; PH2); Myalgia (f; MPI; 
SKJ); Mycosis (f1; GAZ; PHR; PH2; X620734; Neurosis (f; CRC); Numbness (f; GHA); Obesity 
(f; BIB; CRC); Onychyosis (f; IHB); Ophthalmia (f; BOU; IHB); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f1; CRC; 
GHA; VOD; X8966192); Pediculosis (1; X12512805); Polyp (f; JLH); Pseudomonas (1; X15756356); 
Psychosis (f; PH2); Puerperium (f; IHB); Rheumatism (f; BOU; CRC; DEP; HJP; PH2; VOD); Sar-
coma (1; CRC); Scabies (f; KAB; PHR; PH2); Scald (f; KAB); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Scurf (f; CRC); 
Shigella (1; X15756356); Smallpox (f; NAD); Sore (f1; APA; GHA; KAB; PH2; VOD); Sore Throat 
(f1; CRC; IHB; WOI); Spermatorrhea (f; DEP; KAB; MPI); Splenomegaly (f; CRC; DEP; KAB; 
MPI); Sprain (f; KAB; NAD); Staphylococcus (1; X15812867); Stomachache (f; VOD); Stomatosis 
(f1; APA; DEP; GHA; KAB); Streptococcus (1; CRC; MPI); Swelling (1; MPI); Syphilis (f; HJP); 
Tetanus (f; VOD); Toothache (f; NPM); Trypanosoma (f; JEB79:279; JEB90:91); Tuberculosis (1; 
X2125156); Typhoid (f; SKJ; MPI); Ulcer (f; GAZ; PHR); Uterosis (f; JLH); Vaginosis (f; NAD); 
Venereal Disease (f; CRC; DEP; KAB); Vibrio (1; MPI); Virus (1; X7524165); Whitlow (f; IHB; 
JLH); Wound (f; BOU; NPM; PH2); Yeast (1; MPI).
d osages (HeNNa):
FNFF = ?
3 g powdered leaf, internally, for ameba and ulcers (HHB; PH2).
• Algerians poultice leaves for abscesses, bronchoses, and rheumatism, taking with juniper 
pitch for dropsy (HJP).
• Annamese use the leaves for herpes, jaundice, and leprosy (KAB).
• Arabs add leaves to food to lower fevers (GHA).
• Arabs chew leaves to treat inafl mmation and sores of gums, mouth, and tongue (GHA).
• Arabs mix fat and onions with powdered leaf paste, left on skin sores 5 days (GHA).
• Ayurvedics suggest seeds for bowel ailments, fever, and insanity, the leaves, considered 
emetic and expectorant, for leucoderma (KAB).
• Burmese apply the leaves to burning feet (DEP).
• Cambodians use diuretic, pectoral roots for bronchosis and gonorrhea (IHB; KAB).
• Haitians apply the leaf/ofl wer tea topically to rheumatism sores, taking it orally for epi-
lepsy, stomachache, and tetanus (VOD).
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• Javans use the plant for leukorrhea (IHB).
• Konkanese mix the leaf juice with water for spermatorrhea (DEP).
• Lebanese suggest that the plant is febrifuge and hypotensive (HJP).
• Malayans use the root in abortifacient decoctions (KAB), the leaves in throat gargles 
(IHB).
• Malayans use the leaf decoction in childbirth, and for gastrosis and venereal disease. 
Mixed with the poisonous Plumbago, it is said to be abortifacient (BIB)
• Malayans apply the leaves to burning feet (IHB).
• Merjayouns use the leaf tea for fever and hypertension (BIB).
• Unani use the leaves for alopecia, amenorrhea, boils, bronchosis, headache, lumbago, 
ophthalmia, scabies, splenosis, stomatosis, and syphilis (KAB).
• Vytians (from Tamal, India) use leaves and tender shoots for leprosy (DEP).
d ow Nsides (HeNNa):
Class 2a (AHP). Health risks or side effects following the proper administration of designated ther-a
peutic dosages are not recorded (PH2). Tannin may cause stomach problems (PH2).
extra Cts (HeNNa):
Extracts arrest, in vitro, Mycobacterium tuberculosis at 5 mg/ml (X2125156). Ethanol:water (1:1) 
extracts hepatoprotective with no effect on bile ofl w. MLD = 2000 mg/kg orl mus (X1620739). 
LD50 (ethanolic extract) = 1000 mg/kg ipr mus (MPI). Head lice were eradicated within a week 
treated by henna mixed with aqueous extract of sheah (100%) or mixed with helba (75%) or with 
karkada (50%) (X12512805). In vitro synergic interaction of crude extracts was detected with t-et
racycline (X15812867).
LeNt IL (l ens culin Aris m edik ) +++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Cicer lens (L.) Willd.; Ervum lens L.; Lens esculenta Moench; Lens lens Huth.; Lentilla lens (L.) 
W. Wight ex D. Fairchild; Vicia lens (L.) Cosson & Germ.
Notes (l eNtil ):
Then Jacob gave Esau bread and pottage of lentiles; and he did eat and drink, and rose up, and 
went his way: thus Esau despised his birthright.
Genesis 25:34 (KJV)
Then Jacob gave Esau bread and pottage of lentils, and he ate and drank, and rose and went his 
way. Thus Esau despised his birthright.
Genesis 25:34 (RSV)
And Jacob gave Esau bread and lentil stew, and he went to eating and drinking. Then he got up 
and went his way. So Esau despised the birthright.
Genesis 25:34 (NWT)
Zohary points out that lentil was the first pulse mentioned in the Bible. I would like to add that it is 
the first one to be done when you are cooking a seven-pulse soup. Even dried lentils can be rendered 
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edible with a half hour of simmering. Small wonder that lentils were important staples during bibl-i
cal and postbiblical eras — maybe even earlier. Zohary reports carbonized lentil seeds dating to 
6 or 7 millennia b.c. Since the Bronze Age, lentils have been found in association with barley and 
wheat (ZOH). My late friend, anthropologist Jane Philips, said that some “people think it was the 
food that made Daniel wise,” or that it was the “mess of pottage for which Esau sold his birthright” 
(HJP). Lentils have been found in Syria, Iran, and Greece (with barley and wheat) prior to 5000 
b.c. (Zohary, 1972). Takeoka et al. (2005), pegging domestication at circa 800b0 .c. in the Fertile 
Crescent, say they are rich in protein, dietary bfi er, folate, iron, and phosphorus. Lentil flour today, 
as two millennia ago, can be added to “cereal ofl ur” to make baby foods, breads, and cakes. In the 
United States, lentil production totaled circa 230 million pounds in 2002–2003, mostly in Washin-g
ton, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota (X15941338). Seeds are a source of commercial starch for 
the textile and printing industries. Green plants are used as green manure (BIB).
Commo N Names (l eNtil ):
Adah (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Adas (Afg.; Arab.; Iran; DEP; JNP; KAB; ZOH); Adasa (Arab.; NAD); 
Adashim (Heb.; ZOH); Aoi Mame. (Japan; POR); Arrouefl (Fr.; KAB); Avangoule (Fr.; KAB); Buro 
Mussur (Beng.; DEP); Chanching (Pun.; DEP; POR); Channangi (Can.; NAD); Chiri Sanagalu 
(Tel.; DEP); Esse (Fr.; KAB); Gabholika (Sanskrit; KAB); Gram (Eng.; USN); Gurubija (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Halasaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Harashim (Heb.; KAB); Kacang Koro (Dei.; POR); Kacang 
Serinding (Malaya; POR); Kalyanabija (Sanskrit; KAB); Kerse (Pun.; DEP); Lânti (Khmer; POR); 
Lente (It.; POR); Lenteja (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Lenticchia (It.; POR); Lenticchie (It.; POR); Lentiho 
(Lan.; KAB); Lentil (Eng.; CR2; NAD); Lentilha (Mad.; Por.; POR); Lentilhas (Por.; POR); Le-n
tille (Fr.; POR); Lentille Cultivée (Fr.; POR); Lentilles (Fr.; POR); Lins (Swe.; POR); Linse (Ger.; 
POR); Linsen (Ger.; POR); Linssi (Fin.; POR); Linte (Rou.; KAB); Linze (Dutch; POR); Linzen 
(Dutch; POR); Llantia (Cat.; KAB); Malka Masur (Pun.; NAD); Mangaliya (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Massur Chanangi (Kan.; DEP); Massur Moha (Assam; POR); Masur (Guj.; Hindi; Kon.; Mah.; 
Pun.; Sanskrit; Urdu; DEP; NAD; POR); Masura (Sanskrit; DEP; NAD); Masuraka (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Masuri (Beng.; Nwp.; NAD); Masuri Dal (Beng. Bom.; Guj.; DEP; NAD); Masurika (San-
skrit; KAB; NAD); Masurmoja (Assam; DEP; WOI); Mauri (Pun.; DEP); Mercimek (Tur.; POR; 
EB54:155); Miraju-Maka (Iran; NAD); Mirjumak (Iran; DEP); Missur Pappu (Tel.; NAD); Missur 
Purpur (Tam.; DEP; NAD); Mohi (Pun.; POR); Mohr (Pun.; DEP); Mohri (Pun.; DEP); Monhri 
(Pun.; DEP); Musri (Beng.; NAD); Musur (Nepal; POR); Nantille (Fr.; KAB); Nashik (Iran; KAB); 
Patani (Tag.; POR); Peni (Burma;); Pothundhambala (Sin.; POR); Prithubijaka (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Ragadali (Sanskrit; KAB); Shran Chung (Tibet; TIB );Shran Chung Leb Mo (Tibet; TIB); Sura 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Tambularaga (Sanskrit; KAB); Tchetchevitsa (Rus.; KAB); Thua Daeng (Thai; 
POR); Thua Raatcha Maat (Thai; POR); Tsentel (Lan.; KAB); Vrihikanchana (Sanskrit; KAB); Ye 
Bing Dou (China; POR).
a Ctivities (l eNtil ):
Antioxidant (f; X14609082); Aperitif (f; KAB); Astringent (f; TIB); Diuretic (f; KAB); Hypocholes-
terolemic (1; X8672408); Laxative (f; KAB); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Refrigerant (f; TIB); Stimulant 
(f; NAD); Tonic (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (l eNtil ):
Anemia (f; BIB; HJP); Anorexia (f; KAB); Aposteme (f; BIB); Backache (f; TIB); Biliousness (f; 
KAB); Bronchosis (f; KAB); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, anus 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, ear (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, eye (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gum (1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, parotid (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (1; FNF; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; KAB); Childbirth (f; 
BIB); Condyloma (f; BIB); Constipation (f; BIB; DEP; LEG); Dermatosis (f; KAB; TIB); Dysentery 
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(f; BIB); Enterosis (f; BIB; DEP; LEG); Fungus (f; TIB); Gingivosis (f; JLH); High Cholesterol 
(1; X8672408); Induration (f; BIB); Infection (f; TIB); Inafl mmation (f; BIB); Mastosis (f; KAB); 
Ophthalmia (f; KAB); Pain (f; TIB); Parotosis (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; KAB); 
Ringworm (f; TIB); Scirrhus (f; BIB); Scurvy (f; BIB); Smallpox (f; BIB; DEP; LEG); Snakebite (f; 
NAD); Sore (f; BIB; DEP; LEG); Stomatosis (f; KAB); Strangury (f; KAB); Ulcer (f; BIB); Urogeni-
tosis (f; BIB); Wart (f; BIB).
d osages (l eNtil ):
FNFF = !!!
Lentil is cultivated for its nutritious seed, considered one of the most nutritious of pulses. Split seeds 
used in soups; ofl ur is used mixed with cereals, in cakes, and as a food for invalids and infants. In 
biblical times, as today, breads were made from lentils and barley. Along parts of the Nile, it is the 
only breadstuff. Ground seeds enter Ethiopian spice mit’in shiro; young pods cooked like haricot 
beans; sprouts and young pods eaten. Maybe even Esau’s biblical red pottage was an early health food. 
Lentils are widely used as a meat substitute. That is a heart-friendly idea right there. Husks, dried 
leaves, stems, and bran are fed to livestock (BIB; FAC, TAN; EB54:155).
• Ayurvedics use seed for biliousness, dysentery, eye ailments, heart ailments, skin di-s
eases, strangury, and tumors (KAB),
• Ethiopians use seeds for dysentery (BIB).
• Germans use lentil soup to facilitate eruption in smallpox, and as a poultice on ulcers 
after smallpox (BIB).
• Lebanese use lentils for anemia following dysentery; they poultice hot lentil soup, with 
or without onions, on sores (BIB).
• Iraqi use ground lentils to ease delivery (BIB). Seeds, often in cataplasms, are used for apo- s
temes, cancers, condylomata, indurations, scirrhus, tumors, and warts (of the abdomen, anus, 
breast, ear, eye, face, fauces, feet, genitals, gums, intestines, parotids, rectum, etc.).
• Unani use seed for breast inafl mmation, blood ailment, bronchitis, chest ailments, eye 
disorders, and stomatitis (KAB)
Wh Ite LILy (l ilium c Andidum L.) + LILIACeAe
Notes (w Hite l ily ):
… to feed in the gardens, and to gather lillies.
Song of Solomon 6:2 (KJV)
Zohary astutely observes that lily ofl wers show up in many ancient edicfi es, in the columns of 
Assyria, Egypt, the Minaons, and in Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem. Long a symbol of beauty, 
fertility, and fruitfulness, it became a church symbol of holiness, resurrection, and spiritual purity. 
Many paintings of Mary depict her with the “Madonna Lily.” The lily has been found, doubtfully 
wild, all over the Mediterranean basin from France to the hills of Syria, suggestive of the old Roman 
Empire. Because few of these lily colonies set seed, it has been suggested that they were originally 
planted, perhaps, near Roman outposts as “Materia medica.” Zohary also hints strongly that the 
crocus (havatzeleth) of Isaiah 35:1 and the rose in Song of Solomon 2:1 should both have been tran-s
lated as “lily.” In perfumery, the absolute of lily is used in high-grade compositions of ofl ral and 
perfumes. It is an excellent fixative. MAD does not cover L. candidum, instead featuring tiger lily 
and, under that, the martagon. PH2 covers Lilium candidum and L. martagon but excludes Lilium 
tigrinum Ker Gawl, now better known as Lilium lancifolium Thunberg. The USDA and WOI view 
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FIGURe . White Lily (Lilium candidum).
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all three as different, so I also will include all three in my herbal desk reference. EFS and HHB 
aggregated data for tiger lily and martagon. I treat them as separate.
Commo N Names (w Hite l ily ):
Annunciation Lily (Eng.; UPH); Azucena (Spain; VAD); Azucena Común (Sp.; EFS); Beyaz Zam-
bak (Tur.; EFS); Bourbon Lily (Eng.; UPH); Brown’s Lily (Eng.; TAN); Giglio Bianco (It.; EFS); 
Giglio della Madonna (It.; EFS); Hakata Yuri (Jap.; TAN); Havatzeleth (Heb.; ZOH); Hongkong 
Lily (Eng.; TAN); Lirio Blanco (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Lirio Común (Sp.; EFS); Lirio de San Antonio 
(Peru; Sp.; EGG); Lis Blanc (Fr.; EFS); Lis Candide (Fr.; EFS); Madonna Lily (Eng.; CR2; EFS; 
HJP; USN); Mar Yusef Zambak (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Marien Lilie (Ger.; EFS); Mary Lily (Eng.; 
EFS); Meadow Lily (Eng.; EFS); Pai Ho (China; TAN); Raziqi (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sawsan Abyad 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Showshan (Heb.; ZOH); Shuwshan (Heb.; ZOH); Weisse Lilie (Ger.; EFS); 
White Lily (Eng.; CR2; EFS; USN); Witte Lelie (Dutch; EFS); Zanbaq (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (w Hite l ily ):
Analgesic (f1; PH2; VAD); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; PH2; VAD); Antispasmodic (f; EFS; WOI); Anti -
tumor (1; X11130250); Astringent (f1; BIB; FEL; HJP; PH2; WOI); Candidicide (1; X12501491); 
Cicatrizant (f1; VAD); Demulcent (f; BIB; FEL; HJP; WOI); Diuretic (1; BIB; PH2); Emollient (f; 
BIB; EGG); Expectorant (f1; BIB; PH2); Fungicide (1; HHB; 12501491); Phagocytotic (1; PNC); 
Stimulant (f; BIB); Sudoric (fi f; BIB); Tonic (f; EGG; FEL); Vulnerary (f1; HG57:40).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite l ily ):
Abscess (f; VAD); Arthrosis (f; VAD); Bite (f; HHB); Bleeding (f; AAH); Blister (f; HG57:40); Boil 
(f; EGG; VAD); Bruise (f; EGG); Burn (f; HHB; PH2); Callus (f; BIB; VAD); Cancer (f; BIB; FEL; 
JLH); Cancer, breast (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, 
intestine (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, lung (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, neck (f; BIB; 
JLH); Cancer, rib (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, scrotum (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; BIB; JLH); 
Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, 
uterus (f; BIB; JLH); Candidiasis (1; X12501491); Corn (f; BIB; HJP); Cramp (f; WOI); Dermato-
sis (f1; BIB; WOI; HG57:40); Dropsy (f; BIB; PNC; WOI); Dysmenorrhea (f; MNC); Earache (f; 
EGG); Eczema (f; VAD); Epilepsy (f; HJP; WOI); Erysipelas (f; EGG); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fungus (1; 
X12501491); Furuncle (f; PH2); Gynecosis (f; PH2); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Infec-
tion (1; HHB); Inafl mmation (f; BIB; FEL; PH2; PNC); Leukorrhea (f; FEL); Lumbago (f; HHB); 
Mastosis (f; VAD); Mycosis (1; HHB); Nausea (f; BIB); Orchosis (f; JLH); Otosis (f; FEL); Pain (f1; 
FEL; HG57:40); Polyp (f; JLH); Pregnancy (f; EGG); Prolapse (f; FEL); Skin (f; BIB); Sore (f1; BIB; 
FEL; HHB; PH2; PNC; HG57:40); Spasm (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; JLH); Swelling (f; HHB); Tooth-
ache (f; HHB); Tumor (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; FEL; JLH); Wart (f; JLH); Water Retention (f; HHB); 
Whitlow (f; VAD); Wound (f1; PH2; HG57:40; VAD); Yeast (1; X12501491).
d osages (w Hite l ily ):
FNFF = ?
Tanaka hints that, like L. brownii, Lilium candidum Lour (non L.) is grown as a food plant (roots 
possibly edible) or ornamental. All TAN entries apply only to Lilium brownii. PH2 says to apply a 
thick paste, made from fresh or cooked onions = lily bulbs, I presume.
• Europeans staunch bleeding with wine or whiskey petal macerate (AAH).
• Europeans suggest the pollen for epilepsy (UPH).
• Lebanese use the cooked roots for everything from corns to epilepsy (HJP).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Peruvians apply rum tincture of mashed petals as a poultice on bruises and contusions 
(EGG).
• Peruvians make a pomade of mashed petals, afl x, matico leaves, and milk for erysipelas 
(EGG).
• Peruvians suggest boiled root as a tonic (EGG).
• Peruvians suggest mashed ofl wers in a drop of almond oil for earache and pains of preg-
nancy (EGG).
• Spaniards suggest for fissures in the nipples (VAD).
• Early Tibetan manuscripts recommended lily bulb baths to treat sores and wounds. Bulb 
infusions and decoctions promote healing in experimental rats. The tea eases pains, 
removes rashes and blisters, and promotes epithelization (Alakbarov, 2003).
d ow Nsides (w Hite l ily ):
None reported at proper dosage, but no specic dfi osage indicated (PH2).
Natural History (w Hite l ily ):
The white flowers, smelling stronger at night than by day, attract pollinating hawk moths (ZOH).
extra Cts (w Hite l ily ):
Antimycotic activity possibly due to gamma-methylenebutyrolactone (HHB).
FLAx (l inum usit Atissimum L.) +++ LINACeAe
Notes (Flax ):
And he took it down, and wrapped it in linen, and laid it in a sepulchre that was hewn in stone, 
wherein never man before was laid.
Luke 23:53 (KJV)
Then he took it down and wrapped it in a linen shroud, and laid him in a rock- hewn tomb, where 
no one had ever yet been laid.
Luke 23:53 (RSV)
And he took it down, and wrapped it up in fine linen, and he laid him in a tomb carved in the rock, 
in which no man had yet lain.
Luke 23:53 (NWT)
Linen is mentioned many, many times in the Bible, in the KJV in at least 23 books, as for example, 
Exodus, where the word linen shows up 36 times. Conversely, afl x is mentioned only eleven times, 
in eight works, including two citations in Exodus. Ancient Egyptians depicted the growth of afl x 
on papyri, the spinning of afl x thread in murals, and the weaving of that thread into linen. Remains 
of the Pharaohs are bound in fine and delicate linen, woven with an expertise that is still today d-if
cfi ult to repeat 3000 to 4000 years later. The Gezer Calendar found at the ancient site, and dating 
back to the beginning of the Israelite civilization (circa 10th centuryb .c.), referred to afl x cultiva -
tion. Zohary states that cultivation dates back to 500b0. c. in the Middle East, including Israel, 
where afl x probably originated and where the wild progenitor, Linum bienne, is still indigenous. 
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FIGURe . Flax (Linum usitatissimum).
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Not only was the linen used in mummy cases, but the oil was used in embalming. The afl x plant 
is commonly used to make linen, the most ancient of all textile bfi ers. Linen is the most important 
product made from the bfi er of the afl x plant. Flax bfi ers are soft, lustrous, and efl xible, although 
not so efl xible or elastic as those of cotton or wool. Seeds contain 24% protein, and also are the 
source of linseed oil. In some countries, it is also used as edible oil and in soap manufacture (BIB; 
ZOH). Because linen has a long anticancer folk history, it is interesting to see that Linum contains 
the anticancer agents 3'-demethylpodophyllotoxin, podophyllotoxin, and beta-sitosterol. L-glutamic 
acid is used to treat adolescent mental decfi iencies. Seeds are considered emollient, demulcent, pec-
toral, diuretic, and astringent. Crushed seeds make a good poultice (for colds, pleurisy, etc.), either 
alone or with mustard; lobelia, or hollyhock seed, is added to the poultice for boils. Sometimes, 
seeds are roasted and used in a poultice. Hot seeds are applied to abscesses and rheumatism. Som- e
times employed as an addition to cough medicines. Linseed oil mixed with an equal quantity of 
lime water, known as Carron oil, is an excellent application for burns and scalds. Oil mixed with 
honey is used as a cosmetic for removing spots from the face. In veterinary medicine, oil is used 
as a purgative for sheep and horses; and a jelly, formed by boiling seeds, is used as a purgative for 
sheep and horses, and is often given to calves (BIB).
Commo N Names (Flax ):
AAkawa Yob (Rai; NPM); Aalas (Bhojpuri; Chepang; Danuwar; Magar; NPM); Agashi (Kan.; 
NAD); Agasi (Kan.; WOI); Alas (Nepal; SUW); Alashi (Bom.; Kon.; Ger.; KAB; NAD); Alasi 
(Urdu.; KAB); Ali (Madras; KAB); Alish (Kas.; Pun.; KAB; NAD); Alivari (Tam.; WOI); Alshi 
(Guj.; Tam.; KAB; NAD); Alshi Virai (Tam.; NAD); AlshiViral (Tel.; NAD); Alsi (Dec.; Guj.; 
Hindi; Kum.; Loralai; Nepal; KAB; NPM; WOI); Ana (Japan; TAN); Ankejil Guib (Sunwar; NPM); 
Thange (Limbu; NPM); Arasi (Tharu; NPM); Atasi (Sanskrit; Tel.; KAB; WOI); Auma (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Avisi (Tel.; WOI); Bad (Heb.; KAB); Bazarug (Iran; KAB); Bazarul Kattana (Arab.; EFS; 
KAB; NAD); Bazrukattan (Arab.; KAB); Bijri (Nwp.; DEP; KAB); Bizr el Oinab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Blaebas (Eng.; KAB); Budrapatni (Sanskrit; KAB); Chanaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Cheruchanavitt-int
evilta (Kerala; Mal.; DEP; KAB; SKJ); Chikna (Behar; DEP; KAB); Delkmouch (Ber.; BOU); Devi 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Echter Lein (Ger.; EFS); Flachs (Ger.; KAB); Flax (Eng.; CR2; NAD); Flix (Eng.; 
KAB); Fluchs (Ger.; DEP); Gemeiner Flachs (Ger.; NAD); Gemeiner Lein (Ger.; NAD); Haarlinsen 
(Ger.; KAB); Hab e Kattan (Arab.; DEP; GHA); Haimwati (Sanskrit; KAB); Hoerfroe (Den.; KAB); 
Hoerre (Den.; KAB); Ho Ma (Annam; KAB); Hor (Den.; KAB); Horfro (Den.; EFS); Hou Ma Tse 
(China; KAB); Hu Ma Tzu (China; EFS); Icags Tig Dkar Po (Tibet; TIB); In (Rom.; KAB); Javas 
(Mar.; WOI); Javas (Bom.; Dec.; DEP); Javasa (Bom.; Marathri; DEP; KAB); Kattan (Arab.; KAB; 
HJP); Kettan (Arab.; BOU); Keten (Tur..; EFS; KAB); Kettan (Arab.; ZOH); Keun (Ger.; Kas.; 
KAB); Kittan (Arab.; Phoenician; Syria; HJP; ZOH); Kitu (Accadian; ZOH); Kshaumi (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Kshuma (Sanskrit; KAB); Kuman (Iran; KAB); Kutan (Iran; DEP); Lein (Ger.; KAB); Len 
(Hun.; Pol.; Rus.; EFS; KAB); Lijnzaad (Dutch; EFS); Lin (Celtic; Fr.; Swe.; BOU; DEP; EFS); Lin-
aza (Sp.; EFS); Lin Chaud (Fr.; KAB); Lin Comun (Fr.; KAB); Lin Cultive (Fr.; KB; NAD); Linhaca 
(Por.; KAB); Linho (Por.; DEP; KAB); Lino (It.; Sp.; DEP; KAB); Linon (Greek; KAB); Linseed 
(Eng.; KAB; NAD); Lint Bells (Eng.; KAB); Lint Bennels (Eng.; KAB); Lint Bow (Eng.; KAB); 
Lli (Cat.; KAB); Lyne (Eng.; KAB); Lyon (Rus.; KAB); Madagandha (Sanskrit; KAB); Madan G-in
jalu (Tel.; DEP; KAB); Madotkata (Sanskrit; KAB); Malina (Sanskrit; KAB); Masina (Beng.; S-an
skrit; KAB); Masini (Beng.; NAD); Masrina (Sanskrit; KAB); Masruna (Sanskrit; KAB); Masuna 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Nilapushpi (Sanskrit; KAB); Nilpushpika (Sanskrit; KAB); Parvathi (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Pesheth (Heb.; ZOH); Pesu (Uriya.; KAB); Pichhila (Sanskrit; KAB); Pishtah (Heb.; ZOH); 
Roghani Zaghira (Iran; NAD); Rongonimbazaha (Kum.; KAB); Saatlein (Ger.; KAB); Saghir (Iran; 
DEP); Sagrek (Tur.; EB49:406); San (Sanskrit; KAB); Sib Muma (Arab.; Yemen; GHA); Sonnbiam 
(Kon.; KAB); Sunila (Sanskrit; KAB); Suverchala (Sanskrit; KAB); Tailottama (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Thange (Limbu; NPM); Tifert (Ber.; BOU); Tisi (Beng.; Hindi; Kum.; Mooshar; Newari; KAB; 
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NPM; WOI); Tisinam (Lepcha; NPM); Tukhhmehkatan (Iran; KAB); Tukhmizaghira (Iran; NAD); 
Tukeme Katan (Iran; DEP); Ulla Sulu (Tel.; DEP); Uma (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Vlas (Dutch; DEP; 
EFS; KAB); Vlix (Eng.; KAB); Yabani Keten (Tur.; EB54:155); Ya Ma Zi (Pin.; DAA); Zaghir 
(Iran; KAB); Zaghu (Iran; EFS; KAB; NAD); Zar Ma (Tibet; TIB); Zegrek (Tur.; EB54:155); Zeyrek 
(Tur.; EB54:155); Ziggar (Tur; KAB); Zighir (Kashghar; DEP; KAB);.
a Ctivities (Flax ):
Allergenic (1; APA; X1257320); Analgesic (f; BOU); Anodyne (f; MAD; NAD); Antiaggregant (1; 
APA; PH2); Antiallergenic (1; WAM; X12418783); Antiatherogenic (12; APA; BGB; X15777541); 
Antidiaphoretic (f; NAD); Antiestrogenic (1; APA; PH2); Antiinafl mmatory (1; APA; BGB; WAM; 
X12418783); Antioxidant (1; PH2; X15853420); Antiseptic (1; VAD); Antitumor (1; APA; BGB; 
PH2); Antitussive (f; PNC); Aphrodisiac (f; DEP; MAD); Astringent (f; BIB; KAB); Cardiotonic 
(f; DEP); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Cyanogenic (1; BIB); Demulcent (f12; APA; BGB; FEL; GHA; 
WAM); Deobstruent (f; NAD); Digestive (1; WAM); Diuretic (f; BIB; NAD); Emetic (f; FAD); 
Emmenagogue (f; BIB); Emollient (1; APA; BGB; FEL; PNC); Estrogenic (1; APA); Expectorant 
(f; BIB; NAD); Fungicide (f; PH2); Hypocholesterolemic (12; PH2; X15777541); Hypoglycemic 
(1; PH2; JAC7:405); Hypolipemic (1; VAD); Lactagogue (f; BIB); Laxative (f12; BGB; PH2; SHT; 
WAM); Lipolytic (2; APA; BGB; PHR); Nervine (f; SUW); Pectoral (f; PNC); Peristaltic (2; PIP); 
Purgative (2; FAD); Refrigerant (f; TIB); Suppurative (f; BIB); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Flax ):
Abscess (f; BGB; EB49:406); Acid Stomach (1; WAM); Acne (1; WAM); Adenopathy (f; JLH); 
Allergy (1; X12418783); Ameba (f; BIB); Aposteme (f; JLH); Arthrosis (f1; APA; BGB; GHA); 
Ascarides (f; FEL); Atherosclerosis (1; X15777541); Backache (f; BIB); Biliousness (f; BIB; KAB); 
Bleeding (f; KAB; MAD); Boil (f; BIB; BOU; FAD; NPM); BPH (f; MAD); Bronchosis (f; MAD; 
PH2; PNC); Bruise (f1; VAD); Burn (f; DEP; FAD); Cancer (1; FAD); Cancer, abdomen (1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, anus (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, breast (1; APA; FNF; JLH); Cancer, cervix (1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, colon (1; APA; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gland (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, parotid (1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, skin (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, 
testis (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uvula (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus 
(1; FNF; JLH); Carbuncle (f; NAD); Cardiopathy (f; DEP); Catarrh (f; PHR; PH2); Cellulitis (f; 
NAD); Cervicosis (f; JLH); Childbirth (f; BIB); Cholecystosis (f; PHR); Cold (f; FAD; FEL); Colic 
(f; FEL; HHB); Colitis (2; APA; FEL; KOM; SHT); Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; BIB; 
NAD); Constipation (f12; APA; BGB; GHA; PH2; WAM); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; APA; FAD; 
FEL; MAD; PH2); Cramp (f; BIB); Cystosis (f1; HJP; MAD; PH2; VAD); Dermatosis (12; APA; 
BGB; PH2; WAM; X12418783); Diabetes (1; MAD; PH2; X14995053); Diarrhea (f; BOU; PH2); 
Diverticulitis (2; APA; PH2; SHT); Dysentery (f; FEL); Dysuria (f; FEL); Eczema (1; WAM; VAD); 
Enterosis (f2; BOU; KOM; PIP; PH2); Fever (f; FAD); Furuncle (f; MAD; VAD); Gallstone (f; 
HHB; MAD); Gastrosis (f12; APA; BOU; KOM; PH2; PIP; VAD); Glossosis (f; MAD); Gonor-
rhea (f; DEP; GHA; MAD; PH2); Gout (f; FAD; MAD); Hayfever (f; HHB); Head cold (f; KAB); 
Hemorrhoid (1; FEL); Hepatosis (f; HJP; JLH); High Cholesterol (12; APA; PH2; X15777541); 
Hyperactivity (1; WAM); Hyerglycemia (1; X14995053); Hysteria (f; NAD); IBD (f; PH2); IBS (f; 
PH2); Impetigo (f; MAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; PH2; VAD); Inflammation (f12; APA; 
BOU; FAD; FEL; PH2; WAM; X14995053); Itch (f; HHB); Kidney stone (f; MAD); Leprosy (f; 
BIB); Lumbricus (f; FEL); Lupus (2; APA; BGB); Lymphangitis (f; MAD); Malaria (f; APA; 
BGB); Measles (f; MAD); Mucososis (1; APA); Mycosis (1; PH2); Nausea (f; MAD); Nephrosis 
(f12; APA; BGB; FEL; GHA; HHB; HJP); Obesity (1; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; PH2); Orchosis 
(f; JLH); Otitis (1; WAM); Pain (f; BOU; FEL; GHA; NAD); Parotitis (f; JLH); Pericardosis 
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(f; NAD); Peritonosis (f; NAD); Pleurisy (f; BIB; FAD; HJP); Pneumonia (f; FAD); Proteinuria 
(1; APA); Proctosis (f; FEL; JLH); Puerperium (f; NAD); Pulmonosis (f; FAD; HHB); Pyelitis (f; 
HHB); Quinsy (f; NAD); Rheumatism (1; BGB; FAD; MAD); Sapraemia (f; NAD); SLE (1; BGB); 
Sore (f; NAD); Sore Throat (f; APA); Splenosis (f; JLH); Stone (f; HHB; HJP); Strangury (f; NAD); 
Stroke (1; X15777541; Swelling (f; JLH; MAD); Sycosis (f; JLH); Syndrome-X (1; X14995053); 
Urethrosis (f; BOU; PH2); Urogenitosis (f; DEP; KAB); UTI (f; APA; NAD); Vaginosis (f; NAD); 
Venereal Disease (f; DEP; PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; JLH); Wound (f; GHA; NPM).
d osages (Flax ):
FNFF = !!!
Seeds widely eaten, even substituted for eggs in baking; The oil is used in Egyptian cuisine (e.g., 
ful medames, a stewed (faba) bean dish served with garlic, onions, and cumins). Talk about food 
“farmacy,” I would recommend that as food farmacy (replacing a fatty meat dish), for all the major 
“civilized” diseases of civilization; cancer, coronary, diabetes, even impotence and Parkinson’s 
disease! Ethiopians substitute for butter, roasting the seeds and pasting them on breads, and make a 
health food mixing seeds with honey and water. Parched seeds serve as coffee substitute. Sprouted 
seeds added to salads. Unripe seed pods cooked in chutneys. Transylvanians eat cooked leaves with 
lemon and sour cream. Linseed is often employed with other seeds as food for small birds (BIB; 
FAC; TAN; EB54:155; Cunnane and Thompson, 1995; Judd, 1995). One 1300 mg StX for 740 mg 
ALA softgel (APA); 1 Tbsp whole or crushed (not ground) seed/150 ml liquid 2–3 ×/day (APA; 
PIP). 1 oz seed/1 qt water at boiling point (FEL). 1 Tbsp bruised or whole (not powdered) seed, with 
at least 150 ml water 2–3 ×/day (PH2). For hypercholesterolemia, 35–50 g crushed seed/day (PH2). 
As antiaggregant, 1–2 Tbsp flaxseed oil/day (PH2).
• Arabians use ground seed with butter or decocted in water for arthritic pain and wounds 
(GHA).
• Arabians use seed decoction with cumin and sugarcane for kidney pain (GHA).
• Arabians use seed infusion for digestive and urinary tract inafl mmation (GHA).
• Arabians use 1 to 2 tsp seed with water for constipation or gonorrhea (GHA).
• Ayurvedics use leaves for asthma and cough; and seeds for backache, biliousness, c-on
sumption, inafl mmation, leprosy, ulcers, and urinary discharges (KAB).
• Ethiopians suggest the seeds for amebic dysentery (BIB).
• Lebanese apply hot afl x seed for abscess, pain, and rheumatism; the oil for burns, con-
stipation, and fever; linseed tea, with lemon, for cystitis, gallstones, gravel, hepatitis, and 
kidney stones (HJP).
• Turks pound seeds in milk and apply to abscess (EB49:406).
• Unani use the seeds, considered aphrodisiac, diuretic, emmenagogue, and lactagogue, for 
cough and kidney ailments; its oil for “bad blood,” internal wounds, and ringworm; and the 
burnt bark for bleeding and wounds. They use the bark and leaves for gonorrhea (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Flax ):
Class 2d. Contraindicated in bowel obstruction (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects 
known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2); (PH2 designates no dosage!, JAD). Commission E 
reports contraindications: ileus; interactions; reduced absorption of other drugs possible. No adverse 
effects when used with a sufcfi ient amount of liquid. Other sources report contraindications: intes-
tinal obstruction; patients with inafl mmatory intestinal diseases should only use the seed in swollen 
state. Abuse of high doses may result in electrolyte losses (AEH). Ayurvedics hint that seed may 
harm eyes and virility (KAB). Under pessimal conditions, 100 g linseed can liberate up to 50 mg 
HCN, enough to bring about symptoms of poisoning. But these conditions rarely, if ever, maintain. 
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Most HCN is metabolized via the enzyme rhodanase, which can convert 30 to 60 mg HCN per hour 
into the relatively toxic thiocyanate. Even doses of 300 g ground linseed evoked no symptoms of 
poisoning in volunteers. Single doses of 100 g do not cause a signicafi nt rise in blood hydrocyanic 
acid and thiocyanate levels. Taking 15 g linseed thrice daily for 3 to 4 weeks raised thiocyanate 
levels in blood and urine (BIS). May adversely affect absorption of drugs (as with any mucilaginous 
preparation). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of the GI tract. May 
lead to bowel obstruction if ufl id intake is inadequate. Do not take bulking agents when lying down 
or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (such as e.g., loperamide) (SHT). Do not use seed in 
diverticulitis patients (WAM). Do not confuse afl xseed oil with more poisonous denatured linseed 
oil (WAM).
Natural History (Flax ):
When grown for seed, afl x is self-pollinating. Cross-pollination does not seem to increase seed 
yield consistently. Advisable to isolate different varieties by at least 100 to 300 m when produ-c
ing seed for propagation. Many fungi have been found on afl x, but the most serious diseases are 
afl x wilt, several rusts, seedling blights, and Pasmo. Causative agents are Alternaria brassiceae, 
A. lini, A. linicola, A. solani, A. tenuis; Ascochyta linicola, Botrytis cinerea, Colletotrichum lini, 
C. linicola, Corticium solani, Diplodia lini, Erysiphe cichoracearum, E. polygoni, E. polyphaga, 
Fusarium acuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. lini, Kabatiella lini, Leveillula linacearum, Melampsora 
lini, Mycosphaerella linorum, M. tulasnei, Oidiopsis lini, Oidium lini, Phoma lini, P. linicola, 
Polyspora lini, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, S. libertiana, S. minor, S. 
sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria linicola, Sphaerella linorum, Thielaviopsis basicola, and 
Trichothecium roseum. Important viruses causing disease in afl x are Aster yellows (Chlorogenus 
callistephi), Beet curly top, and Yellows. Flax may be parasitized by Cuscuta epilinum, C. epithy-
mum, C. indecora, C. pentagona, and Striga lutea. The bacteria Agrobacterium tumefaciens and 
Pseudomonas atrofaciens also cause diseases. Insects are not a serious problem in afl x production. 
Nematodes isolated from afl x include the following species: Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus 
erythrinae, H. spp., Heterodera schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. hapla, M. incognita, M. 
incognita acrita, M. thamesi, M. javanica, Paratylenchus sp., Pratylenchus coffeae, P. penetrans, 
Tylenochorhynchus spp., and Xiphinema spp. (HOE).
extra Cts (Flax ):
Seeds, like those of Perilla, are one of the best sources of the omega-3 fatty acid called ALA 
(alpha-linolenic acid), which reportedly has antiaggregant, antiinafl mmatory (IC50 = 42 µM), an-ti
leukotriene-D4, antimenorrhagic, antimetastatic, antiprostatitic, cancer-preventive, hypotensive, 
immunostimulant (0.12 ml/man/day) activities; lignans antiestrogenic, antimycotic, antioxidant, 
and antitumor (PH2). See Rudin’s The Omega-3 Phenomenon for an incredible list of supposed 
indications for afl xseed oil, an entire book full. Brooks et al. (2005) showed that afl xseed supple -
mentation alters estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women more than soy supplementation 
[soy (25 g soy ofl ur), or afl xseed (25 g ground afl xseed) muffin for 16 wk]. Urinary concentrations of 
2-hydroxyestrone (little biological activity), but not of 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone (estrogenic agon-is
tic causing proliferation), increased signicafi ntly in the afl xseed group. Improving this ratio (as also 
happens in women consuming Brassicaceae) improves the odds of patients against breast cancer 
(HG67:34) (X14749240). All this suggests consumption of more biblical beans, crucifers, and afl x-
seed, in lieu of animal fat, improves one’s odds against certain hormone-dependent cancers (JAD). 
In a GMO approach, Lorenc-Kukula et al. (2005) generated afl x plants with increased antioxidant 
properties. The simultaneous expression of genes encoding chalcone synthase, chalcone isomerase 
(CHI), and dihydroafl vonol reductase (DFR) resulted in a signicfi ant increase in afl x antioxidant 
capacity. The increase in yield of transgenic plants and their higher resistance Ftou sarium culmorum 
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and Fusarium oxysporum correlated with a signicafi nt increase in monounsaturated fatty acids and 
a slight increase in lignans (X15853420). Prasad (2005) demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic and 
antiatherosclerotic effect of the lignan complex containing secoisolariciresinol diglucoside a-nti
oxidant, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaric acid (hypocholesterolemic) and cinnamic acids (antioxidants) 
(X15777541). Bloedon and Szapary (2004) state that afl xseed, rightly or wrongly, is the richest 
known source of both alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and the phytoestrogeric lignans, as well as a 
good source of soluble bfi er. Human studies have shown that afl xseed can modestly reduce serum 
total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations, reduce postprandial glucose abso-rp
tion, decrease some markers of inafl mmation, and raise serum levels of omega-3 fatty acids, viz. 
ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid. Data on the antiplatelet, antioxidant, and hypotensive effects of 
afl xseed, however, are inconclusive (X14995053). Phillips et al. (2005) presented phytosterol data 
on afl xseed, averaging the ground and unground accessions values. Such phytosterols are medic-i
nally important, for example, in BPH and in high cholesterol (X16302759).
sto RAx (l iquid AmbAr orient Alis MILL. AND l . 
styr Aciflu A L.) + + h AMAMeLIDACeAe
Notes (storax ):
Is there no balm in Gilead; is there no physician there? why then is not the health of the daughter 
of my people recovered?
Jeremiah 8:22 (KJV)
Is there no balm in Gilead? Is there no physician there? Why then has the health of the daughter 
of my people not been restored?
Jeremiah 8:22 (RSV)
Is there no balsam in Gilead? Or is there no healer there? Why is it, then, that the recuperation 
of the daughter of my people has not not come up?
Jeremiah 8:22 (NWT)
Like many responsible authors (e.g., HHB; LAF), when covering species of Liquidambar, I aggre-
gated American Storax and Oriental Storax for the second edition of myH andbook of Medici-
nal Herbs. Distinguishing liquidambar and styrax resins seems rather difcfi ult. Hence I believed 
that reporting separately would be rather articfi ial. Few people alive can guarantee the taxonomic 
source of the resin itself. And I suspect there are few if any chemical analyses based on vouchered 
specimens, and many more based on aggregates of miscellaneous resins. Nonetheless, AH2 main-
tained them apart, Liquidambar orientalis representing the oriental species, the resin of which is 
commonly known as Levant Storax. This clearly would be the biblical storax as well. AH2 mai-n
tains as distinct the American storax or sweet gum,L iquidambar styraciflua L. Even Zohary in 
Israel states that the two species are the same. This oriental species seems to be extinct in Israel, 
if it was ever there, and is limited to southwest Turkey and possibly Lebanon, even historically in 
Gilead, northeast of Israel. But it is long gone in Gilead. Still it is too often referred to as balm of 
Gilead.
Commo N Names (storax ):
American Storax (Eng.; LAF); American Styrax (Eng.; FAC); Anbar Sa’el (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Asht Loban (India; EFS); Asian Styrax (Eng.; FAC); Asiatic Storax (Eng.; LAF); Asle Luban 
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FIGURe . Storax (Liquidambar spp.).
(Iran; DEP); Asli (Iran; EFS; NAD); Balm (Eng.; BIB; RSV); Estoraque (Sp.; EFS); Liquidambar 
(Sp.; EFS); Levant Storax (Eng.; AH2; LAF); Liquidámbar (Sp.; EFS); Liquid Storax (Eng.; NAD); 
Liquid Styrax (Eng.; JLH); Lubhani (Iran; EFS; NAD); Maiaa (JLH); Meah (Arab.; DEP); Me-ih
sila (Hindi; Iran; DEP; NAD); Meri Arishappal (Tam.; NAD); Miah Sayelaha (Arab.; EFS; NAD); 
Nantayu (Burma; DEP); Nataf (Heb.; ZOH); Neri Arishappal (Tam.; DEP; NAD); Ofcfi ial Storax 
(Eng.; HJP); Orientalischer Amberbaum (Ger.; USN); Oriental Sweet Gum (Eng.; Scn.; AH2); 
Rasamalla (Mal.; Malaya; Tam.; DEP; NAD); Rose Malloes (Eng.; NAD); Sagia (?; JLH); Selaras 
(Guj.; DEP); Shilarasam (Tel.; DEP; WOI); Shilbaka (Ayu.; AH2); Sigala Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Silajit 
(Sanskrit; EFS); Silaras (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Kan.; Mah.; Tel.; EFS; NAD; WOI); Silarasa (Mar.; 
DEP); Silha (Hindi; DEP); Silhaka (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Stacte (Heb.; ZOH); Storace (It.; EFS); 
Storax (Eng.; Fr.; Ger.; CR2; EFS; FAC); Storax Calamite (?; JLH); Storaxbaum (Ger.; USN); 
Storaxboom (Dutch; EFS); Storiaux Liquida (?; JLH); Styrax (Eng.; Fr.; Ger.; EFS; JLH); Styrax 
Linquide (Fr.; NAD); Su He Ziang (Pin.; DAA); Tzori (Heb.; ZOH); Usturak (Sanskrit; EFS); 
Usturuk (Bom.; DEP).
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a Ctivities (storax ):
Allergenic (f; GAZ); Antidote (f; DAA); Antiinafl mmatory (1; PH2); Antiscabies (f; EFS); Anti -
septic (f1; DEP; HJP; LAF; NAD; SKJ); Astringent (f; DEP; NAD); Bactericide (f; GAZ); Diapho-
retic (1; PH2); Diuretic (f; NAD); Expectorant (f1; DEP; EFS; FEL; HJP; LAF; SKJ); Fungicide (f; 
GAZ); Parasiticide (f; DAA); Pectoral (f; DEP); Stimulant (f; EFS; HJP; PH2; SKJ); Suppurative (f; 
DEP); Tonic (f; DEP; NAD); Vulnerary (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (storax ):
Adenopathy (f; NAD); Asthma (f; FEL); Bacteria (f; GAZ); Bronchosis (f; FEL; NAD; PH2); Burn 
(f; JLH); Cancer (f; DAA; JLH; LAF); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus 
(f; JLH); Catarrh (f; FEL; NAD); Childbirth (f; HOC); Cold (f; DAA); Colic (f; NAD); Convulsion (f; 
DAA); Cough (f; FEL; PH2); Cystosis (f; GAZ; NAD); Dermatosis (f; DEP; HHB; PH2; WOI); Diar-
rhea (f; HOC); Dysentery (f; HOC); Dysuria (f; NAD); Enterosis (f; HOC); Epilepsy (f; DAA; PH2); 
Fever (f; PH2); Fistula (f; HOC); Frostbite (f; DAA); Fungus (f; GAZ); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gleet (f; 
FEL); Gonorrhea (f; FEL); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; GAZ; HJP); Inafl m -
mation (f; GAZ); Itch (f; GAZ; PH2); Lactose-Intolerance (f; PH2); Leprosy (f; PH2); Leukorrhea (f; 
FEL); Malaria (f; DAA); Mycosis (f; FEL; GAZ); Orchosis (f; DEP; NAD); Pain (f; NAD); Parasite (f; 
DAA); Phthisis (f; DEP); Phymata (f; JLH); Pityriasis (f; NAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; FEL; 
NAD); Pyelitis (f; NAD); Respirosis (f; GAZ); Ringworm (f; FEL); Scabies (f; DEP; FEL; HHB; HJP); 
Scleroma (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; FEL; PH2); Sore Throat (f; DEP; NAD); Splenosis (f; 
JLH); Sting (f; NAD); Swelling (f; DEP); Syncope (f; PH2); Tinea (f; FEL); Urethrosis (f; HJP); Utero-
sis (f; JLH); Venereal Disease (f; FEL); Worm (f; HOC); Wound (f; DAA; PH2).
d osages (storax ):
FNFF = !
GRAS; “approved for food use” but at low levels, for example, circa 15 ppm in candy and 25 ppm 
in baked goods (LAF). American styrax resin is chewed like gum to freshen breath and clean teeth. 
Oriental styrax is used to afl vor baked goods, candy, chewing gum, and tobacco (FAC; TAN). 10 to 
20 grains resin (FEL).
• American styrax mixed with honey and consumed in childbirth (HOC).
• British once applied the resin to indurations of the liver and spleen (JLH).
• Egyptians applied powdered wood to burns and cancers (JLH).
• Germans applied the resin to indurations of the uterus (JLH).
• Hondurans mix American styrax with garlic, onions, and hot water for worms (HOC).
• Lebanese suggest the resin as expectorant, scabicide, stimulant, and urinary antiseptic 
(HJP).
d ow Nsides (storax ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2) (dosage not indicated; PH2). Ingestion may lead to diarrhea. Possibly allergenic 
(GAZ; PH2). Broad topical application may lead to transdermal absorption followed by kidney 
damage (albuminuria; hemorrhagic nepritis) (PH2).
extra Cts (storax ):
Puriefi d storax contains circa 33 to 50% storesin, an alcoholic resin, both free and as cinnamic 
esters. Contains 5 to 15% cinnamic acid, 5 to 15% cinnamyl cinnamate or styracine, and circa 
10% phenylpropyl-cinnamate — plus small amounts of ethyl cinnamate, benzyl cinnamate, and 
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styrene (phenylethylene, even traces of vanillin (WOI). Also a volatile oil (styrol, styracin, etc.) 
(NAD). LAF report also a resin (storesin) containing triterpenic acids (oleanolic and 3-epioleanolic 
acids) (LAF).
DARNeL (l olium temulentum L.) x po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Lolium arvense With.; Lolium robustum Reich.; Lolium temulentum var. leptochaeton A. Braun; 
Lolium temulentum var. muticum Noulet fide DEP, etc.
Notes (d ar Nel):
But while men slept, his enemy came and sowed tares among the wheat.
Matthew 13:25 (KJV)
The grass called darnel or the biblicatl ares is reasonably safe; but once an ergot fungus gets into 
the seeds, it can be quite dangerous. But generally speaking, the things that make it poisonous also 
make it strong medicine, as so often happens in nature. Growing throughout the Middle East, its 
grains are reported from Egyptian tombs at least 4000 years old. Affording nutritive feed for liv-e
stock, it should not be grazed after the seeds set. Human deaths are attributed to eating the infected 
seed, ground up with wheat. It serves as chicken and pigeon feed, but even this is discouraged. 
According to homeopath Hernandez Mesa, it is used for St. Vitus’ dance and idiocy, having been 
dropped by the allopaths (BIB).
Commo N Names (d ar Nel):
Aera (f; JLH); Airon (JLH); Aqoullab (Ber.; BOU); Bearded Darnel (Eng.; BUR; EFS); Borrachuela 
(Sp.; EFS); Cheat (Eng.; BOU); Cizana (Sp.; EFS); Cockle (Eng.; JLH); Cockul (?; JLH); Cockyll 
(?; JLH); Cominillo (Sp.; EFS); Crop (JLH); Danaqah (Arab.; BOU); Darnell (Eng.; BOU; CR2); 
Darnell Grass (Eng.; BUR); Delice (Tur.; EFS); Dolik (Dutch; EFS); Dudackorn (JLH); Gioglio 
(It.; EFS); Git (JLH); Italian Ryegrass (Eng.; JLH); Ivary (Eng.; BOU); Ivraie (Fr.; BOU); Ivraie 
Enivrante (Fr.; EFS); Joio (Mad.; Por.; EFS); Joyo (Sp.; EFS); Kockul (JLH); KoKkul (JLH); La-i
chour (Ber.; BOU); Loglio (It.; EFS; JLH); Lolium (Fr.; BOU); Lover’s-Steps (Eng.; BUR); Machni 
(Hindi; India; DEP; EFS; SKJ); Mostaki (Pun.; WOI); Nigella (JLH); Pane Vino (It.; EFS); Poison 
Rye Grass (Eng.; BUR); Raaigras (Dutch; EFS); Rabillo (Sp.; EFS); Raygrass (Eng.; BUR); Ry-e
grass (Eng.; BOU); Samma (Arab.; BOU); Schlafweisen (Ger.; EFS); Shaylam (Arab.; BOU); Sikra 
(Arab.; BOU); Suwal (Arab.; BOU); Tare (Eng.; ZOH); Tares (Eng.; BUR); Taumellolch (Ger.; EFS; 
MAD); Vallico (Sp.; EFS); Wenwort (Eng.; JLH); Wray (JLH); Zizanie (Fr.; BOU); Ziwan (Heb.; 
ZOH); Zizzania (It.; EFS); Zun (Heb.; ZOH); Zuwan (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (d ar Nel):
Anodyne (f; BUR; CRC); Deliriant (f; BUR); Depurative (f; CRC; MAD); Hemostat (f; BOU); Na-r
cotic (1; CRC; EFS); Nephrotoxic (1; PHR); Poison (1; CRC); Sedative (f; SKJ).
iNdi Catio Ns (d ar Nel):
Arthrosis (f; BOU; JLH; MAD); Bleeding (f; BOU; CRC); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); 
Cancer, joint (f; JLH); Cancer, knee (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Ca-n
cer, uterus (f; JLH); Colic (f; CRC); Condylomata (f; JLH); Cramp (f; BOU; PHR; PH2); Derma-
tosis (f; BIB; CRC; HHB); Dysuria (f; CRC; PH2); Eczema (f; CRC); Enterosis (f; BOU; PHR; 
PH2); Epistaxis (f; BOU; CRC; PHR; PH2); Fracture (f; BIB; CRC); Freckle (f; SKJ); Gangrene 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
(f; BIB; CRC); Gastrosis (f; PHR; PH2); Headache (f; CRC); Hepatosis (f; CRC); Incontinence (f; 
BIB; BOU; CRC; PH2); Induration (f; CRC; JLH); Insomnia (f; PHR; PH2; SKJ); Kernel (f; CRC); 
Leprosy (f; BIB; CRC); Lichen (f; MAD); Meningosis (f; BIB; CRC); Menopause (f; BIB; CRC); 
Migraine (f; BIB; CRC); Nausea (f; BOU); Neuralgia (f; BOU; CRC; MAD; PH2); Pain (f; CRC; 
HHB; PHR); Paralysis (f; MAD); Polyuria (f; HHB); Rheumatism (f; BOU; CRC; HHB); Sciatica 
(f; CRC); Scirrhus (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; CRC); Splinter (f; BIB); Tenesmus (f; MAD); Toothache 
(f; BIB; CRC); Tremor (f; BOU; MAD); Tumor (f; CRC); Uterosis (f; JLH); Vertigo (f; CRC; MAD; 
PH2); Wen (f; CRC).
d osages (d ar Nel):
FNFF = X
Although Indians make food of it (e.g., pinole from the seed in California), it could be poisonous 
(BUR; TAN). Do not take. Many of the indications and dosages are homeopathic only.
• Asian Indians suggest pounded seed as a sedative poultice and to erase freckles (SKJ).
• British use the wenwort in salves on wens (JLH).
• Lebanese hint of a mystic mountain cult that infuses the grass or soaks the seeds to 
extract the ergot, which is then used to induce religious ecstasy.
• Lebanese women made a tea of the whole grass for children with colic; adults used the 
ground seed for blood poisoning, leprosy, migraine, rheumatism, and toothache (HJP).
• Moroccans use the plant decoction for hemorrhage and urinary incontinence (BIB).
d ow Nsides (d ar Nel):
Can be toxic. No cases of poisoning are known in recent times (PHR). Symptoms include apathy, 
colic, confusion, cramping, delirium, diarrhea, gastroenterosis, giddiness, headache, mydriasis, 
paralysis, somnolence, speech problems, staggering, tinnitus, vertigo, visual disorders, and vomi-t
ing, rarely death through respiratory failure (BUR; DEP; MAD; PH2). Only mentioned as food for 
Native Americans (DEM).
Boxtho RN (lycium europ Aeum Auth .) + so LANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Lycium barbarum L. var. brevilobum; Lycium mediterraneuum Dunal; Lycium orientale Miers. 
fide ZOH
Notes (boxt Hor N):
Now the Philistines gathered together their armies to battle, and were gathered together at Shochoh, 
which belongeth to Judah, and pitched between Shochoh and Azekah, in Ephes- dammim.
I Samuel 17:1 (KJV)
Zohary argues that Azekah is a place name, named for the abundant boxthorns there, noting that 
such is frequent in the Bible; names for acacia, olive, oak, pistachio, pomegranate, and willow also 
used as place names in the Holy Land (ZOH). EFS entries below may apply as well to L. barbarum 
or halimiflorum .
Commo N Names (boxt Hor N):
Alquitira (Sp.; EFS); Artos (Sp.; EFS); Ausseg (Arab.; ZOH); Awsadsch (JLH); Azekah (Heb.; 
ZOH); Bastard Jasmine (Eng.; EFS); Bocksdorn (Ger.; EFS); Boksdorn (Dutch; EFS); Boxthorn 
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(Eng.; EFS; USN); Cambronera (Sp.; EFS); Caprifolium (?; JLH); Espinheiro (Mad.; PST); Ganger 
(India; EFS); Granévano (Sp.; EFS); Jasmin Bâtard (Fr.; EFS); Kanu (India; EFS); Licium (JLH); 
Mater Silvi (?; JLH); Matrisilvi (?; JLH); Prickly Box (Eng.; EFS); Spina Cristi (It.; EFS); Tea 
Tree (Eng.; EFS); Teufelsdorn (Ger.; EFS); EFS names may also apply to Lycium barbarum and or 
Lycium halimifolium; Nscn.
a Ctivities (boxt Hor N):
Antispasmodic (f; EFS); Diuretic (f; EFS); Laxative (f; EFS); Toxic (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (boxt Hor N):
Cancer (f; JLH); Cramp (f; EFS); Gingivosis (f; JLH); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); 
Spasm (f; EFS); Splenosis (f; JLH).
d osages (boxt Hor N):
FNFF = ?
Most species, including L. arabicum, to which TAN refers this species, have edible fruits and many 
have leaves used in teas. I would not be afraid to sample L. europaeum as a fruit or leaf tea, but I 
would be reluctant to recommend it carelessly (FAC, TAN).
Natural History (boxt Hor N):
The small edible fruits are dispersed by birds (ZOH).
AppLe (mAlus domestic A Bo RKh.) +++ R os ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Malus communis DC.; Malus pumila Mill.; Malus sylvestris Hort, non Mill.; Pyrus malus L.; Pyrus 
pumila L. fide WOI
Notes (a pple):
Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples: for I am sick of love.
Song of Solomon 2:5 (KJV)
Sustain me with raisins, refresh me with apples; for I am sick with love.
Song of Solomon 2:5 (RSV)
Do you people refresh me with cakes of raisins, sustain me with apples; for I am lovesick.
Song of Solomon 2:5 (NWT)
The word apple shows up twelve times in my King James version, scattered through eight works, 
most frequently (four citations) in the Song of Solomon. Although I concluded that apricot or 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Apple (Malus domestica).
pomegranate might better be the apple of the Garden of Eden (BIB), Israeli botanist Michael Zohary 
seems to favor the apple over the apricot, although apples were not mentioned in narratives regard-
ing the Garden of Eden. The Hebrew tappuah occurs vfi e times in the Bible as an apple tree, six 
times as a place name, and once as a proper name. Other biblical scholars have sometimes referred 
to the tappuah as apricot or bitter orange, although these plants were reportedly introduced much 
later than the apple, which dates in Europe from the Neolithic. Still, although no remains of apple 
are found among the prehistoric remains of the Middle East, ancient Egyptian papyri circa Ramses 
II (1298–1235 b.c.) show Nile delta efi lds with pomegranate, apple, olive, and gfi . Zohary adds that 
the Arabic tuffah refers exclusively to apple trees, justifying its identicatfi ion with the Hebrew tap-
puah. Apples may have been introduced to the Holy Land from Armenia, Iran, Syria, or Turkey 
circa 4000 b.c. (ZOH). AH2 and USN maintain Malus domestica (USN) or Malus pumila (AH2) 
for the apple, and both retain for the crab apple name, Malus sylvestris. I would wager that the crab 
apple is better medicine, ounce for ounce. As a matter of fact, I would speculate that one crabapple 
(proportionately more phytochemicals) would almost equate (dosage-wise) to one big juicy McIn-
tosh (proportionately more water).
Commo N Names (a pple):
Abbel (Eng.; JLH); Abreletrae (Den.; KAB); Acuk (Tur.; EB49:406); Acuk Pekmezi (Tur.; 
EB49:406); Alema (Kalmuk; KAB); Almafa (Hun.; KAB); Amra (Tibet; NPM); Apfel (Ger.; TAN; 
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USN); Apfelbaum (Ger.; KAB; USN); Appeltraed (Swe.; KAB); Apple (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; 
TAN); Appleboom (Dutch; EFS; KAB); Badara (Sanskrit; KAB); Boquettier (Fr.; AVP); Borsdorf 
Pippin (Austria; JLH); Chui (Pun.; KAB); Chur (Pangi; KAB); Crabapple (Eng.; NAD); Crois-
son (Fr.; AVP); Eima (Tur.; EB49:406); Eima Azmasi (Tur.; EB49:406); Elmai (Tur.; EB54:155); 
Jablon (Pol.; KAB); Jabuka (Illyria; KAB); Kashu (Pun.; DEP); Kushu (Ladak; DEP; KAB); Lin 
Ch’in (China; EFS; KAB); Lipot (Lpcha; NPM); Macanceira (Por.; EFS); Maceira (Por.; KAB; 
USN); Macieira (Por.; AVP; EFS); Mana (Pushtu; KAB); Manra (Pushtu; DEP); Manzana (Peru; 
Sp.; EGG; USN); Manzano (Peru; Sp.; EGG; KAB; USN); Mar (Rom.; KAB); Maschanzkerapfel 
(Austria; JLH); Melo (It.; KAB); Meto (It.; AVP); Milia (Greek; KAB); Nagnse (Limbu; NPM); 
Omena (Fin.; KAB); Palu (Kunawar; KAB); Paoma (Hova; KAB); Perote (Ca.; Sp.; ROE); P’ing Kuo 
(China; TAN); Pome Dols (Cat.; KAB); Pomme (Fr.; TAN); Pomme d’Arbre (Haiti; AVP); Pomme 
de France (Haiti; AVP); Pommier (Fr.; Haiti; AVP0; KAB); Pommier Commun (Fr.; USN); Pomo 
(Malta; KAB); Ringo (Japan; TAN; USN); Safarchand (Mah.; NAD); Sapukawasi (Rai; NPM); 
Sco (Nwp.; KAB); Seb (Beng.; Bhojpuri; Hindi; Mooshar; Tharu; DEP; NPM); Seba (Sanskrit; 
DEP); Sebhaphala (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Seb Safarang (Hindi; NAD); Sebu (Kan.; KAB; WOI); 
Seo (Hindi; KAB; WOI); Servu Kittalay (Can.; NAD); Sev (Urdu; NAD); Sevu (Kan.; DEP); Sheo 
(Nwp.; DEP); Shewa (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Shivinthaka (Sanskrit; NAD); Sib (Iran; DEP); Sir (Iran; 
KAB); Soof (Sin.; NAD); Suf (Sin.; DEP; KAB); Sufferjang (Bom.; Guj.; EFS; NAD); Syau (Danu-
war; Magar; Nepal; Newari; Sunwar; Tamang; NPM); Taph (Arab.; ZOH); Tappuah (Heb.; ZOH); 
Tiffah (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Tuffah (Arab.; DEP; HJP; ZOH); Tyffah (Arab.; KAB); Uril (Mongolia; 
EB54:528); Urilin Chai (Mongolia; EB54:528); Yablon (Rus.; KAB).
a Ctivities (a pple):
Anthelmintic (f; CRC; WOI); Antiallergic (1; JAF51:3806); Antialopecic (1; PR15:311); Antian-
drogenic (1; JNU); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; JNU); Antimelanogenic (1; X16029003); Antioxidant 
(1; JNU; PR15:311; X15769178); Antiproliferant (1; JAF51:609); Antiseptic (f1; NAD; X15713000); 
Antitoxic (1; JAF51:3806); Antiviral (1; X15713000); Aperitif (f; CRC); Apoptotic (1; JNU); Bac-
tericide (1; CRC); Cardioprotective (1; JNU; WOI); Carminative (f; CRC; ROE); Chemopreventive 
(f1; X15769178); Cicatrizant (f; VAD); Cyanogenic (f1; CRC); Demulcent (f; VAD); Depurative 
(f; CRC; NAD); Digestive (f; CRC; EFS); Diuretic (f; CRC; EFS); Emollient (f; CRC); Gastroprotec-
tive (1; X15647180); Hypnotic (f; CRC; NAD); Hypoglycemic (f1; JNU; EB49:406); Hypotensive 
(1; JAF51:3806); Hypouricemic (f; NAD); Laxative (f; CRC); Lipolytic (f1; JAF51:3806); Muco-
protective (f; VAD); Noogenic (f; NAD); Orexigenic (f; EFS); PKC Inhibitor (1; PR15:311); Poison 
(f; CRC); Propecic (1; PR15:311); Refrigerant (f; CRC); Sedative (f; CRC); Tonic (f; CRC; LMP); 
Tyrosinase Inhibitor (1; X16029003); Vulnerary (f; VAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (a pple):
Alcoholism (f; NAD); Allergy (1; JAF51:3806; X15630302); Alopecia (1; PR15:311; JAF51:3806); 
Anemia (f; HJP; LMP); Aphonia (f; DEM); Arthritis (f; TOM); Asthma (f1; JNU; NAD); Bacteria (1; 
CRC; WOI); Biliousness (f; CRC; KAB; LMP; NAD); Blindness (f; DEM); BPH (f; JNU); Bruise (f; 
DEM); Cacoethes (f; CRC; JLH); Calculus (f; NAD); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; CRC; JLH; HJP); 
Cancer, breast (f1; JLH; X15769178); Cancer, colon (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, eye (f; JLH); Cancer, 
liver (f1; JNU); Cancer, lung (f1; JNU); Cancer, prostate (f1; JNU); Cardiopathy (f1; JNU; WOI); 
Caries (f1; JAF51:3806); Catarrh (f; CRC; NAD; ROE); Chilblain (f; AAH); Childbirth (f; ROE); 
Cholera (1; JAF51:3806); Colic (f; ROE); Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; FEL; KAB); Con-
stipation (f1; CRC; KAB; NAD); COPD (1; Associated Press, Jan. 19, 2000); Cough (f; HJP); De-r
matosis (f1; HHB; X15630302); Diabetes (f; CRC; ROE); Diaper Rash (f; TOM); Diarrhea (f1; PH2); 
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Diverticulosis (1; JNU); Dropsy (f; FEL; HJP); Duodenosis (f1; HJP); Dysentery (1; CRC; PH2); 
Dyspepsia (f1; CRC; HHB; HJP; NAD; PH2; EB49:406); Dyspnea (f; DEM); Earache (f; AAH; 
DEM); Eczema (f; NAD); Enterosis (f; CRC); Epilepsy (f; HJP); Erysipelas (f; FEL); Fever (f; CRC; 
KAB); Flu (1; X15713000); Flux (f; CRC); Gallstone (f; DEM); Gastrosis (f1; TOM; X15647180); 
Gout (f1; JNU; NAD); Gravel (f; BUR; FEL); Halitosis (f; TOM); Hay Fever (1; JNU); Headache (f; 
HJP); Heart (f; CRC); Hemorrhoid (f; DEM; HJP); Hepatosis (f; NAD); Herpes (1; JNU); High Blood 
Pressure (1; JAF51:3806); Hive (1; JNU); Hoarseness (f; DEM); Hyperemesis (f; ROE); IBS (1; JNU); 
Infection (f1; NAD; X15713000); Inafl mmation (f1; JNU; CRC; FEL); Insomnia (f; CR2; ROE); Leu -
kemia (f; JLH); Lumbago (f; NAD); Malaria (f1; CR2; KAB); Neuralgia (f; NAD); Neuritis (f; NAD); 
Obesity (f1; WOI; JAF51:3806); Ophthalmia (f; JLH; KAB); Pancreatosis (1; JNU); Paralysis (f; HJP); 
Pertussis (f; CRC); Phthisis (f; HJP); Pneumonia (f; ROE); Poison Ivy (f; TOM); Pregnancy (f; ROE); 
Prostatosis (1; JNU); Rash (f; TOM); Rheumatism (f; HJP; NAD; ROE); Scarlatina (f; FEL); Sciatica 
(f; NAD); Scrofula (f; HJP); Scurvy (f; CRC); Sore (f; AAH; JLH); Sore Throat (f; FEL); Spasm (f; 
CRC); Sprain (f; AAH); Stomachache (f; TOM); Stone (f; NAD); Stress (f; WOI); Stroke (f1; HJP; 
JNU); Sunstroke (f; EB49:406); Swelling (f; HJP); Thirst (f; CRC); Tumor (f1; JLH); Ulcer (f1; HJP); 
Venereal Disease (f; JLH); Virus (1; JNU; X15713000); Wart (f; CRC; KAB); Wound (f; VAD).
d osages (a pple):
FNFF = !!!
Fruit widely eaten raw, dried into chips, or cooked; in apple brandies, apple butters, apple ciders, 
apple jacks, apple sauces. Fruit puree sometimes used in making ketchups. Fruit is a commercial 
source of pectin (TAN). Flowers are eaten, often fried in batter. Peels are used in Turkish teas 
(FAC). Leaves are used to make tea (Mongolia; EB54:528). One British cheese callead pplewood is 
smoked over applewood fires (FAC).
• Alabamans suggest apple vinegar for diaper rash, halitosis, poison ivy, and rheumatism 
(TOM).
• Americans suggest boiling a tart apple in one pint of water for fever (FEL).
• Americans take bark tea for bilious, intermittent and remittent fevers (KAB).
• Asian Indians suggest that alcoholics might try apples or apple juice instead of whiskey 
(NAD).
• Ayurvedics suggest the fruit for biliousness, constipation, fever, and impotence (KAB).
• British suggest apple peel for cancer (JLH).
• Cornell scientists showed whole apple extracts prevent mammary cancer in rats dose-
dependently (comparable to 1, 3, and 6 apples a day in humans; X15769178).
• English apply rotten apple on sore spots, earache, and rheumatic or weak eyes (AAH; 
KAB).
• French apply roasted apple poultice for inafl med eyes (KAB).
• Lebanese suggest a spoonful of cider vinegar in a glass of water for stroke (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest compresses of sweetened apple sauce for cancer and swellings (HJP).
• Peruvians suggest tea of apple, orange peel, and afl x for nausea of pregnancy, tea of apple 
or peach leaves with matico to facilitate delivery (ROE).
• Turks eat apples to reduce libido (EB49:406).
• Turks take boiled fruits as hypoglycemic, tonic; for sunstroke (EB49:406).
• Yugoslavs suggest eating raw apples for anemia, cough, dyspepsia, headache, and pht-hi
sis (HJP).
Natural History (a pple):
Apples are not dependably self-fertile, so provisions for cross-pollination should be made. Bees and 
other insects are agents. Honeybees bring about 90% of pollen transfer in the orchard. One colony of 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
bees of medium size (15,000 to 20,000 bees) per acre is sufcfi ient. Mice are very destructive to apple 
trees. Keep a 1-m diameter space around tree free of weeds or mulched. Rabbits also eat bark. Protect 
with wire screen. Apple trees are attacked by a great many fungi, perhaps 150 worldwide, and many are 
very serious, but can be controlled with various sprays. Among them are the following:A ctinopetle dry-
ina, Alternaria mali, A. tenuis, Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta mali, Aspergillus terreus, Botryodiplodia 
theobromae, Botryosphaeria ribis, Botrytis cinerea, B. mali, Cephalosporium carpogenus, C. roseum, 
Cephaothecium roseum, Cepholeuros virescens, Cercospora mali, C. pyri, Cicinnobolus cesatii, 
Cladosporium herbarum, Clasterosporium carpophilum, Clitocybe tabescens, Colletotrichum fruc-
tus, Coniocybe nivea, Coniophora cerebella, Coniothecium chomatosporum, Coniothyrum fuckelii, 
C. olivaceum, C. pirinum, Corticium centrifugum, C. galactinum, C. laetum, C. litschaueri, C. salmo-
nicolor, Coryneum foliicola, C. longistipitatum, Creonectria purpurea, Cylindrocarpon angustum, C. 
mali, Cylindrocladium scoparium, Cyphella albo-violascens, C. marginata, Cytoplea cinerea, Cytos-
pora carphosperma, C. leucostoma, C. mali, Cytosporina ludibunda, Daedalea confragosa, Daldinia 
concentrica, Dematophora necatrix, Dermatea corticola, Diaporthe perniciosa, Didymella voglinoi, 
Didymosphaeria microstictica, Diplodia griffoni, D. mutila, D. natalensis, Elsinoe pyri, Endomyces 
mali, Entomosporium maculatum, Epicoccum granulatum, Eutypella stellulata, Fabraea maculata, 
Fomes applanatus, F. annosus, F. fomentarius, F. pinicola, F. pomaceus, Fracciaea heterogenea, 
Fumago vagans, Fusarium acuminatum, F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. dimerum, F. equiseti, F. 
fructigenum, F. herbarum, F. lateritium, F. moniliforme, F. poae, F. scirpi, F. solani, F. vasinifectum, 
Fusicladium dendriticum, Ganoderma curtisii, Gibberella baccata, G. fujikuroi, Gliocladium viride, 
Gloeosporium album, G. frustigenum, G. perennans, Gleodes pomigena, Gymnosporangtum juniperi-
num, G. sabinae, G. tremelloides, G. clavipes, G. globosum, G. juniperi-virginianae, G. nidus-avis, 
Glomerella cingulata, G. rubicola, Glutinium macrosporum, Haplosporella mali, Helminthosproium 
papulosum, Hendersonia cydoniae, Hendersonula toruloidea, Hormodendron cladosporioides, Hyd-
num setosum, Hymenochaete agglutinans, Hypholoma sublateritium, Illosporium malifoliorum, Lam-
bertelia corni-maris, Lentinus tigrinus, Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, Leptothyrium pomi, Leucostoma 
persooni, Liinospora ochracea, Marasmius pyrinus, Merulinus corium, M. papyrinus, Microdiplodia 
pirina, Monilia cinerea, M. fructigena, M. laxa, Monochaetia mali, Mucor piriformis, Mycosphaer-
ella pomi, M. sentina, M. tulasnei, Myriangium asterinosporum, Myxosporium corticola, M. mali, M. 
microsporum, Nectria cinnabarina, N. coccinea, N. ditissima, N. galligena, Neofabraea malicorticis, 
N. perennans, Nummularia discreta, Oidium farinosum, Oothecium indicum, Pellicularia koleroga, 
Penicillium expansum, Peniophora cinerea, Peyronellaea veronensis, Pezicula corticola, Pezizella 
oenotherae, Phacidiella discolor, Phacidiopycnis malorum, Phellinus friesianus, Phialophora goid-
anichii, Ph. malorum, Pholiota adiposa, Phoma glomerata, Ph. pomi, Ph. prunicola, Phomopsis mali, 
Ph. perniciosa, Phyllactinis suffulta, Phyllosticta mali, Ph. persicae, Ph. pirina, Ph. prunicola, Ph. 
solitaria, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Physalospora cydoniae, Ph. mutila, Ph. Obtusa, Ph. malo-
rum, Ph. rhodina, Phytophthora cactorum, Ph. citricola, Ph. palmivora, Ph. parasitica, Ph. primulae, 
Ph. syringae, Ph. vignae, Plenodomus fuscomaculans, Pleospora fructicola, P. herbarum, P. mali, 
Pleurotus ostreatus, P. ulmarius, Podosphaera clandestina, P. leucotricha, P. oxycanthae, Polyporus 
purpureus, P. ignarius, P. versicolor, Puccinia heterospora, Pythium aphanidermatum, P. debary-
anum, P. intermedium, P. oligandrum, P. ultimum, P. vexans, Radulum aterriumum, Rhabdospora 
rhodina, Rhizoctonia aderholdii, Rh. solani, Rhizopus arrhizus, Rh. nigricans, Roesleria hypogaea, 
Rosellinia necatrix, R. radiciperda, Schizophyllum commune, Sclerotinia cydonia, S. fruticola, S. 
fructigena, S. laxa, S. mali, S. nipponica, S. sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Scolecosporium pedicel-
latum, Septobasidium mariana, S. pedicellatum, S. pseudopedicellatum, Septoria piricola, S. pyri, 
Sphaeropsis malorum, S. pomorum, Sphaerotheca gestum, Stereum hirsutum, S. purpureum, Stro-
matinia fructigena, Trametes hispida, Trichoderma viride, Trichoseptoria fructigena, Trichothecium 
roseum, Tympanis conspersa, Ulocladium consortiale, Ustulina zonata, Valsa albiens, V. americana, 
V. leucostoma, Valsella melastoma, V. papyriferae, Venturina inaequalis, Verticillium dahliae, Xyl-
aria longeana. Apple trees may be parasitized by the following ofl wering plants: Cuscuta monogyna, 
Psittacanthus cuneifolius, Comandra pallida, Phoradendron flavescens , Viscum album, V. cruciatum, 
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Loranthus oleifolius, and L. virescens. The main bacterial diseases of apples are caused by the follo-w
ing: Agrobacterium rhizogenes, A. tumefaciens, Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas melophthora, Ps. 
papulans, and Ps. syringae. Some of the viruses causing diseases in apples are Apple chat fruit, Dwarf, 
Epinasty, Flat limb, Green crinkle, Green mottle, Leafspot, Line pattern, Apple mosaic, Pyrus virus #2, 
Proliferation, Ringspot mosaic of pear, Apple rosette, Rough skin, Rubbery wood, Scaly bark, Striped 
mosaic, Stunt, Tulare apple mosaic, Variegation, Yellow dragon, and Yellow mosaicM (armor rosae). 
Apples have many physiological ailments, linked to weather conditions, mineral decfi iencies, water 
supply, storage, and genetics. The following nematode list includes species known to cause problems 
in apples: Criconemella curvata, Crossonema multisquamatum, Doryllium minor, Globodera mali (a 
cyst nematode in the areas of the old USSR),L ongidorus macromucronatus, L. maximus, Meloidogyne 
hapla, M. incognita acrita, M. mali, Merlinius brevidens, Neotylenchus sp., Paratylenchus amblyceph-
alus, P. hamatus, Pratylenchus coffeae, P. penetrans, P. pratensis, P. thornei, P. vulnus, Trichodorus 
viruliferus, Tylenchorhynchus dubius, T. maximus, and Xiphinema americanum (Golden, 1984). The 
worst apple pests in the United States include fruit-tree leafroller A( rchips argyrospilus), Redbanded 
leafroller (Argyrotaenia velutinans), Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar), Wooly apple aphid 
(Eriosoma lanigerum), Codling moth (Laspeyresia pomonella), Tarnished plant bug (Lygus lineolaris), 
Oyster shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi), European red mite (Panonychus ulmi), Spider mite (Tetrany-
chus modanieli), and White apple leafhopper (Typhlocyba pomaria).
d ow Nsides (a pple):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates 
no dosage; JAD).
extra Cts (a pple):
Liu and Chen (2005) state, rightly or wrongly, that “Apples are … the major contributors of phy-
tochemicals in human diets.” Extracts exhibit strong antioxidant and antiproliferative activities. 
Whole apple extracts prevent mammary cancer in rats (comparable to a human eating one, three, 
and six apples a day (X15769178). Hamauzuta et al. (2005) evaluated phenolics in apple and quince; 
the latter, with more 3-caffeoylquinic acid and 5-caffeoylquinic acid and polymeric procyanidins, 
had more antiufl activity (X15713000). Apple antioxidants may help prevent gastric diseases 
(X15647180). Several procyanidin fractions inhibit tyrosinase and melanogenesis (X16029003). 
Epicatechin and procyanidin B2 were the major contributors to the antioxidant activity of whole 
apple. Hydroxycinnamic acids may have a signicfi ant role in the efl sh (X15941346).
h IGh MALL o W (mAlv A sylvestris L.) +++ MALvACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Malva ambigua Guss.; Malva elata Salisb.; Malva erecta C. Presl; Malva glabra Desr.; Malva mau-
ritiana L.; Malva obtusa Moench.; Malva ruderalis Salisb.; Malva vulgaris S. F. Gray fide HH2
Notes (Hig H mallow ):
Who cut up mallows by the bushes, and juniper roots for their meat.
Job 30:4 (KJV)
They pick mallow and the leaves of bushes, and to warm themselves the roots of the broom.
Job 30:4 (RSV)
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FIGURe . High Mallow (Malva sylvestris).
They were plucking the salt herb by the bushes, And the root of broom trees was their food.
Job 30:4 (NWT)
Some authors argue for Malva, others for Atriplex, for the mallow of the Bible. Zohary and I think 
that the Hebrew word halamuth is probably malvaceous, most likely Malva or Alcea. Both provide 
edible potherbs. Modern Hebrew renders Malva as halamith. Because Malva nicaeensis (petals 
less than 3 times as long as sepals) is more common in Israel than M. sylvestris (petals more than 3 
times as long as sepals), either could have been the mallow of Job (ZOH). Flowers are collected and 
exported from Iran as medicinal. Once, ofl wers were strewn before peasants’ doors and woven into 
garlands. The flower tincture is a delicate test for alkali (BIB).
Commo N Names (Hig H mallow ):
Ad Dahza (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ad-dama (Arab.; BOU); Amedjir (Ber.; BOU); Baerwinde (Ger.; 
KAB); Bereut (Fr.; EFS); Blue Mallow (Eng.; FAC); Bread and Cheese (Eng.; KAB); Cam Quy 
(Ic.; KAB); Cheese Flower (Eng.; BUR); Chin K’uei (China; EFS); Common Mallow (Eng.; BOU; 
BUR; HJP; TAN); Country Mallow (Eng.; BUR); Djir (Ber.; BOU); Ebegümesi (Tur.; EFS; KAB); 
Ebemgumesi (Tur.; EB54:155); Fausse Guimauve (Fr.; HH2); Fouassier (Fr.; BOU); Fromageon 
(Fr.; BOU); Grande Mauve (Fr.; BOU; HH2); Grosse Käsepappel (Ger.; HH2); Ground Dock (Eng.; 
BUR); Gulikhadmi (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Gulkehr (Sanskrit; EFS); Gulkhair (Hindi; KAB); Gul Kheir 
(Hindi; NAD); Halamith (Heb.; ZOH); Halamuth (Heb.; ZOH); High Mallow (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; SKJ; 
TAN); Hobbeiza (Malta; KAB); Hubeize (Arab.; ZOH); Ibeqquola (Ber.; BOU); Imejjir (Ber.; BOU); 
Kanji (Nwp.; DEP); Käsekraut (Ger.; HH2); Käsepappel (Ger.; EFS); Katost (Den.; Swe.; EFS; KAB); 
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Khabaji (Sin.; KAB); Khabajni (Sin.; DEP); Khalazi (Kas.; WOI); Khatmi (Beng.; Orissa; Patna; DEP; 
KAB; SKJ); Khitami i Kuchaka (Iran; EFS); Khitmi (Arab.; KAB); Khobbeiza (Arab.; BOU); Kh-o
korteen (Egypt; DEP); Khubaji (Urdu; KAB); Khubasi (Bom.; DEP; KAB); Khubasi (Arab.; Bom.; 
DEP; NAD); Khubas Towdrie (Iran; DEP); Khubbazi (Arab.; Syria; EFS; HJP); Klein Kaajeskruid 
(Dutch; EFS); Kunzi (Hindi; WOI); Lyesnaia Malva (Rus.; KAB); Malachi (Greek; KAB); Mallow 
(Eng.; CR2); Maller (Sussex; KAB); Maluwe (Dutch; KAB); Malva (Peru; Por.; Sp.; EFS; EGG; 
HH2); Malva Domestica (It.; EFS); Malva Major (Cat.; KAB); Malva Ordinaria (Por.; KAB); Malva 
Riondela (It.; HH2); Malva Silvestre (Peru; Por.; Sp.; EFS; EGG); Malve (Ger.; EFS); Malvilla (Dr.; 
AHL); Malvone (It.; KAB); Malyva Kerek (Hun.; EFS); Mamejjirt (Ber.; BOU); Marsh Mallow 
(Eng.; AAH; BOU); Mauretanische Malve (Ger.; HH2); Mauritian Mallow (Eng.; FAC); Mauve (Fr.; 
Reunion; EFS; KAB; TAN); Mauve Sauvage (Fr.; BOU; HH2); Mejjir (Ber.; BOU); Meule (Fr.; 
BOU); Mohrenmalve (Ger.; HH2); Nalba (Rom.; KAB); Nanakillagah (Iran; KAB); Ouabejjir (Ber.; 
BOU); Pancake Plant (Eng.; BUR); Papsajt (Hun.; KAB); Patari (Kon.; NAD); Raqma (Arab.; BOU); 
Raqmiya (Arab.; BOU); Rosspappel (Ger.; HH2); Sannabindigegida (Kan.; Mysore; KAB; SKJ); 
Shaz Ziele (Pol.; KAB); Suchel (Kas.; MKK); Tilchuni (Nwp.; DEP; KAB); Vilayati Kangai (Hindi; 
DEP); Vilayatikangoie (Dec.; KAB); Zeni-aoi (?; FAC); Zhanba (Mongolia; X12795226).
a Ctivities (Hig H mallow ):
Analgesic (1; BRU); Anticomplement (1; HH2; X2379192); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; EGG; FAD; 
GAZ; WAM); Antioxidant (1; X14630594); Antiperoxidant (1; X14630594); Antiseptic (f1; WOI; 
X14698521); Antispermatogenic (1; HH2); Antitussive (f1; VAD); Antiulcer (1; PR14:581); Astringent 
(f1; BOU; FAD; HHB); Demulcent (12; DEP; KOM; PIP; WAM); Diuretic (f; DEP; FAD); Emollient 
(f1; BOU; DEP; EFS; GAZ; WOI); Enterotonic (f; BOU; WOI); Expectorant (f; EFS; EGG; MAD); 
Febrifuge (f; EFS; KAB); Iron Chelator (1; X14630594); Laxative (f; BOU; EFS); Pectoral (f; BOU; 
BUR; EFS; PNC); Refrigerant (f; EFS); Stimulant (f; BOU); Sudoricfi (f; EGG); Uterotonic (f; WOI).
iNdi Catio Ns (Hig H mallow ):
Abscess (f; VAD); Adenopathy (f; AAH); Anemia (f; MAD); Angina (1; HHB); Aphtha (f; VAD); 
Asthma (f; AAH); Backache (f; AAH); Blepharosis (f; KAB); Boil (f; AAH); Bronchosis (f12; EGG; 
FAD; PHR; PH2); Bruise (f; AAH); Bug bite (f; PNC); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); 
Cancer, neck (f; JLH); Cancer, penis (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); 
Catarrh (f; AHL; EFS; HHB; PH2); Childbirth (f; MAD); Cholecystosis (f; DEP; MAD; PHR; PH2); 
Cold (f1; AHL; EFS; PNC; VAD); Colitis (f1; GAZ); Consumption (f; MAD); Corn (f; JLH); Cough 
(f12; BOU; DEP; KOM; MAD; PHR; PH2; PIP; VAD); Colosis (1; BRU); Cough (1; BRU); Cramp 
(1; BRU); Cystosis (f; DEP; KAB); Dandruff (f; MAD); Dermatosis (f1; BOU; BRU; DEP; EGG; 
GAZ; WAM); Diarrhea (f1; BOU; WAM); Duodenosis (f; VAD); Dysuria (f1; BOU; WAM; WOI); 
Earache (f; MAD); Eczema (f1; GAZ); Emphysema (f; MAD; VAD); Enterosis (f1; EFS; HHB; PH2); 
Epilepsy (f; MAD); Favus (f; MAD); Fever (f; DEP; MAD); Flu (f; VAD); Fracture (f; AAH; HJP); 
Furuncle (f; VAD); Gastrosis (f1; GAZ; HHB; PHR; TOM; WAM);  Glossosis (f; VAD); Gonorrhea 
(f; DEP; NAD); Hoarseness (f1; CAZ); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; WOI; X14698521); Inafl m -
mation (f; EGG; KAB); Itch (1; BRU); Jaundice (f; KAB); Laryngitis (f; GAZ; MAD); Mastosis (f; 
JLH); Mucososis (f2; BOU; KOM; MAD); Nephrosis (f; AAH; MAD); Obesity (f; VAD); Oligolactea 
(f; MAD); Oliguria (f; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; BOU; MAD); Pain (1; BRU); Parotitis (f; AAH); Pe-r
tussis (f; WOI); Pharyngosis (f12; BRU; GAZ; PH2; PIP); Pulmonosis (f; AAH; HHB; NAD; WOI); 
Sore (f; HJP); Sore Throat (f12; GAZ; KOM; MAD; PIP); Splenosis (f; FAD; KAB); Sprain (f; AAH); 
Sting (f; VAD); Stomachache (f; FAD); Stomatosis (f12; BRU; KOM; PH2; PIP; VAD); Strangury 
(f; DEP; KAB); Swelling (f; JLH); Tenesmus (f; KAB); Toothache (f; AAH; MAD); Tuberculosis 
(f; MAD); Ulcer (f1; VAD; PR14:581); Urethrosis (f1; GAZ); Uterosis (f; JLH); Vaginosis (f; EGG; 
VAD); Venereal Disease (f; DEP); Wound (f; HJP; PHR; PH2).
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d osages (Hig H mallow ):
FNFF = !!!
Widely eaten; a wholesome vegetable when boiled (even by Romans; DEP); leaves used as tea su-b
stitute; ofl wers eaten as garnish or veggie, also used to color wines red; unripe fruits (cheeses) eaten 
as a nibble; seeds also eaten (BIB; FAC; TAN; WOI; EB54:155). 1.5 g/cup (HHB); up to 5 g/day 
(HHB); 2–3 tsp (3.2–4.8 g) leaf in cold tea (MAD). 3–5 g/cup 2 to 3 ×/day (PH2); 5 g/day ofl wer or 
leaf (PIP); 2–8 ml liquid extract (PNC).
• Algerians use infusions as demulcent and pectoral (HJP); applying powdered leaves in 
milk to jaw fractures (HJP).
• Dutch suggest flowers of this species (leaves of M. neglecta) for cough and cold (EFS).
• Egyptians poultice pounded leaves (of Malva parviflora ) on scorpion stings (BIB).
• Europeans use the infusion for colds, coughs, gravel, and strangury (BIB).
• Gypsies use mallow in a treatment for tuberculosis, the root for dysentery (HJP).
• Iranians regard the mallows as antitussive, cooling, and mucilaginous, and prescribe 
mallow, with Alhagi, Cordia, Nymphaea, Viola, and Ziziphus, as a purgative (BIB).
• Irish bathe sprains or fractures with the root decoction (AAH).
• Lebanese compress the root onto infections, taking plant internally for cough (HJP).
• Palestinians use leaves and/or ofl wers (known as foliae malva or ofl s malvae) as a gargle 
and mouthwash (BIB).
• Peruvians suggest decocting 10g/leaf + ofl wer/liter H O as expectorant, sudorific (EGG).
2
• Peruvians suggest ofl ral salve or decoction for bronchitis, sitz bath in ofl ral/foliar decoc-
tion for urinary inafl mmation, or bathing dermal infections with decoction (EGG).
• Spanish suggest fresh plant juice for bites and stings (VAD).
• Unani regard the plant as cooling, febrifuge, and mucilaginous, suggesting it for bleph-a
ritis, inafl mmation, jaundice, scorpion sting, sore throat, splenomegaly, strangury, and 
urinary discharge, and as an emollient cluster in tenesmus (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Hig H mallow ):
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of su- g
gested therapeutic dosages (PH2). None reported (PIP). None known (WAM).
extra Cts (Hig H mallow ):
Demulcent and mucilaginous, the plant (5 g leaf/day) has been approved by Germany’s Commi-s
sion E for irritations of the mucosa of the mouth and throat and associated dry cough (KOMM). . 
neglecta, parviflora , and sylvestris used interchangeably (FAH).
Proestos et al. (2005) checked the species for afl vonoids and phenolics and their antioxidant and 
antimicrobial activity, finding circa 11 ppm gallic acid, 43 ppm ferulic acid, and 14 ppm hydroxy-
benzoic acid in high mallow (X15713039).
MANDRAKe (mAndr Agor A officin Arum L.) x so LANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Atropa mandragora L.; Mandragora acaulis Gaertn.; Mandragora mas Gersault.; Mandragora micro-
carpa Bertol.; Mandragora officinalis Mill.; Mandragora praecox Sweet; Mandragora vernalis Bertol.
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Notes (ma Ndrake ):
The mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits, new and old, 
which I have laid up for thee, O my beloved.
Song of Solomon 7:13 (KJV)
The mandrakes give forth fragrance, and over our doors are all choice fruits, new as well as old, 
which I have laid up for you, O my beloved.
Song of Solomon 7:13 (RSV)
The mandrakes themselves have given [their] fragrance, and by our entranceways there are all sorts 
of the choicest fruits. The new ones as well as the old. O my dear one, I have treasured up for you.
Song of Solomon 7:13 (NWT)
And Jacob came out of the field in the evening, and Leah went out to meet him, and said, Thou 
must come in unto me; for surely I have hired thee with my son’s mandrakes. And he lay with her 
that night.
Genesis 30:16 (KJV)
When Jacob came from the field in the evening, Leah went out to meet him, and said, “You must 
come in to me; for I have hired you with my son’s mandrakes.” So he lay with her that night.
Genesis 30:16 (RSV)
When Jacob was coming from the field in the evening, Léah went on out to meet him and then 
said: “It is with me you are going to have relations, because I have hired you outright with my 
son’s mandrakes.” Accordingly he lay down with her that night.
Genesis 30:16 (NWT)
As suggested in the story of Leah and Rachel, mandrake may increase fertility and/or lust. Arabs 
called it “devil’s apples” because of its supposed powers to excite to sex. If my earlier readings were 
correct (BIB), the yellow plum-like fruit is found ripe in Israel during wheat harvest. If so, this 
would suggest the spring ofl wering M. officinarum (M. vernalis) rather than the autumn ofl wering 
M. autumnalis (roots not macroscopically distinguishable [HH2]). Both are loaded with potent 
poisonous alkaloids. The afl vor is sickeningly sweet, although rather insipid. Eaten in quantity, 
it produces dizziness, and may even stimulate men and women to insanity. It is also thought to 
stimulate conception and has a folk history of being used in love potions and incantations. As late 
as 1630 in Hamburg, Germany, three women were executed for possession of mandrake root, sup-
posed “evidence” that they were involved in witchcraft. The “witches of Salem,” on the other hand, 
had the American mandrake, Datura stramonium, which contains the same transdermally active, 
“high-yfl ing” alkaloids. Mandrake has a large root, dark brown and rugged, sometimes shaped 
like the human body. It has long been an object of superstition. Jews considered the mandrake a 
charm against evil spirits. Others believed that mischie-fmaking elves would find its strange odor 
unbearable. Old folk tales say that Jews tied a dog to the plant to pull it from the ground, as it would 
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fi
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FIGURe . Mandrake (Mandragora ofcinarum ).
 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
kill a man to touch it so fresh without certain precautions; “the mandrake shrieked, the dog died, 
rendering the root harmless thereafter” (BIB). Once esteemed for its medicinal and narcotic pro-p
erties, mandrake still may have orgiastic and magical applications among cults involving the sexes 
and has been used as an aphrodisiac (BIB).
Commo N Names (ma Ndrake ):
Adamotu (Tur.; EFS); Addüsselâmotu (Tur.; EFS); Alraune (Ger.; HH2); Alruin (Dutch; EFS); 
Astrang (Arab.; EFS; NAD); Bayd ul Jinn (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Berenjilla (Sp.; EFS); Bhagener 
(Hindi; NAD); Dastam Haryah (Arab.; EFS; NAD); Devil’s Apple (Eng.; EFS); Dudaim (Heb.; 
ZOH); Erdmännlein (Ger.; HH2); Giatya Bruz (Iran; EFS; NAD); Hexenkraut (Ger.; EFS); Hund-
sapfel (Ger.; EFS); Kaatjuti (Tam.; DEP; WOI); Katavjati (Tam.; NAD); Kattai Jati (Madras; Tel.; 
NAD; SKJ); Lakmani (Hindi; India; EFS; NAD); Lakshamana (Sanskrit; EFS); Lakshmana (Hindi; 
Sanskrit; SKJ); Lang Tu (China; EFS); Lebruj (Baz.; India; EFS; NAD); Loofahat (Mal.; DEP); 
Lufahat (Malaya; EFS; NAD); Luckmuna (Hindi; DEP; WOI); Luckmunie (Hindi; DEP); Lufah 
(Arab.; Hindi; DEP; WOI); Mandragora (It.; EFS); Mandrágora (Por.; EFS); Mandrágora Macho 
(Sp.; EFS); Mandragore (Fr.; EFS); Mandrake (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Mano di Gloria (It.; EFS); 
Mardami (Iran; EFS; NAD); Putrada (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Rabuhi (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Rak-ta
vindu (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Satan’s Apple (Eng.; EFS); Serag al Coshrob (Arab.; DEP); Sirag 
el Qutrub (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Toverwortel (Dutch; EFS); Tufah ul Shitan (Arab.; DEP); Tuffa-h
hel Maganin (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ussul ul Lufah (Arab.; DEP); Ustrung (Arab.; DEP); Yabruhh 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Yavruhim (Aramaic; Mishnaic; ZOH); Yebruz (Beng.; WOI); Zauberwurzel 
(Ger.; HH2).
a Ctivities (ma Ndrake ):
Anesthetic (f1; BIB; CRC; SKJ; WOI); Anticholinergic (1; CRC; PH2); Antisialogogue (1; CRC); 
Aphrodisiac (f1; BIB; CRC; MAD); Cardiotonic (1; CRC); Cathartic (f; CRC); Cholagogue (f; CRC; 
EFS); Emetic (f; CRC); Emmenagogue (f; MAD); Hallucinogenic (f1; BIB); Hepatotonic (f; EFS); 
Hypnotic (f; CRC); Mydriatic (1; CRC; WOI); Narcotic (f1; CRC; EFS; MAD; SKJ); Nervine (f; 
CRC); Poison (1; CRC; SKJ); Purgative (f; CRC); Radioprotective (f; MAD); Refrigerant (f; CRC); 
Sedative (f1; BIB; CRC; HHB; MAD); Stimulant (f; CRC; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (ma Ndrake ):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Arthrosis (f; CRC; MAD); Asthma (f; CRC; HHB; PH2); Bronchosis (f; HHB); 
Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Colic (f; CRC; PH2); Condyloma (f; JLH); Convulsion (f; BIB; CRC); 
Cough (f; CRC; HH2); Depression (f; HHB); Duodenosis (f; HHB); Dysmenorrhea (f; HHB; HH2); 
Dystony (f; HHB); Frigidity (f; NAD); Gas (f; HHB); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Gout (f; MAD); Hayfever 
(f; CRC; PH2); Headache (f; HHB); Hemorrhoid (f; HHB); Hepatosis (f; CRC; HHB); Induration (f; 
JLH); Infertility (f; BIB); Inafl mmation (f; JLH); Kernel (f; JLH); Pain (f1; BIB; CRC); Pertussis 
(f; HHB; HH2; PH2); Rheumatism (f; CRC; HHB); Schizophrenia (f; BIB); Sciatica (f; HHB); Sci-r
rhus (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Scrofula (f; BIB); Seborrhea (f; MAD); Sore (f; CRC); Swelling 
(f; NAD); Tenesmus (f; HHB); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Ulcer (f; CRC; HHB; PH2); Uterosis (f; JLH); 
Wound (f; MAD).
d osages (ma Ndrake ):
FNFF = X
15–30 drops tincture (HHB). Mostly homeopathic today (PH2).
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• Asian Indians take root bark and leaves as anesthetics for painful swellings (NAD).
• Ancient Greeks used it as an anesthetic as Nazis used Datura, containing the same t-wi
light-inducing alkaloids (HJP; JAD).
• Greeks soak the “love apple” in wine as an aphrodisiac (ZOH), believing it helps barren 
wives conceive (ZOH).
• Lebanese consider the root a powerful cathartic and emetic, using it for arthritis and 
exorcism (schizophrenia?) (HJP).
• Syrians (in Syria or Brooklyn) still regard this as the famous biblical aphrodisiac (HJP).
d ow Nsides (ma Ndrake ):
Class 3 (AHP). Not allowed in food products in Canada (AHP).
extra Cts (ma Ndrake ):
Atropine is anticholinergic, both central and peripheral. It tends to reduce secretions (gastric, int-es
tinal, nasal, saliva, sweat, teats), decrease gastric and intestinal motility, and increase heart rate. 
It also causes pupil dilation, increases intraocular pressure, and photophobia-; hlyoscyamine and 
l-scopolamine have essentially the same activities except that scopolamine is a powerful hypnotic 
and usually slows the heart rate. Scopolamin-econtaining plants have been used as anesthetics for 
centuries in traditional Chinese medicine (BIB).
WILD MINt (BIBLICAL MIN t ) (menth A longifoli A (L.) L.) +++ LAMIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Mentha asiatica Boriss.; Mentha calliantha Stapf.; Mentha candicans Crantz.; Mentha capensis 
Thunb.; Mentha concolor Stapf; Mentha hamadanensis Stapf.; Mentha incana Willd.; Mentha lon-
gifolia subsp. capensis; Mentha longifolia subsp. hymalaiensis; Mentha longifolia subsp. longifolia; 
Mentha longifolia subsp. polyadenia; Mentha longifolia subsp. typhoides; Mentha royleana Benth.; 
Mentha spicata var. longifolia L.; Mentha sylvestris L.; Mentha viridis var. canascens Fries fide 
DEP; HH2, etc.
Notes (bibli Cal miNt):
But woe unto you, Pharisees! for ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass over 
judgment and the love of God: these ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone.
Luke 11:42 (KJV)
But woe to you Pharisees! for you tithe mint and rue and every herb, and neglect justice and the 
love of God; these you ought to have done, without neglecting the others.
Luke 11:42 (RSV)
But woe to you Pharisees, because you give the tenth of the mint and the rue and of every [other] 
vegetable, but you pass by the justice and the love of God! These things you were under obligation 
to do, but those other things not to omit.
Luke 11:42 (NWT)
I was really taking a leap of faith when I used the name “Biblical Mint” instead of “Wild Mint” as in 
CR2. Zohary makes me feel better when he says this species is the most common and medicinally 
used of the three species in Israel. It grows there in moist ditches, stream sides, and swamps (ZOH). 
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FIGURe . Wild Mint (Biblical Mint) (Mentha longifolia).
This species is highly variable, including at least 21 subspecies and circa 150 types. Jews, very 
scrupulous in paying the tithe, served mint with their meat dishes, especially at the Spring Feast 
of the Paschal Lamb. The ancient Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans used it. Jews strewed synagogue 
ofl ors with mint so that its perfume scented the place. Pliny gave 41 remedies in which mint was 
considered efcafi cious (BIB; WOI; ZOH).
The three Israeli species are keyed as follows:
• Throat of calyx naked; floral verticels crowded:
• — Calyx 3.5–4 mm long; verticels circa 2 cm in diameter — Mentha aquatica
• — Calyx 1.2–1.5 mm long, verticels circa 1 cm in diameter — Mentha longifolia
• Throat of calyx hairy; floral verticels remote — Mentha pulegium
Commo N Names (bibli Cal miNt):
Baburi (Pun.; DEP); Belanne (Pun.; WOI); Biblical Mint (Eng.; JAD); Boo Dee Na (Burma; DEP); 
Byi Rug (Tibet; TIB); English Horsemint (Eng.; PH2); Fan-ho (Chi.; EFS); Gha-Gha (Arab.; GHA); 
Habak (Arab.; GHA); Hertsmint (Dutch; EFS), Horsemint (Eng.; EFS; FAC; USN; WOI); Hor-
telã (Mad.; JAD); Hortela silvestre (Por.; EFS), Jangli pudina (Lad.; MKK); Jungli Pudina (Hindi; 
WOI); Koshu (Pun.; WOI); Mastranzo nevado (Sp.; EFS), Menta salvatica (It.; EFS), Mentastio (It.; 
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EFS), Mentastro (It.; EFS), Mentastro longa (Sp.; EFS), Menthe sauvage (Fr.; EFS), Na’ana (Arab.; 
GHA); Nagbo (Iran; EFS), Padina (Nwp.; DEP); Pahadi-pudina (India; EFS), Pa-ho (Chi.; EFS), 
Podina (Hindi; DEP); Po-ho (Chi.; EFS), Pudang (Iran; EFS), Pudina (Bom.; WOI); Pudnakushma 
(Pun.; WOI); Ross-Minze (Ger.; EFS), Shamshahai (Pushtu; DEP); Sudanaj (Arab.; EFS), Ufuthane 
lomhlange (Zulu; ZUL); Vartalau (Bom.; DEP; WOI); Wild mint (Eng.; EFS; USN), Wilde Minze 
(Ger.; EFS), Wu-pa-ho (Chi.; EFS), Yabani nane (Tur.; EFS).
a Ctivities (bibli Cal miNt):
Anodyne (f; BIB; ZOH); Antiacetylcholinesterase (1; TIB); Antiaggregant (1; MAM); Antiather-o
sclerotic (1; MAM); AntiHIV (1; X15058498); Antiinafl mmatory (1; TIB); Antileukotriene (1; TIB); 
Antioxidant (f1; TIB; X12802721); Antiprostaglandin (1; MAM); Antiradicular (1; X12802721); 
Antiseptic (f1; EFS; VAG; VVG); Antispasmodic (f1; VAG; VVG); Antithrombic (1; MAM); Anti-
viral (1; TIB; X15058498); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Astringent (f1; BIB; TIB); Bactericide (1; TIB); 
Candidicide (1; X12802721); Carminative (f1; BIB; DEP; EFS; FNF; PH2; ZOH); CNS Depressant 
(1; TIB); CNS Stimulant (1; TIB); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; MAM); Decongestant (f1; VAG; 
VVG); Diaphoretic (f; VVG); Diuretic (f; WBB; ZUL); Emmenagogue (f; ZUL); Fungicide (1; TIB; 
X12009988); Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitor (1; X15058498); Sedative (1; TIB); Spasmogenic (1; 
TIB); Stimulant (1; EFS; PH2; ZOH); Stomachic (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (bibli Cal miNt):
Adenopathy (f; VVG); Alzheimer’s (1; MAM); Apoplexy (f; BIB; DEP; SKJ); Arthrosis (1; MAM); 
Asthma (f; ZUL); Backache (f1; FNF; WBB); Bacteria (1; TIB); Bronchosis (f; WBB; ZUL); Cancer 
(f; FNF); Candida (1; X12802721); Chest Colds (f; BIB); Childbirth (f; ZUL); Chill (f; GHA); Cold 
(f; BIB; WBB; ZUL); Cough (f; GHA; WBB; ZUL); Cramps (f; VVG); CVI (1; VVG); Dermatosis 
(f; BIB); Dysentery (f; MKK); Dysgeuzia (f; DEP); Dysmenorrhea (f1; FNF; ZUL); Dyspepsia (f; 
PH2; SKJ; ZUL); Dyspnea (f1; GHA; VVG); Dysuria (f; VAG); Epilepsy (f; VAG); Fever (f; BIB; 
HHB); Fungus (1; TIB; X12802721); Gas (f1; BIB; PH2; ZUL); Gastrosis (f; GHA); Headache (f; 
BIB; PH2; UPW; VAG; WBB; ZUL); HIV (1; X15058498); Hysteria (f; VVG; ZUL); Impotence (f; 
BIB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; TIB; X15058498); Inafl mmation (f1; TIB); Insomnia (f; 
VAG); Labor (f; ZUL); Mycosis (1; PH2; X12802721); Pain (f; DEP; ZOH); Pharyngosis (f; TIB); 
Respirosis (1; VAG; ZUL); Rheumatism (f; BIB; DEP; HHB; TIB); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sinusitis (f; 
WBB); Sore Throat (f; TIB); Stomachache (f1; BIB; ZUL); Swelling (f; ZUL); UTI (f; VAG; VVG); 
Virus (1; TIB; X15058498); Wound (f1; FNF; TIB; UPW; WBB; ZUL).
d osages (bibli Cal miNt):
FNFF = !!
As early as a.d. 37, mint was often mentioned in cooking recipes. The plant is eaten in chutnies, on 
cottage cheeses and curds, candied, and made into teas. Oil used as a substitute for peppermint oil 
for flavoring confectionery (BIB; FAC; WOI).
• Arabians take tea with honey for chill, dry cough, dyspnea, fever, headache, or gastrosis 
(GHA).
• Asian Indians of Trans-Indus use the decoction for fever and heat apoplexy (DEP).
• British considered mint juice with vinegar an aphrodisiac (stirred up venery and bodily 
lust) (BIB).
• Egyptian farmers regard the flowering tops and leaves as carminative (BIB).
• Himalayans use the herb as anodyne, astringent, and carminative for rheumatism (DEP).
• Nepalese use mint juice as antiseptic on wounds. The decoction is used for fever, and 
with Glycyrrhiza and Bombax for sore throat (TIB).
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extra Cts (bibli Cal miNt):
Amzazi et al. (2003) observed that nontoxic concentrations (10 µg/ml) of, in particular, methanol 
(Ext-1) and ethyl acetate (Ext-3) extracts signicafi ntly inhibited HIV infection by circa 40% and 55%, 
respectively. One extract showed signicafi nt inhibition of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (X15058498). 
Iranian scientists (X15597306) showed that 1 µM piperitone potentiated nitrofurantoin 3- to 20-fold 
in different resistant strains of enterobacteriaceae (X15597306). Flavonoids, mainly afl vones, may 
be the major inhibitors of HIV infection (X15058498). Fractions containing phenolics may exhibit 
CNS-stimulant and spasmogenic activities. But extracts or populations rich in essential oils may be 
CNS depressant and somnifacient (TIB). If antiacetylcholinesterase activity is useful in Alzheimer’s 
disease, this biblical mint (like lemon balm, rosemary, sage, and watermint) is well endowed. (-)-
Borneol, IC38 = 164 µg/ml; (-)-carvone, IC43 = 164 µg/ml; 1,8-cineole, IC50 = 41 µg/ml; elemol, 
IC50 = 34 µg/ml; (-)-limonene, IC27 = 164 µg/ml; (-)-linalol, IC37 = 164 µg/ml; (-)-linalyl-acetate, 
IC38 = 82 µg/ml; (+)-menthofuran, IC33 = 82 µg/ml; (-)-menthol, IC38 = 164 µg/ml; (-)-menthone, 
IC39 = 164 µg/ml; (-)-menthyl acetate, IC35 = 41 µg/ml; (+)-piperitenone –oxide, IC50 = 64 µg/ml; 
piperitenone, IC50 = 110 µg/ml; (-)-piperitonee, IC50 = 136 µg/ml; (+)-pulegone, IC50 = 136 µg/ml; 
and most potent, viridiofl rol, IC50 = 25 µg/ml (JAF46:3434).
BLACK MULBeRRy (morus nigr A L.) +++ Mo RACeAe
Notes (bla Ck mulberry ):
And to the end they might provoke the elephants to fight, they shewed them the blood of grapes 
and mulberries.
I Maccabees 6:34 (KJV)
They showed the elephants the juice of grapes and mulberries, to arouse them for battle.
I Maccabees 6:34 (RSV)
Not finding Maccabees in my Jehovah’s Witness Bible, I do see that ba’ca bushes is used rather than 
mulberry in 2 Samuel 5:23, and again in 24, and in I Chronicle 14:14, and again in 15. Thus far, I 
have not gfi ured out where ba’ca came from. And Zohary does not mention the ba’ca or mulberry 
of Samuel or Chronicles. According to some traditionalists, a palm tree is customarily planted in 
the courts of the southern Holy Land, while to the north, it is the mulberry, the pleasant juice of 
whose fruit, mingled with water, in which the sweet-scented violet has been infused, forms one of 
the most grateful kinds of sherbert (BIB). The red juice was used to incite the elephants of Antioch 
into battle. Burmans worship the mulberry, while some Europeans believe the devil stains his shoes 
black therewith. In old Palestine, both the black and white mulberry were cultivated to feed si-lk
worms. In parts of China, they make a thick preserve on the 15th day of their first month. Trees are 
often planted as ornamentals. Berries are used to fatten sheep, after which their meat is believed 
to be more digestible (BIB). I suspect that most birds and few foresters, herbalists, publishing phy-
tochemists and phytotherapists, and even plant taxonomists do not know which species, white, 
black, or red mulberry, respectively, M. alba, M. nigra, or M. rubra, they last ingested for edible or 
medicinal reasons. Further, I doubt that most chemical and overseas clinical trials have been vou-ch
ered. Still, I kept the species separate in my Herbal Desk Reference, knowing that I have white and 
black fruited trees volunteering, almost weeds here in the Green Farmacy Garden. I would myself 
use them generically for food and medicine, although as a botanist, I cannot prescribe such. See 
other species for other indications. I will bet that in 10 years, someone bolder than I will treat them 
all generically as mulberry, Morus spp.
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FIGURe . Black Mulberry (Morus nigra).
Commo N Names (bla Ck mulberry ):
Agud (Rom.; KAB); Amoreira (Mad.; Por.; EFS; KAB); Amoreira Negra (Por.; KAB); Amourié (Lan.; 
KAB); Black Mulberry (Eng.; FAC; KAB); Cel Tree (Eng.; BUR); Common Mulberry (Eng.; KAB); Dud 
(Rom.; KAB); Dut Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Dut Pekmezi (Tur.; EB49:406); European Mulberry (Eng.; TAN); 
Gelso (It.; EFS); Hei Sang (China; TAN); Karadut (Tur.; EB49:406); Maulbeerbaum (Ger.; EFS; KAB); 
?Messikanu (Sumerian; ZOH); ?Mesucan (Heb.; ZOH); Meurier (Fr.; KAB); Moerbeiboom (Dutch; 
EFS); Moerbezieboom (Dutch; KAB); Mon (Cam.; KAB); Moral (Sp.; VAD); More Celse (?; JLH); More 
Matura (?; JLH); Morera negra (Cuba; Cat.; Sp.; EFS; KAB; RyM); Moro (It.; EFS); Mûrier (Fr.; EFS); 
Mûrier Noir (Fr.; KAB); Persian Mulberry (Eng.; FAC); Sang (China; EFS); Schwarzer Maulbeer (Ger.; 
MAD); Shahtut (Bal.; KAB); Shetura (Bom.; Guj.; NAD); Shetuta (Hindi; NAD); Sicaminum (?; JLH); 
Siccomorum (?; JLH); ?Sukannu (Heb.; ZOH); ?Sycamine (Heb.; ZOH); Tchelkovitsa (Rus.; KAB); Toola 
(Sanskrit; EFS); Tut (Arab.; India; EFS; GHA); Tût Aswad (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Tût Shami (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Tuta (Arab.; Iran; EFS; NAD); Tutovoi Drava (Rus.; KAB); Ud al Tut (Arab.; GHA).
a Ctivities (bla Ck mulberry ):
Analgesic (f1; VAD; X10817216); Anthelmintic (f; EFS); Antidiabetic (f1; VAD); Antidote (Aco-
nite) (f; MAD); Antihemolytic (1; X15173994); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; VAD); Antinociceptive 
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(1; X10817216); Antioxidant (1; X15173994); Antiperoxidant (1; X15173994); Astringent (f; EFS); 
Capillariprotective (f1; VAD); Cathartic (f; DEM); Cicatrizant (f1; VAD); Depurative (f; BIB); 
Diuretic (f1; EFS; PNC; WOI); Emetic (f; DEM); Expectorant (f; MAD; PNC); Febrifuge (f; EFS); 
Hypoglycemic (1; VAD; WOI); Hypotensive (1; PNC; WOI); Lactagogue (f; DEP); Laxative (f1; 
EFS; MAD; PH2; PNC; VAD); Nervine (f; EFS); Purgative (f; BIB); Refrigerant (f; BIB; PNC); 
Taenicide (1; BUR); Tonic (f; EFS; GHA); Vermifuge (f; BIB; FEL).
iNdi Catio Ns (bla Ck mulberry ):
Alopecia (f; EB49:406); Baldness (f; EB49:406); Bile Problems (f; DEM); Bleeding (f; MAD); Bron-
chosis (f; PHR); Burn (f; MAD); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; JLH); 
Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Catarrh (f; PHR); Constipation (f1; FEL; PNC; VAD); Cough (f; BIB); Depre-s
sion (f; DEP); Diabetes (f1; GHA; MAD; WOI); Diarrhea (f; EFS; MAD); Dysentery (f; MAD); 
Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB; GHA); Dyspepsia (f; DEP); Enterosis (f; DEM); Fever (f; BIB; EFS; FEL); 
Gastrosis (f; JLH; EB49:406); GI Problem (f; DEM); Hemorrhoid (f1; VAD); Hepatosis (f; MAD); 
Herpes (f; EB49:406); High Blood Pressure (f1; GHA; WOI); Hysteria (f; MAD); Induration (f; JLH); 
Infection (f; EB49:406); Inafl mmation (f1; PH2; VAD); Insomnia (f; EFS); Menorrhagia (f; MAD); 
Mucososis (f; PH2); Pain (f1; VAD; X10817216); Pharyngosis (f; VAD); Phlebitis (f; VAD); Quinsy 
(f; FEL); Respirosis (f; PH2); Sore (f; MAD); Sore Throat (f; BIB; DEP; FEL; JLH; MAD; VAD); 
Splenosis (f; JLH); Stomachache (f; MAD; EB49:406); Stomatosis (f; VAD); Swelling (f; BIB); Tape-
worm (f; FEL); Thirst (f; BIB); Tonsilosis (f; MAD); Toothache (f; BIB; MAD; VAD); Tumor (f; BIB); 
Uterosis (f; JLH); Varix (f1; VAD); Water Retention (f; EFS); Worm (f; EFS; FEL; MAD).
d osages (bla Ck mulberry ):
FNFF = !!
Fruits eaten raw, dried, juiced, or cooked or fermented. Widely cultivated for its edible fruit, which 
may be sun-dried and stored as winter food. Fruit should be picked very ripe, when they are sweet 
and better afl vored. Easily squashed, they stain the skin. To remove stain, juice from unripe fruit 
is rubbed over the skin (BIB; FAC; TAN). 1.7–3.5 g fruit syrup (MAD); 2–4 ml fruit syrup (PHR; 
PH2). Steep 1 Tbsp in 1 cup of water for 10 minutes; take 3 cups/day (VAD). Use leaf tea (30–50 
g/l) as gargle. Use root decoction (30–50 g/l) as gargle (VAD).
• Cambodians use the leaves for conjunctivitis (KAB).
• Iranians use root bark for dysmenorrhea (BIB).
• Lebanese may mix cow manure, crushed bilberry leaves, and olive oil, wrapped in fresh 
mulberry leaves, for earache (HJP).
• Pakistanis use leaf tea to lower blood pressure and blood sugar (GHA).
• Turks use concentrated fruit juice (1 tsp) as gargle or wash for herpes (Turkey; EB49:406).
• Yemeni use fruits infused with Salvadora as tonic to regulate menstruation (GHA).
d ow Nsides (bla Ck mulberry ):
Morus alba was classed Class 1. None known (PHR). No health hazards or contraindications 
reported with proper administration of suggested therapeutic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates 
no specic fi quantiefi d dosage!; JAD). VAD says counterindicated in gastrosis, ulcers; tannins in leaf 
teas and root decoctions may irritate the mucosa (VAD).
Natural History (bla Ck mulberry ):
Wild birds, poultry, and hogs are fond of fruits (BIB). Leaves of the species Morus nigra said to be 
inferior to those of M. alba for feeding silkworms (WOI).
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extra Cts (bla Ck mulberry ):
Naderi et al. (2004) reported antioxidant effects of the fruit juice, hydroalcoholic and polyphenolic 
extracts, suggesting that the fruit protects against peroxidative damage to biomembranes and b-io
molecules (X15173994).
MyRt Le (myrtus communis L.) ++ MyRt ACeAe
Notes (myrtle ):
I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set 
in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together.
Isaiah 41:19 (KJV)
I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia, the myrtle, and the olive; I will set in the desert 
the cypress, the plane and the pine together.
Isaiah 41:19 (RSV)
Instead of the thorn shall come up the fir tree, and instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle 
tree: and it shall be to the LORD for a name, for an everlasting sign that shall not be cut off.
Isaiah 55:13 (KJV)
Instead of the thorn shall come up the cypress; instead of the brier shall come up the myrtle; and 
it shall be to the LORD for a memorial, for an everlasting sign which shall not be cut off.
Isaiah 55:13 (RSV)
Instead of the thicket of thorns the juniper tree will come up; instead of the stinging nettle the 
myrtle tree will come up; and it must become for JEHOVAH something famous, a sign to time 
indefinite that will not be cut off.
Isaiah 55:13 (NWT)
At least the King James and the Revised Standard Versions are consistent as to translating myrtle. 
But the acuminate reader, looking at the quotes above, will see differences in the botanical common 
names in the different versions. That is why my third biblical account has more species than the first 
edition. The first quote rather suggests what might be a good approach, for example, in a deforested 
Haiti. The second shows some of the differences in the translations, RSV using cypress where KJV 
uses fir. Then the New World translation renders it as juniper. So the compiler is left with the quan -
dary: which is it, cypress, fir, or juniper?
The useful myrtle has been grown for millennia for its fragrant, aromatic ofl wers, leaves, and 
bark. Jews collect myrtle to adorn their sheds and booths at the Feast of Tabernacles. Purpli-sbhlack 
berries known as mursins have medicinal value, and are also eaten. All parts of the plant are dried 
for perfume. Around Rabat, leaves are mixed with shampoos, believed to darken the hair. The shrub 
is still used today by Jews at the Feast of the Tabernacles. Sprigs with three leaves in a whorl (which 
are not common) are especially esteemed. Referred to chiey fl as a symbol of divine generosity. 
Greeks consider it a symbol of love and immortality, and used it for crowning their priests, heros, 
and outstanding men. Emblematic of peace and joy in the Bible. To ancient Jews it was symbolic 
of peace and justice. In Jerusalem and Damascus bazaars, the ofl wers, leaves, and fruit are sold 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Myrtle (Myrtus communis).
for making perfume. Arabs say that myrtle is one of three plants taken from the Garden of Eden 
because of its fragrance. Turkish and Russian leather is tanned aromatically with the bark and roots. 
It is said to have been a symbol of sensual love and passion to Venus and is placed on Bohemian 
caskets as a symbol of immortality. The leaves are used for massage to work up a glowing skin. 
The fragrant leaf oil is used in perfumery. The oil is also used in toilet waters, especially eaux de 
cologne. The wood is very hard and of interesting texture and grain. Plants are often ground for 
ornament, as it makes a nice evergreen hedge in appropriate Mediterranean climates (BIB).
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Commo N Names (myrtle ):
Aas (Arab.; BOU); Abhulas (Sin.; DEP); Adess (Eritrea.; KAB); Arrayán (Sp.; KAB; USN); As (Arab.; 
Iran; DEP; KAB; ZOH); Asbiri (Iran; DEP); Asu (Accadian; ZOH); Braut Myrte (Ger.; HHB); Echte 
Myrte (Ger.; HHB; HH2); Habhul (Pun.; DEP); Habulas (Arab.; Beng.; Iran; Pun.; Urdu; DEP; KAB); 
Hadas (Aramaic; Heb.; Yemen; GHA; ZOH); Halmoush (Arab.; BOU); Herbe du Lagui (Fr.; KAB); 
Hodem (Heb.; KAB); Isferem (Iran; DEP); Ismar (Iran; DEP); Kulinaval (Tam.; KAB); Mara (Bori; 
Sanjawi; KAB); Maurid (Iran; DEP); Mersin (Arab.; Tur.; BOU; EFS); Mirt (Rom.; KAB); Mirto (It.; 
Sp.; HH2; KAB; USN; VAD); Mirtus (Hun.; KAB); Mortella (It.; HH2); Motellina (It.; HH2); Murad 
(Hindi; Pun.; DEP; EFS; KAB); Murta (Cat.; Por.; EFS; KAB); Myron (Greek; ZOH); Myrsini (Greek; 
KAB); Myrt (Rus.; KAB); Myrt (Dutch; EFS); Myrte (Fr.; Ger.; BOU; KAB; MAD); Myrtem (Swe.; 
EFS); Myrtle (Eng.; Malta; Scn.; AH2; CR2; KAB); Rihan (Arab.; BOU; ZOH); Shalmun (Arab.; 
BOU); Sutre Sowa (Arab.; EFS); Sutrsowa (Arab.; Beng.; DEP; KAB); Tarihant (Ber.; BOU); Vilayati 
Mehndi (Hindi; Pun.; DEP); Wax Myrtle (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Yas (Oman; GHA).
a Ctivities (myrtle ):
Alpha-glucosidase Inhibitor (1; X15704495); Analgesic (f; FEL; KAB); Antidiabetic (1; X15704495); 
Antiedemic (f1; MPI; PH2); Antigenotoxic (1; X15474415); Antiinafl mmatory (1; X15061659); Anti -
mutagenic (1; X12889542); Antioxidant (1; X15061659); Antiradicular (1; X15474415); Antiseptic 
(f1; BIB; BOU; FEL; GHA; KAB; PH2; VAD); Antispasmodic (f; BIB); Astringent (f1; BIB; BOU; 
GHA; VAD); Bactericide (1; BIB; PH2); Bronchosecretolytic (1; PH2); Candidicide (1; FT75:74); 
Carminative (f; BIB; DEP); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Chemopreventive (1; X15474415); Cicatri-
zant (1; VAD); Collyrium (f; BIB); Culicide (1; X11997977); Decongestant (f; BOW); Deodorant 
(1; FEL; PH2); Depressant (1; PH2); Digestive (f1; VAD); Diuretic (f; KAB); Emmenagogue (f; 
KAB); Expectorant (f; VAD); Fungicide (1; PH2); Gram(+)-icide (1; VAD); Hemostat (f1; GHA; 
KAB; VAD); Hypoglycemic (1; PH2; X15234770); Insecticide (f1; GHA; X11997977); Larvicide 
(1; X11997977); Laxative (f; KAB); Parasiticide (1; BIB; FT68:276); Pectoral (f; BIB); Propecic (f; 
KAB); Rubefacient (f; BIB); Sedative (f1; BIB; VAD); Stimulant (f; BIB; BOU; GHA); Stomachic 
(f; BIB; HHB); Tonic (f; BIB); Vermifuge (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (myrtle ):
Abscess (f; BOU); Acne (f; BOW); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Alopecia (f; DEP; KAB); Aphthae (f; BIB; 
DEP; KAB); Aposteme (f; JLH); Arthrosis (f1; MPI); Asthma (f; BOU); Bacteria (1; BIB; WOI); 
Bleeding (f; BIB; DEP; GHA; KAB); Blister (f; GHA); Boil (f; BOU); BPH (f; PH2); Bronchosis 
(f1; BIB; FEL; HHB; PH2); Cacoethes (f; BIB); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, 
colon (f; JLH); Cancer, gum (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, throat 
(f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Candida (1; FT75:74); Catarrh (f; FEL); Cerebrosis (f; BIB; DEP); 
Chest (f; BIB); Childbirth (f; GHA); Cold (1; PH2); Colic (f; GHA); Condylomata (f; BIB); Conjunc-
tivosis (f; BOU; FEL); Cough (f; GHA; MAD); Cystosis (f1; BIB; FEL; KAB; PH2); Diabetes (f1; 
X15704495; X15234770; X6482478); Diarrhea (f1; BIB; BOU; GHA; MAD; PH2; VAD); Dropsy 
(f; MAD); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dyspepsia (f; BIB; DEP; KAB); Eczema (f; BIB); Edema (f1; MPI); 
Emphysema (f; VAD); Enterosis (f; GHA; JLH); Epilepsy (f; BIB; DEP; WOI); Epistaxis (f; GHA); 
Fatigue (f; PH2); Fever (f; BIB; GHA); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fungus (1; FT75:74); Gangrene (f; FEL); Gas 
(f; DEP); Gastrosis (f; BIB; DEP; KAB; MAD); Gingivosis (f; BOW; JLH); Gonorrhea (f; MAD); 
Gray Hair (f; BIB; BOU); Headache (f; BIB; GHA); Hemorrhoid (f; FEL; PH2; VAD); Hepatosis (f; 
BIB; DEP; JLH; KAB; WOI); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; BOU; PH2; VAD); Inafl mmation 
(1; MPI); Insomnia (f1; VAD); Intertrigo (f; FEL); Laryngitis (f; VAD); Leishmania (1; FT68:276); 
Leukorrhea (f; BIB; FEL; PH2); Mastosis (f; JLH); Menorrhagia (f; FEL); Nephrosis (f; FEL; VAD); 
Night sweats (f; BIB); Otosis (f; PH2; VAD); Pain (f; Bou; FEL; MAD); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pertussis 
(1; PH2); Pharyngosis (f; FEL; VAD); Phthisis (f; BIB); Pleurodynia (f; MAD); Polyp (f; BIB; JLH); 
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Proctosis (f; JLH); Prolapse (f; BIB); Prostatitis (f; VAD); Pulmonosis (f1; BIB; BOU; MAD; VAD); 
Pyelitis (f; BIB; VAD); Respirosis (f; BOU; KAB); Rheumatism (f; BIB; DEP; KAB); Sinusitis (f; 
PH2); Smallpox (f1; BIB; BOU); Sore (f; BIB; GHA; KAB); Sore Throat (f1; VAD); Splenosis (f; 
JLH); Sting (f; GHA); Stomatosis (f; KAB); Tonsilosis (f; JLH); Tuberculosis (1; MAD; PH2; WOI); 
Ulcer (f; DEP; KAB); Urogenitosis (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; BIB; JLH); UTI (f; BOW); Vaginosis (f; 
BOW; VAD); Wart (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; BIB); Worm (f; PH2); Wound (f1; BIB; GHA).
d osages (myrtle ):
FNFF = !!
Dried or fresh fruits a spice; buds eaten in Italy and used in liqueurs. Leaves, made into tea, cons-id
ered an alternative to buchu. The sprigs were formerly added to wine to increase its potency. Leaf 
oil used to replace dried leaves in various culinary compositions, especially table sauces. Green 
and dried fruits sometimes used as a condiment (FAC; HOS; TAN). Fifteen to 40 grains powdered 
myrtle for catarrh, nephrosis, and phthisis (FEL). one to 2 drops, several times a day (MAD); 15 to 
30 g leaf/liter water for tea, but take only 0.2 g leaf per day (PH2).
• Arabs take ground leaves orally for nosebleeds (GHA).
• Algerians recommend the leafy infusion for asthma (BIB).
• Arabians take leaf tea taken with lemon and salt for colic (GHA).
• Iranians make a hot poultice for boils from the plant (BIB).
• Lebanese consider the plant binding and diuretic, believing it holds loose things in place, 
the bowels, the emotions, or the teeth (HJP).
• North Africans use the dry flower buds for smallpox (BOU).
• Saudis use leaves as astringent, antiseptic, and stimulant; mixed with other herbs and 
taken 40 days after childbirth (GHA).
• Unani direct smoke from the leaves onto hemorrhoids, using the fruit for bronchitis, 
headache, and menorrhagia (KAB).
• Yemeni use dry leaf decoction for cough, diarrhea, fever, and headache (GHA).
d ow Nsides (myrtle ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therapeutic 
dosages (PH2). Large doses may cause diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. More than 10 g myrtle oil can 
threaten life, due to high cineole content (myrtle contains 135–2250 ppm cineole according to my 
calculations, meaning 10 g myrtle would contain a maximum 22.5 mg cineole). Several herbs may 
attain higher levels of cineole, including bay, bee balm, betel pepper, biblical mint, boldo, cajeput, 
cardamom, eucalyptus, ginger, greater galangal, horse balm, hyssop, lavender, nutmeg, rosemary, 
sage, spearmint, star anise, sweet annie, thyme, and turmeric. So reductionisticall assuming no sy-n
ergies or antagonisms or additivities, a ridiculous assumption, one would assume that any good (and 
evils) accruing to the cineole in myrtle should apply even more so to those listed above, which theo-
retically at least, may attain higher levels of cineole, some (e.g., cardamom) attaining levels more 
than 20-fold higher. Symptoms of this alleged cineole intoxication may include circulatory disorders, 
collapse, lowered blood pressure, and respiratory failure. Do not apply oil to face of children as it 
may trigger asthma-like attacks, bronchial spasm, glottal spasms, or even respiratory failure (PH2).
extra Cts (myrtle ):
Of vfi e herb studies, Traboulsi et al. (2002) (X11997977) reported that myrtle extracts (ofl wers and leaves) 
were most active against fourth-instar larvae of the mosquitoC ulex pipiens molestus. LC50 = 16 mg/l 
(X11997977). Hayder et al. (2004) (X15474415) reported on antigenotoxic and free-radical scavenging 
activities of myrtle-leaf extracts. Several different extracts signicfi antly decreased the SOS response, su-g
gesting their potential in chemoprevention (X15474415). Onal et al. (2005) (X15704495) showed that 
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alpha-glucosidase inhibition by aqueous extracts might help with diabetes mellitus (IC50 = 38 µg/ml) 
(X15704495). Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of leaves, roots, and stems are active against Gram-negative 
and Gram-positive bacteria. The plant contains antibacterial phenols. One thermolabile principle was 
highly active againstM icrococcus pyogenes var. aureus. The principle resembled streptomycin in its 
action on Mycobacterium tuberculosis (WOI). Aqueous berry extract active against carrageenan-induced 
edema in the rats paw.  comparable to oxyphenylbutazone] Mono- and sesquiterpenes antibacterial, a-nti
fungal, and antiseptic (PH2). EO or extract larvicidal (LC50 = 16 mg/l) (X11997977). Methanol seed 
extracts active against clotrimazole-resistanCt andida albicans (MinIC = 1.25 mg/kg) (FT75:74). One 
fraction strongly inhibited alpha-glucosidase (IC50 = 38 µg/ml) (X15704495).
DAFFo DIL (nA rcissus t Azett A L.) x AMARyLLIDACeAe
Notes (d a FFodil ):
The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice, and 
blossom as the rose.
Isaiah 35:1 (KJV)
Widely cultivated as a beautiful ornamental, this narcissus also has very aromatic ofl wers, in the 
Holy Land white outside, golden yellow inside, and to me more aromatic than our American roses. 
Zohary is skeptical about this representing either the biblical lily or the biblical rose, as some non-
Israeli writers had suggested. Of the two species native to Israel, this one seems common in damp 
alluvial soils and also on rocky hillsides, even in the northern Negev, where it ofl wers in November, 
going dormant in February. It grows wild in the desert from the Mediterranean Sea to the center of 
Palestine, near Joppa. Palestinians, like me, delighting in the fragrance, carry blossoms onto the 
streets and into their homes. Flowers yield an essential oil, the absolute of which is a valuable adjunct 
in high-grade French perfume. It blends well with jasmine perfume. The plant holds a deserved place 
among oriental medicinals. Bulbs are imported into Bombay, dried, sliced, and sold. The root extract 
in olive oil is a skin lotion, in vinegar a shampoo rinse, and in brandy an aphrodisiac to be used only 
with great caution. The anticancer folklore is interesting because narcissus has shown genuine a-nti
tumor activity, perhaps due to the presence of antitumor compounds such as lycorine and benzald-e
hyde. Hager’s Handbook suggests that this species andN.  pseudonarcissus share the same activities 
and indications, and possibly many common names as well (BIB, HHB; HJP; ZOH).
Commo N Names (d a FFodil ):
Ain Serdouk (Arab.; BOU); Behar (Arab.; BOU); Berengat (Arab.; BOU); Bunchofl wer Daffodil (Eng.; 
USN); Bunchofl wer Narcissus (Eng.; USN); Chinese Sacred Lily (Eng.; USN); Daffodil (Eng.; CR2; 
USN); Dohn en Nirdjis (Arab.; JLH); French Daffodil (Eng.; BOU); Ghafu (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Irisa 
(Pun.; DEP; WOI); Jirundus (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Khenounat en-Nebi (Arab.; BOU); Nardjes (Arab.; 
BOU); Narciso (Sp.; EGG); Narcisse (Fr.; BOU); Narcisse Tazette (Fr.; BOU); Narcissus (Eng.; HJP; 
ZOH); Nargis (Arab.; Pun.; BOU; DEP; HJP); Nowar Zouawa (Arab.; BOU); Polyanthus Narcissus (Eng.; 
USN; WOI); Ranjis (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shoshan (Heb.; ZOH); Shui Hsien (China; JLH); Shui Xian Hua 
(Pin.; DAA); Tazetta (Eng.; Australia); Teif Eddib (Arab.; BOU); Tikheloulin en-Nebi (Ber.; BOU).
a Ctivities (d a FFodil ):
Abortifacient (f; CRC; HHB); Analeptic (1; FNF); Analgesic (f; BIB; CRC); Antiacetylcholinesterase 
(1; X10869205); Anticancer (1; CRC; FNF; X3802955); Antidote (f; BIB); AntiHIV (1; X10934347); 
Antiinafl mmatory (f; CRC); Antileukemic (1; X3368194); Antimalarial (1; X14669261); Antimi -
totic (1; X5340258); Antiproliferative (1; X15522215); Antisyncytial (1; X11012085); Antiviral (1; 
CRC; HHB; X176907); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Cholinergic (1; FNF); Convulsant (1; DAA); Cytotoxic 
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FIGURe .0 Daffodil (Narcissus tazetta).
(1; CRC; X11683132); Demulcent (f; BIB); Diuretic (f; CRC; WOI); Emetic (f1; CRC; DEP; FNF; 
NAD); Febrifuge (f; CRC); Hemagglutinant (1; X10945441); Immunomodulatory (1; X15522215); 
Memorigenic (1; BRU; FNF); Neurotonic (1; FNF); Paralytic (1; DAA); Peristaltic (1; FNF); Poison 
(1; CRC; DAA); Purgative (f; CRC; WOI); Sedative (1; FNF); Sialogogue (1; FNF).
iNdi Catio Ns (d a FFodil ):
Abscess (f; CRC; DAA); Alzheimer’s (1; FNF; X10869205); Boil (f; CRC); Bronchosis (f; HHB); Can-
cer (f1; CRC; FNF; HHB); Cancer, breast (f1; BIB; FNF); Cancer, ear (f1; BIB; FNF); Cancer, lung 
(1; X3802955); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Constipation (f; CRC); Cramp (f; HHB); Dermatosis (f; CRC; 
DAA); Diarrhea (f; HHB); Dysentery (f; HHB); Epilepsy (f; BIB); Esophagosis (f; CRC); Fever (f; CRC); 
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Fit (f; BIB); Gynecopathy (f; DAW); Headache (f; DEP); HIV (1; X10934347); Induration (f; JLH); 
Infection (1; X176907); Inflammation (f; CRC; DAA); Itch (f; CRC; DAA); Leukemia (1; X3368194); 
Malaria (1; X14669261); Mastosis (f; BIB; CRC); Myasthenia (1; FNF); Neurosis (1; FNF); Ophthalmia 
(f; CRC; DAA); Pain (f; CRC; DAA); Pertussis (f; HHB); Polio (1; FNF); Rhinosis (f1; HHB; X176907); 
Rhinotracheitis (1; X176907); Sclerosis (f; BIB); Sinew (f; JLH); Sore (f; CRC; HHB; HJP); Swelling (f; 
CRC); Tumor (f; JLH); Ulcer (f; CRC); Uterosis (f; JLH); Virus (1; CRC X10934347).
d osages (d a FFodil ):
FNFF = X
Facciola mentions only Narcissus jonquili as having edible flowers (FAC).
• Chinese apply the bulb as a liniment on tumors (JLH).
• Chinese used bulb as a demulcent bolus to carry bones out of the esophagus (DAA).
• Chinese use juice of the bulb for eye ailments (DAA).
• Lebanese pour boiling water over ofl wers, and steep 2 or 3 minutes as a stomach tonic (HJP).
• Lebanese use roots for epilepsy and tfi s (petit mal, sometimes worsened by bulbs) (HJP).
• North Africans ingest ground dried bulbs for poisoning and ill health (BOU).
• North Africans apply crushed bulbs mixed with honey to burns (BOU).
• Orientals use dried flowers for female fevers (LMP).
d ow Nsides (d a FFodil ):
Narcissus has been suspected of giving off an evil emanation, producing dullness of the intellect, 
insanity, and even death (BIB). In animals, it may induce enterosis, fever, gastrosis, and rapid pulse; 
larger doses can cause convulsions, paralysis, even death (DAA).
Natural History (d a FFodil ):
Flowers are visited by long-tongued insects, attracted by the intense contrasting yellow and white, 
and the pleasant aroma, stronger by night (ZOH).
extra Cts (d a FFodil ):
One study more than 30 years ago hints that narcissus might be useful in some sorts of bird ufl s (Papas 
et al., 1973), at least inhibiting DNA polymerase of avian myeloblastosis virus (X4123212). Gala-n
thamine, an alkaloid found in this and other species oNf arcissus, and in Galanthus and Leucojum, is 
now marketed in the United States as a prescription drug for Alzheimer’s. Chu and Ng (2004) reported 
immunomodulatory and antiproliferative activities for a glutamine-rich antifungal peptide from bulbs 
of the Chinese daffodil (X15522215). Sener et al. (2003) found antimalarial activity in Amaryllidaceae. 
6-Hydroxyhaemanthamine, haemanthamine, and lycorine were most potent againsPt . falciparum, and 
galanthamine and tazettine were least potent (X14669261). The last four are reported for this species.
JAt AMANsI (nA rd o st Achys gr Andiflor A DC) ++ vALeRIANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Fedia grandiflora Wall. ex DC; Nardostachys gracilis Kitamura; Nardostachys jatamansi auct.; 
Patrinia jatamansi auct.; Valeriana jatamansi Wall. fide DEP; EFS
Notes (Jatama Nsi):
Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits: camphire with spikenard.
Song of Solomon 4:13 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora ).
With names such as spikenard (Nardostachys) and nard C( ymbopogon) long confused, it is difcfi ult 
to know which was meant in biblical texts, but most biblical scholars, including Zohary, seem to 
favor Nardostachys as the biblical spikenard. Zohary states that in biblical times, spikenard came 
from India with such spices as cassia and cinnamon. Spikenard was then used in incenses and p-er
fumes, but is today all but obsolete (ZOH). For more than a century, the alpine plant was so rare that 
Bhutan prohibited export, according to DEP, which also mentions Nardostachys as the spikenard of 
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the Song of Solomon, St. John, and St. Mark. Because it was reportedly poured, it must have been an 
oil rather than a balm. Scholars assume it may then have been a mix of oils, much as used by modern 
Indian women to wash their hair (DEP). Occurring in alpine India and vicinity, elevation 11,000 to 
17,000 feet, the plant is endangered in the wild. But spikenard is still valued in India, though enda-n
gered. The drug Jatamansi, or Nardus Root, consists of short, thick, dark grey rhizomes crowned 
with reddish brown tufted bfi rous remains of the petioles of radical leaves. The rhizome is used in 
medicinal oils; reported to promote hair growth, imparting blackness (BIB; DEP; ZOH). Spikenard 
oil possesses antiarrhythmic activity of possible therapeutical use in auricular ufl tter; it is less effec-
tive than quinidine, but less toxic. In moderate doses it has a distinct depressant action on the central 
nervous system; and relaxes the skeletal and smooth muscles.
Commo N Names (Jatama Nsi):
Achte Narde (Ger.; NAD); Akashamansi (Sanskrit; KAB); Amritajata (Sanskrit; KAB); Balachhada 
(Urdu; KAB); Balacharea (Bom.; DEP; NAD); Balcchar (Hindi; DEP); Balchir (Hindi; Pun.; DEP; 
NAD); Balchkar (Ic.; KAB); Balu Char (Hindi; DEP); Bekh Kurphus (Behar; DEP; KAB); Bhultya 
(Nepal; NPM); Bhutajata (Sanskrit; KAB); Bhutakeshi (Sanskrit; KAB); Bhutijatt (Kas.; KAB; 
WOI); Bhut Jatt (Kas.; DEP; NAD); Bhytajata (Sanskrit; NAD); Billi Lotan (Dec.; DEP); Chak-ra
vartini (Sanskrit; KAB); Epi de Nard (Fr.; KAB); Espica Nardo (Sp.; HH2; KAB); Espiga Nard 
(Cat.; KAB); Gandhamansi (Sanskrit; KAB); Gan Song (Pin.; DAA; HH2); Gauri (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Haswa (Nepal; DEP; WOI); Hinsra (Sanskrit; KAB); Hint Sümbülü (Tur.; EFS); Indian Nard (Eng.; 
CR2; WOI); Indian Spikenard (Eng.; NAD); Indian Valerian (Eng.; NAD); Indische Narde (Ger.; 
KAP); Jadamansi (Sanskrit; KAB); Janani (Sanskrit; KAB); Jaramanshi (Sin.; NAD); Jaramansi 
(Sin.; DEP; KAB); Jatala (Sanskrit; KAB); Jatalasi (Hindi; KAB); Jatamamshi (Kan.; Mal.; Tel.; 
DEP; KAB; NAD); Jatamanchi (Mal.; NAD); Jatamangsi (Nepal; DEP; WOI); Jatamansi (Ayu.; 
Beng.; Bhutan; Eng.; Gurung; Hindi; Nepal; Sanskrit; Scn.; AH2; CR2; DEP; KAB; NPM; WOI); 
Jatamashi (Hindi; Pun.; Tam.; DEP; NAD; WOI); Jatamasi (Guj.; DEP; NAD; WOI); Jatamavashi 
(Kan.; NAD); Jatamavshi (Mar.; NAD; WOI); Jatamensis (Ic.; KAB); Jatamsi (Tel.; NAD); Jatavali 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Jati (Sanskrit; KAB); Jatila (Sanskrit; KAB); Jeta Manchi (Mal.; DEP; NAD); 
Jetamanshi (Mal.; EFS; KAB); Jetamavashi (Kan.; DEP; KAB); Jhatamansi (Dec.; DEP); Kal-ic
chad (Guj.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Kan Sung (China; HH2); Kan Sung Hsiang (China; EFS; KAB); 
Kanuchari (Hindi; KAB); Keshi (Sanskrit; KAB); Khasambhava (Sanskrit; KAB); Kiratini (S-an
skrit; KAB); Kravyadi (Sanskrit; KAB); Krishnajata (Sanskrit; KAB); Kukilipot (Kas.; DEP; KAB; 
NAD; WOI); Laghumansi (Sanskrit; KAB); Limasha (Sanskrit; KAB); Mansi (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Mansini (Sanskrit; KAB); Masi (Garhwal; DEP; KAB; WOI); Mata (Sanskrit; KAB); Mishika 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Misi (Sanskrit; KAB); Mountain Nard (Eng.; EFS); Mrigabhaksha (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Muskroot (Eng.; EFS; NAD); Naird (Heb.; ZOH); Nalada (Sanskrit; KAB; ZOH); Naorochi 
(Khaling; NPM); Narada (Sanskrit; ZOH); Nard (Eng.; Heb.; BIB; ZOH); Nardenähre (Ger.; USN); 
Nard du Gange (Fr.; KAB); Nard Indien (Fr.; CR2); Narde Indike (Greek; NAD); Nardin (Arab.; 
Iran; Syria; ZOJ); Nard Indique (Fr.; KAB); Nardo Indico (Sp.; KAB); Nardos (Greek; ZOH); Nard 
Syriaque (Fr.; KAB); Naswa (Nepal; DEP; WOI); Naswan (Newari; NPM); Nerd (Heb.; ZOH); 
Niralambi (Sanskrit; KAB); Pampe (Bhutan; DEP); Pampi (India; DEP); Pangbu (Sherpa; NPM); 
Parvatavasini (Sanskrit; KAB); Paumpe (Bhutan; DEP); Peshi (Sanskrit; KAB); Peshini (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Pishachi (Sanskrit; KAB); Pishita (Sanskrit; KAB); Poi (Tamang; NPM); Putena (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Sambul (Arab.; HH2); Sevali (Sanskrit; KAB); Shvetakeshi (Sanskrit; KAB); Spang-Spos 
(Tibet; NPM); Span Pos (Tibet; KAP); Spicanard (Fr.; HH2); Spignard (It.; EFS); Spikenard (Eng.; 
KAB; NPM); Sukshmajatamansi (Sanskrit; KAB); Sukshmapatri (Sanskrit; KAB); Sumbul (Bom.; 
DEP); Sumbula theeb (Iran; NAD); Sumbulul-Assaffir (Arab.; DEP; KAB); Sumbul -i’l hind (Arab.; 
DEP; NAD); Sunbuluttibe-Hindi (Arab.; DEP); Sunbuluttib (Iran; DEP; KAB; NAD); Tamasi (Sa-n
skrit; KAB); Tapasvini (Sanskrit; KAB); Tapaswini (Sanskrit; NAD); True Spikenard (Eng.; EFS); 
Vahini (Sanskrit; KAB); Valériane d’Inde (Fr.; EFS).
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a Ctivities (Jatama Nsi):
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Anthelmintic (f1; MPI); Antiarrhythmic (1; MPI; WOI; JAC7:405; X13331599); 
Anticonvulsant (1; PH2; MPI; WOI; X580202); Antidote (f; PH2); Antidyspneic (1; MPI); Ant-i
emetic (1; KAP; MPI); Antiestrogenic (1; MPI); Antihistaminic (1; MPI); Antiischemic (1; 
X12479970); Antioxidant (1; X9102390); Antiperoxidant (1; X9102390); Antiseptic (1; MPI; SKJ; 
SUW); Antiserotonin (1; MPI); Antispasmodic (f1; DEP; KAB; MPI); Antiulcer (1; HH2; PH2; 
X580202); Bactericide (1; MPI); Bitter (f; KAB; SUW); Bronchodilator (1; MPI); Candidicide (1; 
MPI); Cardioprotective (f1; WOI); Carminative (f; KAB; SUW); CNS Depressant (f1; MPI; WOI; 
X11143748); Deobstruent (f; DEP; MPI); Deodorant (f1; DAA); Depurative (f; DEP; KAB); Diuretic 
(f; DEP; KAB; MPI; SUW); Emmenagogue (f1; AHP; DEP; KAB; NAD; SUW); Febrifuge (f; 
KAB); Fungicide (1; KAP; MPI; JAC7:405); GABA-nergic (1; X8202559); Hepatoprotective (1; 
X10940571); Hypocholesterolemic (f; JAC7:405); Hypolipidemic (1; X3215683); Hypotensive (1; 
KAP; MPI; X13522275); Laxative (f; KAB; SKJ; SUW); Lipogenic (f; KAB); Narcotic (1; WOI); 
Nervine (f; BIB); Neuritogenic (1; X14604758); Neurosedative (f; EFS); Neurotonic (f; EFS); Orex-i
genic (f; KAB; NAD); Pectoral (f; KAB); Propecic (f; DEP; KAB; MPI); Sedative (f12; MPI; NAD; 
SKJ; WOI; X580202); Serotoninergic (1; X8202559); Stimulant (f; KAB; MPI; SUW); Stomachic 
(f; KAB; SUW); Taenicide (1; MPI); Tonic (f; DEP; KAB; SUW); Tranquilizer (f1; KAP; MPI; 
X580202); Uterotonic (1; AHP).
iNdi Catio Ns (Jatama Nsi):
ADD (2; MPI); Adenitis (f; NAD); Aggressiveness (1; KAP); Alopecia (f; KAB; MPI); Amenorrhea 
(f; DEP); Anorexia (f; KAB; NAD); Arrhythmia (1; MPI; X13331599); Asthma (1; MPI); Bacteria 
(1; MPI); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bite (f; KAB); Bronchosis (f1; KAB; MPI; SKJ); Cancer, abdomen 
(f; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; BIB); Cancer, eye (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH); Cancer, larynx 
(f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f; JLH); Cancer, 
spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f; JLH); Ca-n
dida (1; MPI); Cardiopathy (1; KAB; MPI; NAD); Cerebrosis (f; NAD); Childbirth (f; EB24:259); 
Cholera (f1; DEP; MPI; SUW; EB24:259); Chorea (f; BIB); Circulosis (f; MPI); Colic (f; KAB; 
MPI; SUW); Complexion (f; KAB); Consumption (f; SKJ); Convulsion (f1; DEP; KAB; MPI; SKJ; 
SUW; X580202); Cough (f; KAB; MPI); Cramp (f; DEP; NAD; PH2); Debility (f; NAD); Delirium 
(f; EB24:259); Depression (f; BIB); Dermatosis (f; KAB); Dysentery (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; 
SKJ); Dyspnea (1; MPI); Dysuria (f; SKJ); Enterosis (f; JLH; KAB; PH2; SUW); Epilepsy (f; DEP; 
KAB; PH2; SUW); Erysipelas (f; KAB); Escherichia (1; MPI); Fever (f; KAB); Fungus (1; KAP; 
X749414); Gas (f; DEP; KAB; KAP; PH2); Gastrosis (f; DEP; JLH; KAP; PH2); Gleet (f; KAB); 
Gray Hair (f; DEP); Headache (f; KAP; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; NPM); Hepatosis (f1; JLH; NAD; PH2; 
X10940571); High Blood Pressure (12; KAP; MPI; X13522275); High Cholesterol (f; JAC7:405); 
High Triglycerides (1; JAC7:405); Hyperkinesis (2; MPI); Hysteria (f; DEP; KAB; NAD; SUW); 
Infection (1; X749414); Inafl mmation (f; KAB; PH2); Insanity (f; BIB); Insomnia (f1; HH2; MPI; 
PH2; X580202); Ischemia (1; X12479970); Jaundice (f; DEP; NAD; PH2); Kidney stone (f; NAD); 
Leprosy (f; KAB; MPI; NAD); Lumbago (f; KAB); Madness (f; MPI); Malaria (f; DAA); Meno-
pause (f; NAD; PH2); Mycosis (1; KAP; MPI; X749414); Nausea (f1; MPI; PH2); Nephrosis (f; JLH; 
KAB; NAD; PH2); Neurasthenia (1; MPI); Neurosis (f; NAD; PH2; ZOH); Obesity (1; X3215683); 
Ophthalmia (f; KAB; PH2); Pain (f; KAB; PH2); Palpitation (f1; DEP; KAB; MPI; NAB; WOI); 
Phymata (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Respirosis (f; DEP); Rhinosis (f; SKJ); Salmonella (1; MPI); 
Scirrhus (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Smallpox (f; MPI; SKJ; EB24:259); Snakebite (f; KAB); Sore 
(f; KAB; MPI; EB24:259); Sore Throat (f; KAB); Spasm (f; BIB); Spermatorrhea (f; NAD); Spleno-
sis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; MPI); Sting (f; KAP; NAD); Stomachache (f; NAD; PH2); Stone (f; 
NAD); Streptococcus (1; MPI); Stress (f1; KAP; MPI; X580202); Syncope (f; EB24:259); Tachyca-r
dia (1; MPI; WOI); Tuberculosis (f; NAD; EB24:259); Tumor (f; BIB; JLH); Ulcer (1; HH2; PH2); 
Uterosis (f; PH2); Vaginosis (f; JLH); Worm (f1; MPI); Wound (f; KAB); Yeast (1; MPI).
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d osages (Jatama Nsi):
FNFF = X
No food references uncovered. 10–20 grains powdered root (DEP; HH2); 14–56 ml ufl id extract 
(KAP); 28–56 ml infusion (KAP); 28–56 ml decoction (KAP); 1–1.5 g powdered herb (KAP). 
0.6–1.3 g drug as single dose (PH2). 5 g root 3 ×/day (PH2). Wine glass full 3 x/daily (1:10 tincture 
or 1:40 infusion with 2 g max per single dose) (PH2).
• Asian Indians suggest 10 to 20 grains or 1 to 2 oz root in tea for chorea, atfl ulence, heart 
palpitations, and hysteria (DEP; NAD).
• Ayurvedics, viewing the roots alexipharmic, antipyretic, depurative, fattening, and tonic; 
suggest it for the complexion, and biliousness, blood disorders, dermatosis, erysipelas, 
leprosy, sores, and throat problems (KAB).
• Chinese suggest the plant for chorea, colic, coronary palpitations, hysteria, and malaria 
(DAA).
• Indochinese use the rhizome for epilepsy and hysteria (KAB).
• Iranians use the root tea for cardiac and nervous disorders (BIB).
• Nepalese suggest pasting the rhizome onto hemorrhoids (NPM).
• Santals use the plant for bronchitis, cholera, convulsions, cough, epilepsy, madness, 
smallpox, ulcers, and unconsciousness after childbirth (MPI).
• Unani, viewing the root as carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, orexigenic, pectoral, 
stimulant, stomachic, and tonic, recommend it for baldness, chest pain, cough, enteritis, 
gleet, gray hair, lumbago, nephrosis, and wounds (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Jatama Nsi):
Class 2b. Emmenagogue/uterine stimulant (AHP). No health hazards or side effects known with 
proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). Contraindicated during pregnancy (PH2). Lethal doses cause 
convulsions and death within a few hours (BIB; DAA).
extra Cts (Jatama Nsi):
LD50 of jatamansone (ipr mus) 350 mg/kg, vs. 900 mg/kg for the whole essential oil. (MPI). EO 
hypotensive in dogs, dosages for hypotensive humans, less than lab animal dosage (MPI). Prelim-i
nary clinical trials of jatamansone exhibited reduced aggressiveness, restlessness, stubbornness, 
as well as less insomnia (MPI). With 28 hyperkinetic children, jatamansone and placebo were 
compared for 11 months with D-amphetamine and chlorpromazine. Jatamansone and especially 
amphetamine signicafi ntly improved behavior, amphetamine better helping aggressiveness and 
restlessness. Mentally retarded children showed little response to any of the drugs. Jatamansone 
had fewer side effects than the pharmaceuticals. Amphetamine exacerbated symptoms early on and 
caused insomnia in one patient (MPI).
Salim et al. (2003) demonstrated neuroprotective effects in rodent models of acute cerebral 
ischemia, probably via antioxidant activity (X12479970).
WAte RCRess ( nA stu r tium officin Al e R. BRo WN) ++ BRAss ICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Baeumeria nasturtium Gaertn., Cardamine fontana Lam., Cardamine nasturtium Moench, Nastur-
tium fontanum (Lam.) Asch., Nasturtium nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) H. Karst. nom inval., Radic-
ula nasturtium Cav. nom. illeg., Radicula nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Rendle & Britten, Rorippa 
nasturtium Beck. nom. illeg., Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek, Sisymbrium nasturtium 
Thunb. nom. illeg., Sisymbrium nasturtium-aquaticum L. fide HH2 and POR.
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Watercress (Nasturtium officinale ). Source: Regina Hughes in Reed (1970).
Notes (w ater Cress ):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day in the evening they shall keep it; they shall eat it with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (RSV)
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In the second month on the fourteenth day between the two evenings, they should prepare it. 
Together with unfermented cakes and bitter greens they should eat it.
Numbers 9:11 (NWT)
Watercress is considered by some non-Israeli writers to be one of the bitter herbs of the Passover 
(with chicory, endive, and lettuce); but frankly, I think horseradish is more important in modern 
times. Israeli botanist Michael Zohary does not even mention watercress in his Plants of the Bible, 
but he does list it in the Flora of Palestine (FP1), as pluriregional, tropical, and temperate, in brooks 
and streams. Even I think of it as more pleasingly pungent than bitter, so I will not argue that it is 
the best candidate for the long list of bitter herbs. It is, however, my favorite among the many cand-i
dates, and possibly one of the healthiest (although often harboring human parasites when harvested 
wild). As a salad, it is said to promote the appetite. As a cosmetic, its bruised leaves are said to clear 
up facial blemishes, blotches, and spots. The juice, mixed with egg whites is said to help carcinoma. 
Made into snuff, it is a “cure” for polyps (JLH). Cress in vinegar is one remedy for anthrax. It is 
believed by some to interfere with implantation of the ovum or gestation. In small quantities, it is 
thought to act as an oral contraceptive and produce temporary sterility.
Commo N Names (w ater Cress ):
Agretto (It.; AVP; KAB); Agrião (Mad.; Por.; EFS; POR); Agrião da Fonte (Por.; AVP); Agrião das Horias 
(Por.; AVP); Anandrano (Hova; KAB); Bachkresse (Ger.; HH2); Berra (Sp.; EFS); Berro (Peru; Sp.; EFS; 
EGG; HH2; VAD; VOD); Berro Cruz (Ma.; JFM); Berro de Agua (Sp.; EFS); Biolar (Irish.; KAB); Bran-
cuta (Rom.; KAB); Braunkersch (Ger.; KAB); Brown Cress (Eng.; EFS); Brønnkarse (Nor.; POR); Brun-
nenkresse (Ger.; HH2; KAB; MAD; POR); Cailli (Fr.; KAB); Cardam de Izfor (Rom.; KAB); Chijchi 
(Peru; EGG); Creiso (Provenzal; KAB); Creixans (Cat.; KAB); Crescione (It.; KAB; POR); Crescione 
Acquatico (It.; POR); Crescione de Fonte (It.; EFS); Cresciune (Malta; KAB); Creson (Ma.; JFM); Cre-s
sione (It. HH2); Cressione Aquatico (It. HH2); Cresson (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; KAB); Cresson aquatique (Fr.; 
KAB); Cresson D’eau (Fr.; AVP; HH2; POR); Cresson de Fontaine (Fr.; EFS; HH2; POR); Cresson de 
Ruisseau (Fr.; KAB); Cresson Ofcfi inal (Fr.; KAB); Creixns (Cat.; KAB); Dou Ban Cai (China; POR); 
Gemeine Brunnerkresse (Ger.; HH2); Grabenkresse (Ger.; HH2); Gredas (Cat.; KAB); Grundkresse 
(Ger.; HH2); Horf el Ma (Arab.; AVP); Hrenita (Rom.; KAB); Kiaelkrasse (Swe.; KAB); Kioelkarssa 
(Swe.; AVP); Kersch (Ger.; KAB); Kowhiti-Whiti (Nz.; KAB); Kreson (Creole; Haiti; Rus.; POR; VOD); 
Kressa (Rus.; KAB); Kzezucha (Pol.; AVP); Lutpuriah (Dec.; KAB); Mastuerzo Acuatico (Sp.; HH2; 
KAB); Mizu Garashi (Japan; POR); Mul Naeng Ee (Korea; POR); Nasitord (Fr.; KAB); Nasturel (Rom.; 
KAB); Nasturzio (It.; EFS; HH2); Nasturzio Acquatico (It.; EFS; POR); Occoruro (Peru; EGG); Oranda 
Garashi (Japan; POR; TAN); Phàk Kàat Náam (Thai; POR); Piriya-Halim (Him.; Kum.; KAB; NAD); 
Quell Ranke (Ger.; KAB); Rechad (Tunis; AVP); Rukiew Wodna (Pol.; POR); Salat-Brunnenkresse 
(Ger.; EFS); Sante du Corps (Fr.; KAB); Selada Air (Indonesia; POR); Shahat (Iran; POR); Shamrock 
(Eng.; KAB); Shui Han Cai (China; POR); Shui Tian Jie (China; POR); Sija (Malta; KAB); Simsaag 
(Nepal; POR); Sisimbrio (It.; KAB); Sisimbrio acquatico (It.; POR); Sisymbrion (Greek; KAB); Sisimbro 
(It.; KAB); Stertion (Eng.; KAB); Suteresi (Tur.; EFS); Ting-Li (China; EFS); Ugas-Potocarka (Yug.; 
AVP); Wasserhanf (Ger.; EFS); Wasserkraute (Ger.; KAB); Wasserkresse (Ger.; EFS; HH2); Watercress 
(Eng.; CR2; EFS; VOD); Water Crishies (Ma.; JFM); Water Kers (Dutch; AVP); Water Cushie (Ma.; 
JFM); Weind Kresse (Den.; AVP); Wiesenkresse (Ger.; KAB); Witte Waterkers (Dutch; EFS); Xi Yang 
Cai Gan (Pin.; DAA); Zorret el Ma (Arab.; AVP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (w ater Cress ):
Abortifacient (f; BIB); Antidote (Nicotine) (f; BIB); Antihistaminic (1; X10746164); Antiimplantation (f; 
BIB); Antiinafl mmatory (1; X15917216); Antimitotic (1; HH2); Antiproliferant (1; X15016658); Antisar -
comic (1; HH2); Antiseptic (1; HH2; PHR; PH2); Antitumor (1; BGB; PH2; X15016658); Antitussive (f; 
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VAD); Aperitif (f; PHR); Aphrodisiac (f; AHL); Apoptotic (1; X15016658; X15668997); Bactericide (1; 
BGB; WOI); Bitter (1; PHR); Chemopreventive (1; BGB; X12716290; X8634661); Cholagogue (1; APA; 
BGB); Cicatrizant (f; AHL; VOD); Contraceptive (f; BIB); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; X15917216); Cyanogenic 
(f; BIB); Cytoprotective (1; X15016658); Decongestant (1; APA); Depurative (f; APA; BGB; FAD; JFM; 
MAD); Detoxicant (1; JNU); Digestive (1; APA; PH2); Diuretic (f1; APA; FAD; MAD; PH2; VOD); 
Emmenagogue (f; MAD); Expectorant (f; AHL; BGB; EFS; MAD); Goitrogenic (1; WO2); Hypoglyce-
mic (f; VAD); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X15917216); Laxative (f; BIB); NF-kappa-B Inhibitor (1; X15917216); 
Orexigenic (f1; APA; BIB; DEP; EFS; NAD; PH2); Propecic (f; AHL); Rubefacient (f; VAD); Sterilant (f; 
BIB); Stimulant (f; EFS; KAB); Tonic (1; APA); Vermifuge (f; EFS; MAD); Vulnerary (f; MAD; VOD).
iNdi Catio Ns (w ater Cress ):
Acne (f; BIB; MAD); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Alopecia (f; JNU; VAD); Anemia (f; JFM; VAD); Anorexia 
(f; DEP; PHR; VAD); Anthrax (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; HH2; PHR; PH2); Ascites (f; MAD); Asthenia (f; 
BGB; VOD); Asthma (f; BIB; WOI); Bacteria (1; WOI); Blemish (f; BGB); Boil (f; JLH); Bronchosis 
(f12; AHL; FAD; PHR; VOD); Cancer (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, colore-c
tal (f1; X12716290); Cancer, esophagus (f1; JNU); Cancer, face (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, gland (f1; 
APA; JLH); Cancer, lung (f1; APA; JNU; X8634661); Cancer, nose (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, prostate 
(f1; X15016658); Cardiopathy (f; BIB; FAD); Catarrh (f12; BGB; KOM; PH2; VOD); Cold (f1; BIB; 
FNF); Colic (f; X15878246); Congestion (2; APA; KOM); Cough (2; APA; DAA; MAD; PHR); Cys-
tosis (f; MAD); Debility (f; VOD); Dermatosis (f; BIB; EGG; JFM; JNU); Diabetes (f; MAD; VAD); 
Dropsy (f; MAD); Dyscrasia (f; MAD); Dyskinesia (f; VAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB); Dyspepsia (f; 
APA; MAD); Earache (f; MAD); Eczema (f; MAD); Enterosis (f; EGG); Exanthema (f; MAD); Fever 
(f; MAD); Flu (f; BIB); Freckle (f; BIB); Gallstone (f; HNI); Gastrosis (f; DAA); Gingivosis (f; MAD; 
VOD); Glossosis (f; MAD); Goiter (f; BIB; FAD; WOI); Gout (f; MAD; VAD); Gravel (f; MAD); Head 
cold (f; BIB; MAD); Hepatoma (1; X15668997); Hepatosis (f; EGG; JFM; MAD; X15878246); Herpes 
(f; MAD); High Blood Pressure (f; VAD); Hyperazotemia (f; VAD); Impetigo (f; BIB); Impotence (f; 
AHL); Infection (f; MAD); Inflammation (2; APA); Insomnia (f; BIB; MAD; NAD); Ischia (f; MAD); 
Jaundice (f; MAD); Kidney stone (f; MAD); Laryngitis (f; VAD); Leprosy (f; BIB); Lethargy (f; FAD); 
Liver Fluke (f; BGB); Liver Spot (f; BIB); Mucosis (KOM); Nephrosis (f; BIB; X15878246); Nervous-
ness (f; APA); Obesity (f; VAD); Odontosis (f; VAD); Pertussis (f; BIB); Pharyngitis (f; VAD); Phthisis 
(f; AHL); Polyp (f; BIB; JLH; WOI); Pulmonosis (f; BIB; KAB; MAD; VOD); Respirosis (f12; APA; 
BGB; KOM; PH2; VAD); Rheumatism (f; FAD; MAD; PHR); Rhinosis (f; BIB; JLH; WOI); Scabies 
(f; BIB); Sciatica (f; BIB); Scrofula (f; MAD); Scurvy (f123; FAD); Seborrhea (f; VAD); Sore (f; MAD); 
Sore Throat (f; WOI); Splenosis (f; MAD); Staphylococcus (1; HH2); Stomatosis (f; DAA; MAD); 
Stone (f; MAD; VAD); Strangury (f; WOI); Swelling (f; HH2); Tonsilosis (f; EGG); Toothache (f; JNU; 
MAD); Tuberculosis (f; BIB; JFM; MAD); Tumor (f1; BIB); Urethrosis (f; VAD); UTIs (f1; BGB; BIB; 
PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Wen (f; JLH); Worm (f; BIB; MAD); Wound (f; AHL; VOD).
d osage (w ater Cress ):
FNFF = !!!
Watercress is grown for the pungent leaves and young stems, and is used widely for garnishing 
meats, salads, and other dishes, even biscuits. The pungent afl vor is due to gluconasturtin. Whole 
plant consumed as salad or vegetable. Seeds used like mustard (BIB; FAC; TAN); 2 g fresh herb/
cup tea (APA); 20–30 g fresh herb/day (APA; KOM); 60–150 g freshly pressed juice (APA; KOM); 
20–30 g fresh herb 3x to 150 g/day (HH2); 4–6 g dry herb/day (KOM); 2–3 cups preprandial tea (2 g 
(1–2 tsp) steeped 10–15 minutes in 150 ml boiled water) (PH2).
• Africans use chopped watercress, covered with honey overnight, as cough syrup (BIB).
• Chinese use the plant for asthma (BIB).
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• Haitians apply chopped or crushed leaves as cicatrizant or vulnerary (VOD).
• Haitians consume leafy stems as depurative, diuretic, for bronchitis and pulmonary 
catarrh (VOD).
• Haitians take the leaf broth or decoction for asthenia or weakness (VOD).
• Haitians use chopped leafy stems to treat gum disease (VOD).
• Lebanese use seeds as alterative and depurative, applying the herb in yogurt to acne 
(BIB; HJP).
• Native Americans consumed watercress to alleviate gallstones (HNI).
• Panamanians believe this a sure cure for anemia (JFM).
• Peruvians eat the plant as depurative, diuretic for bronchitis and worms (EGG).
• Peruvians gargle the macerated plant for tonsilitis (EGG).
• Salvadorans steep the ofl wering plant in wine as an antiscorbutic, depurative, and tonic 
(JFM).
• Venezuelans use cress juice for tuberculosis, poulticing the leaves on dermatosis (JFM).
• Venezuelans use 4 Tbsp fresh plant juice with cold Guazuma bark tea (like slippery elm 
bark) with 4 Tbsp red wine, 2 to 3 ×/day for hepatosis (JFM).
• Western Europeans consider the plant ecbolic in large doses, emmenagogue in smaller 
doses (BIB).
d ow Nsides (w ater Cress ):
Class 2b, 2d (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administ-ra
tion of suggested therapeutic dosages (PH2). KOM and PH2 report contraindications: peptic ulcer, 
nephrosis; not to be used by children younger than 4 years; adverse effects: GI complaints (rarely). 
Since viewed as emmenagogue and uterocontractant, contraindicated in pregnancy. Irritation of 
gastric mucosa may develop following chronic ingestion of large quantities. (AEH). I suspect that 
much of what is said here could be said about horseradish, wasabi, and even the milder crucifers 
such as broccoli, etc. (JAD). VAD cautions against use with gastritis, ulcers, UTIs (although also 
listed as an indication), and hypothyroidism. Be careful to clean watercress thoroughly as it may 
harbor dangerous aquatic microbes (VAD).
Natural History (w ater Cress ):
Bees and flies are the chief pollinators. According to Eastman, the only pest is the caddisyfl , Lim-
nephilus lunatus, an aquatic case-making larva, like the cress native to Europe. Eating above water 
are such species as bean aphids A(phis rumicis; blackish sapsuckers clustered under leaves) and 
watercress leaf beetles (Pheodon aeruginosa bronze-black oval chrysomelids). Pierid buttery fl cat-
erpillars, called whites, feed on many mustard species. The diamondback moth caterpillar P(lutella 
xylostella) eats holes in the lower leaf surface, pupating in mesh-like cocoons. Underwater, the 
plant may provide food all year. There may be amphipods (Gammarus), which feed on yellowed 
leaves, the fresh leaves toxic to them, and water sowbugs A( sellus). Trout consume young leaves and 
attached animals. The plants are fairly high in vitamins, minerals, and protein. The leaves are eaten 
by ducks, muskrats, and deer, and serve as shelter for small aquatic animal life. Regrettably, the 
plant accumulates heavy metals. There goes another healthy human food, spoiled by humans, like 
the Maine fish, polluted by the lumber industry, canaries in the aquatic microcosm.
extra Cts (w ater Cress ):
Rose et al. (2005) (X15917216) showed that beta-phenylethyl- and 8-methylsulphinyloctyl isothio-
cyanates suppress nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2. Both have known chemopreventive properties. 
Overproduction of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandins (PGE) are associated with pathological 
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conditions (e.g., inafl mmation and cancer). The reduction in both iNOS and COX-2 expression were 
associated with inactivation of nuclear factor-kappaB and stabilization of IkappaBalpha (X15917216). 
Plants become bitter in ofl wering, better for medicine, worse for food (JFM). Watercress is the rich -
est source of phenethylisothiocyanate, which also occurs in bok choy, turnips, and turnip greens 
(JNU). Singling out watercress, Chiao et al. (2003) (X15016658) note that consumption of an iso-
thiocyanate metabolite inhibits growth of human prostate cancer cell xenografts by apoptosis and 
cell cycle arrest. Epidemiology indicates that crucifer consumption is inversely related to prostate 
cancer incidence. The N-acetylcysteine (NAC) conjugate of phenethylisothiocyanate (PEITC-NAC), 
abundant in watercress, inhibited proliferation and tumorigenesis. The supplemented diet group (8 
µM/g) showed signicafi nt reductions in tumor size in 100% of the mice (X15016658). Linking this 
study to an earlier Maori study seems to suggest this bitter herb be included in your diet if you fear 
colon or prostate, or any, cancer. Thompson and Shaw (X12716290) noted that New Zealanders 
have a high rate of colorectal cancer, but the Maori have a lower incidence than non-Maori New 
Zealanders (22.2 and 43.7 per 100,000, respectively). “Maori eat more in total, eat more red meat, 
drink more alcohol, consume more saturated fat, have a higher prevalence of obesity, and have a 
lower proportion of individuals consuming a given level of fruit and vegetables per day.” Sonchus 
and Nasturtium officinale are foods with plausible cancer protective properties and are components 
of the Maori, but not the non-Maori diet (X12716290). All this tells me that if you must eat, drink, 
and be merry, include some bitter herb — especially watercress — in your fare.
o LeANDeR (n eriu m ole Ander L.) x Apo CyNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Nerium indicum Mill.; Nerium latifolium Mill.; Nerium odorum Soland. (Treated separately in 
HH2; aggregated here and in AH2.)
Notes (o lea Nder ):
Hearken unto me, ye holy children, and bud forth as a rose growing by the brook of the field.
Ecclesiasticus 39:13 (KJV)
Back in 1985, I postulated, along with other writers, that the rose of Ecclesiaticus waNs erium. But 
not Zohary, who renders the rose of Ecclesiasticus as the genus Rosa. Zohary does include oleander 
in his Plants of the Bible, equating it with the place name Ardat (II Esdras 9:26), which he deems 
cognate with ardaf, the Hebrew name for oleander, and close kin to Armenian ardab. According 
to other students of the Scriptures, the oleander is the “rose of the waterbrooks” — the “rhododen-
dron” or “rose tree” of the Greeks. Either way, oleander is clearly a medicinal and poisonous orn-a
mental common in Israel. To the Spanish, oleander is known as laurel, and is their favorite shrub for 
parks and gardens. As an evergreen summer favorite, it is termed “tough and attractive,” and does 
well in almost any soil. In Greece, India, and Italy, it is a funeral plant. It is used to decorate Hindu 
temples. Zohary notes that oleander is common on riverbanks in Israel. Palestinians secure from it 
a very active cardiac glucoside used in pharmacy. It is used as a rat poison in Europe. Honey from 
the ofl wers may even be poisonous. It is widely planted as an ornamental in tropical and subtropi-
cal countries. Some suggest that it is the “willow of the brook” of Leviticus used for constructing 
booths for the Feast of Tabernacles. Some view it as the Jericho rose because on the eastern side of 
Jordan, it becomes a tree 25 feet tall. With a copious folk repertoire of anticancer activity, oleander 
will probably be found to contain more proven anticancer agents than just the rutin and ursolic acid. 
Leaves are dangerously applied to cutaneous eruptions; the decoction is used to destroy maggots in 
wounds. In Lebanon, as perhaps elsewhere, informants contradict, consider it calming yet irrit-at
ing, a cause yet a cure for sore eyes, a medicine yet a poison. Such contradictions fan the afl mes of 
homeopathy (BIB).
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FIGURe . Oleander (Nerium oleander).
Commo N Names (o lea Nder ):
Adelfa (Sp.; EGG; HH3; RAR; USN); Adelfa Laurel (Peru; EGG); Alari (Mal.; DEP); Alelí (Pr.; 
LWW); Alelí Extranjero (Pr.; LWW); Alhelí (Pr.; LWW); Alili (Ber.; BOU); Amancayo (Peru; 
RAR); Anini (Ber.; BOU); Arali (Tam.; SKJ); Aralivayr (Tam.; DEP); Ardab (Arm.; ZOH); Ardaf 
(Heb.; ZOH); Ariri (Ber.; BOU); Azuceno de la Habana (Col.; LWW); Baladre (Sp.; EFS); Balandre 
(Sp.; USN); Barhamase (Nepal; SUW); Bau Swan (Newari; NPM); Beijos (Por.; AVP); Belladonna 
(Fr.; AVP); Ceylon Rose (Eng.; EFS); Chu Au (China; EFS); Delfa (Arab.; AVP; BOU); Dephali 
(Iran; EFS; NAD); Dhavekanera (Kon.; NAD); Diafl (Arab.; ZOH); Diafl h (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Duf-
tender Oleander (Ger.; HH3); Espirradeira (Por.; AVP); Flor del Perú (Dr.; Peru; AHL; AVP); Franse 
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Bloem (Dwi.; LWW); Gandeli (BAL; KAB); Ganderai (Pushtu; DEP); Ganhira (Pun.; DEP); Ganira 
(Bom.; DEP); Gheneru (Tel.; DEP); Haban (Arab. GHA); Hamancay (Que.; RAR); Harduf (Heb.; 
ZOH); Indian Oleander (Eng.; SKJ); Jaur (Bal.; DEP); Jiia Zhu Tao (Pin.; AH2); Jowari (Bal.; KAB); 
Kagaer (Guj.; SKJ); Kanagale (Kan.; DEP); Kanagilu (Kan.; NAD); Kanaveeram (Tam.; NAD); 
Kaner (Hindi; Nepal; EFS; NPM); Kanera (Guj.; Mah.; DEP; NAD); Kaneri (Mar.; DEP); Kanero 
(Orissa; SKJ); Kanher (Guj.; NAD); Kaniha-Swaa (Nepal); Kanirkejur (Dec.; DEP); Kanyur (Kum.; 
DEP); Karabi (Beng.; India; DEP; EFS; NAD); Karavira (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; DEP; EFS); Karber 
(Hindi; NAD); Karbir (Nepal; NPM); Kasturipatte (Tel.; NAD); Kharazahra (Arab.; EFS; NAD); 
Khar Sahrah (Iran; DEP); Kiah (China; EFS); Kuruvira (Hindi; DEP); Kyochiku-to (Japan; USN); 
Laurel (Peru; RAR); Laurel Blanco (Sp.; LWW); Laurel Colorado (Sp.; LWW); Laurelles (Fr.; AVP); 
Laurel Rosa (Bol.; Peru; Sp.; DLZ; EGG; USN); Laurel Rosado (Ecu.; LWW); Laurier (Fr.; Haiti; 
AHL); Laurier Blanc (Haiti; AHL); Laurier des Jardins (Haiti; AVP); Laurier Rose (Fr.; Haiti; BOU; 
EFS; HH3; LWW; USN); Laurier Tropical (Haiti; AHL); Laurose (Fr.; Gaud.; AVP); Lawrin (Bol.; 
Callawaya; DLZ); Leandro (It.; EFS); Loandro (Por.; AVP); Loendro (Por.; EFS; HH3); Lorbe-er
rose (Ger.; EFS); Loryé Rose (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Loryé Wos (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Loureiro Rosa 
(Por.; AVP; HH3); Loyee (Haiti; TRA); Martinica (Dr.; His.; Peru; AHL; AVP; LWW); Massa di S. 
Giovanni (It.; EFS); Massa di S. Giuseppe (It.; EFS); Naranjillo (Peru; EGG; RAR); Narciso (Cr.; 
Cuba; Hon.; LWW; TRA); Narciso Rosado (Sal.; LWW); Nérier à Fles (Fr.; AVP); Nérion (Fr.; AVP); 
Oleander (Eng.; Dwi.; Scn.; AH2; BOU; VOD); Oléandre (Fr.; BOU; EFS; USN); Oleandro (It.; EFS; 
HH3); Pascua (Sp.; USN); Pirulí (Dr.; His.; AHL); Rajabaka (San.; SKJ); Rajbaka (San.; DEP); R-ho
dodendron (Eng.; AVP); Rhododendron de Pline (Fr.; AVP); Rosa de Berberiá (Sp.; Ven.; EFS; LWW); 
Rosa del Perú (Dr.; AHL); Rosa Francesa (Cuba; Peru; RAR; RyM; TRA); Rosage (Fr.; AVP; EFS); 
Rose (Eng.; BIB); Rose Bay (Eng.; CR2; SKJ; RAR); Roseberry Spurge (Eng.; EFS; NAD); Rose Lau-
rel (Eng.; CR2; HH3; VOD); Rosen Lorbeer (Ger.; EFS; HH3); Sevadilha (Por.; EFS); South Sea Rose 
(Eng.; EFS; HH3); Sum el Himar (Arab.; DEP); Sumala Himara (Arab.; EFS); Svetapushpa (Sanskrit; 
EFS); Sweet-scented Oleander (Eng.; EFS; NAD); Ward el Hhimar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Ward el-
homar (Arab.; BOU); Welriekende Oleander (Dutch; EFS); Wohlriechende (Ger.; NAD); Wohlriec-h
ende Oleander (Ger.; EFS; HH3); Zabb el Hhimar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Zakkum (Tur.; EFS).
a Ctivities (o lea Nder ):
Abortifacient (f1; BOU; HH2; WWB); Adaptogenic (1; KAP); Analgesic (f1; KAP; MPI); Antica-n
cer (f1; CRC; MPI; X14609747; X15730243); Antiedemic (f; MPI; X14522443); Antiinafl mmatory 
(f1; KAP; MPI; TRA; X14609747; X15730243); Antinociceptive (1; X14522443); Antiseptic (f1; 
JFM; WBB); Antistress (1; MPI); Antiulcer (1; MPI); Antiviral (1; TRA); Aphrodisiac (f1; KAB); 
Apoptotic (1; X14609747); Bactericide (1; WBB; WOI); Bradycardic (1; MPI); Cardiac (1; BIB; 
CRC); Cardioactive (1; X3086679); Cardiotonic (1; AHL; BIB; CRC; KAP; LWW; WOI); CNS 
Depressant (1; KAP); Cyanogenic (1; BIB; CRC); Diuretic (f1; BIB; CRC; EFS; KAP; WOI); Emetic 
(f1; CRC; MPI); Emmenagogue (f1; BIB; CRC; HH2; MAD); Febrifuge (f1; BOU; KAP; MPI); Fun-
gicide (f1; MPI); Insecticide (f1; BOU; CRC; NPM); Insectifuge (f; BIB; CRC); Lachrymatory (f; 
KAP; WOI); Larvicide (f; BIB); Negative Chronotropic (1; PH2); Neuroprotective (1; X15492866); 
Paralytic (f; BOU); Parasiticide (f; BIB; CRC); Poison (f1; CRC; DEP; SUW); Positive Inotropic (1; 
PH2); Larvicide (f; WOI); Neurogenic (1; X12542335); Pediculicide (f; FEL); Piscicide (f1; WBB; 
X14505708); Purgative (f; BIB; CRC; JFM); Rodenticide (f1; CRC; LWW); Spasmogenic (f; KAP; 
MPI); Sternutatory (f; BIB; CRC; JFM); Stimulant (f; CRC); Tonic (f; CRC; EFS); Toxic (f; EFS); 
Uterotonic (1; TRA); Vermifuge (f; JFM); Vulnerary (f; TRA).
iNdi Catio Ns (o lea Nder ):
Alopecia (f; BOU); Angina (f; MAD); Apoplexy (f; MAD); Aposteme (f; CRC); Arrhythmia (f1; 
MAD; TRA); Arthrosis (f; KAB; MAD); Asthma (f; CRC); Atheroma (f; CRC); Bacteria (1; TRA; 
WBB); Bronchosis (f; GHA); Cancer (f; BOU); Carcinoma (f; CRC); Cardiopathy (f1; BIB; BOU; 
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PH2; TRA); Chancre (f; KAB; MPI; NAD; SUW; WOI); Circulosis (1; TRA); Conjunctivosis (f; 
CRC); Corn (f; CRC; JLH); Cough (f; GHA); Dermatosis (f; CRC; DEP; NPM; PH2; SKJ; SUW; 
WOI); Dysmenorrhea (f; CRC; WBB); Dyspnea (f; FEL); Eczema (f; CRC; MAD); Edema (f; FEL); 
Epilepsy (f; CRC; FEL; WBB); Epithelioma (f; CRC; JLH); Fungus (f; NPM); Furuncle (f; HH2); 
Gingivosis (f; BIB; BOU); Headache (f; KAP; MAD); Hemorrhoid (f; KAP; MPI; PH2); Herpes (f; 
CRC; NPM); High Blood Pressure (f; BIB); Impetigo (f; BIB); Impotence (f; KAB); Induration (f; 
JLH); Infection (f1; JFM; WBB); Inafl mmation (f1; KAB; MPI; TRA); Insomnia (f; MAD); Itch 
(f; BOU; KAB); Leprosy (f; BIB; DEP; HJP; SUW); Leukoderma (f; KAB); Lice (f; FEL); Lum-
bago (f; KAB); Maggot (f; CRC); Malaria (f; CRC; MAD; WBB); Mange (f; DLZ; VOD); Myalgia 
(f; KAB); Mycosis (f1; MPI; NPM); Myocardosis (f; MAD); Neurosis (1; X15492866); Odontosis 
(f; BIB; BOU); Ophthalmia (f; CRC; KAP; NAD; PH2); Pain (f1; KAB; X14522443); Paralysis (f; 
MAD); Parasite (f; AHL; JFM); Pediculosis (f; VOD); Psoriasis (f; CRC; SUW; X15613134); Resp-i
rosis (f; TRA); Rhinosis (f; BIB); Ringworm (f; BIB; CRC; NPM); Salmonella (1; TRA); Scabies (f; 
CRC; MAD; PH2; WBB); Sinusosis (f; CRC; GHA; JFM); Snakebite (f; CRC; HH2; NAD; NPM; 
WBB); Sore (f; CRC; SUW; VOD; WOI); Staphylococcus (1; WBB); Sting (f; NAD); Stomatosis (f; 
BIB); Stress (f1; KAP); Swelling (f1; DEP; JFM; KAP; NAD; SUW; X14522443); Syphilis (f; BOU; 
NAD); Tachycardia (f; MAD); Tinea (f; DLZ); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Urethrosis (f; KAB); Venereal 
Disease (f; BIB; BOU; JFM); Vertigo (f; MAD); Virus (1; TRA); Wart (f; BIB); Worm (f; KAB); 
Wound (f; KAB).
d osages (o lea Nder ):
FNFF = X
Equivalent to 1–3 grains fresh bark or dried fruit (FEL); 50 mg leaf (MAD).
• Algerians gargle leaf decoction to strengthen gums and teeth, use it as nose drops (BOU), 
and use leaves as a fumigant for fever (HJP).
• Asian Indians apply a paste of ground root in water to chancres and sores on the penis 
(NAD).
• Ayurvedics use the plant for bronchosis, conjunctivosis, dermatosis, fever, hemorrhoids, 
itch, leukoderma, urethrosis, worms, and wounds (KAB).
• Bolivians suggest the powdered dried leaves as a powerful sternutatory, or in lard, or 
decocted in oil for mange and tinea (DLZ).
• Curacaons boil the ofl wers and gargle the decoction, and bathe dermatitic children in the 
leaf decoction (JFM).
• Dominicans infuse the leaves in oil to alleviate dermatosis and parasites, rubbing the 
leaves on lice (AHL; TRA).
• Ethiopians dress skin diseases on the head with the leaves (BIB).
• Haitians use the vinegar leaf macerate for head lice and sores (VOD).
• Lebanese suggest the plant as a dangerous antiedemic, antiitch, cardiotonic, hypotensive, 
the decoction useful for impetigo and ringworm, root extracts for amenorrhea, leprosy. 
and venereal disease (HJP).
• Mohammedans suggest the leaf decoction to reduce swelling, and oil with root bark 
(external only) for dermatosis and leprosy (KAB).
• Munda use the seeds to poison jackals and pigs (KAB).
• Nepalese use a root bark paste for dermatoses, herpes, and ringworm (NPM).
• Ukranians use the plant as an abortifacient (HJP).
• Unani suggest the ofl wers for arthralgia, headache, impotence, inafl mmation, lumbago, 
myalgia, scabies, and the dangerous root for pain in the abdomen and joints (KAB).
• Venezuelans suggest inhaling the steam from boiled shoots for sinusitis (JFM).
• Venezuelans use the latex to repel flies (AHL)
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d ow Nsides (o lea Nder ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested the-ra
peutic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates no dosage!; JAD). Commission E reports accidental 
and therapeutic use of leaf has resulted in partially fatal poisonings (AEH). Overdoses may cause 
arrhythmia, bradycardia, cardiodepression, confusion, cyanosis, diarrhea, headache, hyperkalemia, 
nausea, neurodepression, stupor, and vomiting (BRU; DEP; MAD; PH2). More than 100 years ago 
we read that “Several cases are on record of fatal results from the internal administration” (DEP). 
Over a 6-year period (1989–1995), 142 bovines died in California (BRU). During the Persian ca-m
paign, Alexander’s army lost horses that had fed on the shrub, and some soldiers died who had 
grilled their meat on skewers made from the wood (WBB). 15–20 g fresh leaf can kill a horse, 
10–20 a cow, 1–5 a sheep. Children have died after ingesting a handful of flowers (JFM).
extra Cts (o lea Nder ):
Leaves, ofl wers, and stem bark possess cardiotonic properties, especially the leaves. Cornerine has 
proved effective against cardiac ailments in clinical trials, particularly improving the heart muscle 
functions. Oleandrin is diuretic and stimulates the heart. The afl vonal glycosides inufl ence vascular 
permeability and possess diuretic properties (BIB).
BLACK CUMIN (n igell A sAtiv A L.) ++ RANUNCULACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Nigella indica Roxb.; Nigella truncata Viv.
Notes (bla Ck Cumi N):
For the fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart wheel turned about 
upon the cummin; but the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod.
Isaiah 28:27 (KJV)
Dill is not threshed with a threshing sledge, nor is a cart wheel rolled over cummin; but dill is 
beaten out with a stick, and cummin with a rod.
Isaiah 28:27 (RSV)
For it is not with a threshing instrument that black cumin is given a treading; and upon cumin 
no wheel of a wagon is turned. For it is with a rod that black cumin is generally beaten out, and 
cumin with a staff.
Isaiah 28:27 (NWT)
Here the three versions differ in the translation of the Hebrew ketzah, and I frankly like the NWT 
version best. Of the three, only the NWT renders it black cumin (Nigella of the Ranunculaceae), 
which is not taxonomically related to cumin or cummin (Cuminum of the Apiaceae). The KJV 
renders it tfi ches, which is Nigella. Zohary adds that the identity of the Hebrew ketzah with “black 
cummin” or “nutmeg ofl wer” is not only linguistically supported but attested by the postbiblical 
custom of sprinkling the seeds over bread and cake and of afl voring dishes with them. The Arabic 
and Aramaic name is kazha (ZOH). This herb may be even more important to the Muslims than to 
the Christians and Jews. According to an Arab proverb, “in the black seed is the medicine for every 
disease except death.” Nearly a millennium ago, Rhineland abbess Hildegard von Bingen (1098–
1179), described by translator Throop as artist, Benedictine abbess, healer, linguist, musician, 
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FIGURe . Black Cumin (Nigella sativa).
mystic, playwright, poet, preacher, spiritual counselor, theologian, and visionary, published her 
Physica. She suggested pounding the seed with honey as y fl paper, streaking it where you wish to 
attract the flies, which, on tasting, will sicken and die (HIL).
Commo N Names (bla Ck Cumi N):
Agenuz (Sp.; POR); Agenuz Comun (Sp.; POR); Ajenuz (Sp.; USN); Araignee (Fr.; BOU); Ara-
ñuel (Sp.; USN); Aranyajeeraka (Sanskrit; NAD); Bashpika (Sanskrit; KAB); Black Caraway (Eng.; 
USN); Black Cumin (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; CR2; KAB; USN); Chernushka Posevnaia (Rus.; POR); 
Cinnamonea (It.; KAB); Cominho-Negro (Por.; USN); Çöreg Otu (Tur.; POR); Çörek Otu (Tur.; 
POR); Corekotu (Tur.; EFS); Cumin Noir (Fr.; EFS; KAB; NAD; POR); Cuminella (It.; KAB; POR); 
Czarnuszka Siewna (Pol.; POR); Dill (Eng.; ZOH); Erbe Spezie (It.; KAB; POR); Faux Cumin 
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00 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
(Fr.; KAB); Fennel Flower (Eng.; HJP); Fitch (Eng.; BIB, HJP); Gandana (Iran; KAP); Gemeiner 
SchwartzKuemmel (Ger.; KAB); Gith (Fr.; EFS; KAB); Gitono (It.; EFS); Gittaione (It.; POR); Haba 
Saoda (Arab.; Yemen; X15890471); Habba Sooda (Arab.; GHA); Habba Suda (Arab.; BOU); Hab- ba
toussouda (Arab.; DEP); Habbatussuda (Arab.; KAB); Habbet -eblarakah (Arab.; BOU); Hubsindee 
(Egypt; KAB); Jintan Hitam (Malaya; EFS; POR); Kadujeeru (Guj.; NAD); Kalajaji (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Kala Jira (Hindi; India; DEP; EFS; KAB); Kalanji (Hindi); Kalenjira (Bom.; KAB); Kalenjire (Bom.; 
DEP; NAD); Kalijeeri (Gwalior; KAB); Kalijira (Beng.; KAB; NAD); Kalonji (Bom.; Hindi; KAB); 
Kalonjijirum (Guj.; KAB); Kaluduru (Sin.; KAB; NAD); Kalzira (Beng.; KAB); Kammun Aswad 
(Arab.; BOU); Kammun el Akhal (Arab.; BOU); Kamûn Awad (Arab.; Syria; HJP; POR); Kamune 
Asvad (Arabic; EFS; NAD); Kamuneavad (Arab.; KAB); Karamuk (Tur.; POR); Karava (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Karavi (Sanskrit; KAB); Karejirage (Kan.; KAB); Karijirigay (Kan.; KAB; POR); Karijirige 
(Kan.; KAB); Karimsiragam (Kan.; DEP; KAB); Karinchirakam (Mal.; NAD); Karunchirakam 
(Mal.; DEP; KAB); Karunjirajam (Tam.; KAB); Karunjirakam (Mal.; POR); Karunshiragam (Mal.; 
Tam.; DEP; KAB); Karunshirogam (Tam.; NAD); Kazha (Arab.; Aramaic; ZOH); Kelanji (Bom.; 
NAD); Kemun (Arab.; Libya; POR); Ketzah (Heb.; ZOH); Kommen (Den.; EFS); Krishnajira (Mah.; 
KAB); Krishna-jiraka (Ayu.; Sanskit; AH2; DEP; KAB); Kulanjan (Dec.; Urdu; KAB; POR); Ku-n
chi (Sanskrit; KAB); Kunchika (Sanskrit; KAB); Kunjika (Sanskrit; KAB); Kurras (Arab.; KAP); 
Kusheng (Chinese; Malaya; EFS; KAB); Love in a Mist (Eng.; RFS); Melanthion (Greek; NAD); 
Melanzio Domestico (It.; POR); Mugrela (Beng.; Hindi; DEP; KAB; NAD); Mugrelo (Nepal; KAP; 
SUW); Mungrela (Beng.; KAB); Musavi (Sanskrit; KAB); Nallajilakara (Tel.; DEP; NAD); N-al
lajirakara (Tel.; POR); Neguilla (Sp. EFS; POR); Nellajeelakaira (Tel.; KAB); Nielle de Crete (Fr.; 
KAB); Nielle Romaine (Fr.; KAB); Nigela (Mad.; Por.; POR); Nigella (Eng.; Scn.; AH2); Nigelle 
cultivee (Fr.; KAB); Nigelle de Crète (Fr.; USN); Nigelle Romaine (Fr.; KAB); Nigera (Japan; KAP); 
Nullajilakara (Tel.; KAB); Nutmeg Flower (Eng.; KAB; ZOH); Pei Hei Zhong Cao (China; POR); 
Prathvika (Sanskrit; KAB); Prithvi (Sanskrit; KAB); Prithu (Sanskrit; KAB); Prithuka (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Qahta Sauda (Yemen; GHA); Quatre Epice (Fr.; BOU); Quesah (Heb.; KAB); Roman Cor-i
ander (Eng.; HOS; USN); Romische Schwartz Kuemmel (Ger.; KAB); Samonne (Burma; KAB); 
Samon-ne (Burma; DEP; NAD); Sanoudj (Arab.; BOU); Satmung (Burma; NAD); Schwartz Kum-
mel (Ger.; EFS; KAB); Sehniz (Tur.; POR); Shanaza (Syria; HJP); Shewadaru (Afg.; DEP; KAB); 
Shouniz (Arab.; NAD); Shûnîz (Arab.; Iran; KAB; POR); Siyahbiranj (Iran; KAB); Siyahdanah 
(Iran; EFS; KAB; NAD); Siyahdaru (Afg.; KAB; NAD); Small Fennel (Eng.; DEP; KAB; NAD); 
Sthulajiraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Sushavi (Sanskrit; KAB); Svartkummin (Swe.; POR); Tchernushka 
(Mal.; KAB); Tikammin (Ber.; BOU); Toute Épice (Fr.; BOU; USN); Tukhmigandha (Kas.; DEP; 
KAB; NAD); Upakunchika (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; KAP); Upakunchiraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Zerara 
(Ber.; BOU); Zwarte Komijn (Dutch; EFS; POR); Zwarte Kummel (Dutch; EFS).
a Ctivities (bla Ck Cumi N):
Abortifacient (f; BIB; DEP; KAP); Amebicide (1; MPI); Analgesic (f1; X10552840); Anesthetic (f1; 
NAD); Anorectic (1; X15325727); Anthelmintic (f; BIB; DEP; KAP); Antiamphetamine (f; MPI); 
Antibilious (f; BIB; EFS); Anticancer (f1; FNF); Anticonvulsant (f1; X15795687); Antidiabetic (f1; 
X15589481); Antidote (Hg) (f; SKJ); Antiedemic (f1; X10552840); Antiepileptic (1; X15795687); 
Antibfi rinolytic (1; X15693715); Antibfi rosarcomic (1; X11531013); Antihistaminic (1; HAD; HHB; 
WOI); Antihypertensive (1; FNF); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; BOW; X10552840); Antileukemic (1; 
X1270717); Antileukotriene (1; X15648658); Antimetastatic (1; X15693715); Antinephrotic (1; 
X10755708); Antinociceptive (f1; HAD); Antioxidant (1; X10925395); Antioxytocic (1; FNF); Ant-i
peroxidant (1; X15785320); Antiproteinuric (1; X10755708); Antiradicular (1; PR14:323); Antisep-
tic (f1; WOI; X10548758); Antispasmodic (f1; BOU; HAD; HHB; WOI); Antitumor (colon) (f1; 
X15375533); Antitussive (f; X15890471); Antiulcer (1; HOS); Antiviral (1; HAD); Apoptotic (1; 
X15375533); Bactericide (1; HAD; HHB; WOI); Bronchodilator (f1; HAD); Calcium Antagonist (1; 
X11381824); Candidicide (1; FNF); Cardiodepressant (1; MPI); Cardioprotective (1; X9700580); 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 0
Carminative (f1; BOU; DEP; HHB; MAD; SKJ; SUW; WOI); Chemopreventive (1; X11531013; 
Choleretic (1; HHB); Cholecomimetic (1; MPI); CNS Depressant (1; MPI); Contraceptive (f; 
HAD); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; FNF); Cytotoxic (1; X1270717); Detoxicant (1; X11531013); 
Diaphoretic (f; BIB); Digestive (f; BIB; DEP); Diuretic (f1; BIB; BOU; EFS; HHB; MAD; SUW; 
WOI; X10967716); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; BOU; DEP; EFS; MAD; SUW; WOI); Fungicide (1; 
MPI); Gamma-Glutamyl Transpeptidase Inhibitor (1; X15785320); Glutathiogenic (1; X11531013; 
X15785320); Gram(+)-icide (1; YAB); Gram(-)-icide (1; YAB); Hepatoprotective (f1; X10883736); 
Histaminergic (1; X8270170); Hyperthermic (1; DEP); Hypoglycemic (1; X11744291); Hypolipid -
emic (1; X10755708); Hypotensive (1; MPI); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; X5326549); Hypouricemic 
(1; HHB); Immunostimulant (1; HAD); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X15589481); Insecticide (f1; HIL; MPI); 
Insectifuge (1; WOI); Insulinogenic (1; X15482373); Interferogenic (1; FNF); Lactagogue (f1; BIB; 
BOU; DEP; EFS; HAD; HHB; KAB; MAD; SUW; WOI); Laxative (f; BOW); 5-Lipoxygenase 
Inhibitor (1; FNF); Lipolytic (f1; X15325727); Nephroprotective (1; X5326549); NO Inhibitor (1; 
X15589481); Orexigenic (f; BIB; HAD); Pediculicide (f; DEP); Phagocytotic (1; HAD); Plasmino-
gen Activator (1; X15830841); Protein Kinase Inhibitor (1; X15589481); Protisticide (1; MPI); Pu-r
gative (f; BIB; EFS); Quinone Reductase Inducer (1; X11531013); Respirostimulant (f1; X8270170); 
Secretagogue (f; DEP); Stimulant (f; EFS); Stomachic (f; DEP; EFS); Taenicide (f1; BOU; MPI); 
Tissue-type Plasminogen Activator (t-PA) Inhibitor (1; X15693715); Tonic (f; EFS); Toxic (1; HHB); 
Uterocontractant (f; KAP); Uterotonic (f; BOW); Vermifuge (f; BIB; BOU; DEP; HAD; MAD); 
Xanthine-Oxidase Inhibitor (1; X15785320).
iNdi Catio Ns (bla Ck Cumi N):
Achylia (f; MAD); Allergy (f; HAD); Ameba (1; MPI); Amenorrhea (f; BOU; KAP); Anorexia (f1; 
BOU; HAD); Arthrosis (f1; HAD); Ascites (f; BIB); Asthma (f1; BOU; GHA; HAD; HHB; MAD; 
SKJ; WOI); Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (1; HAD); Biliousness (f; KAP); Bite (f; HAD); 
Bronchosis (f1; BOU; HAD; HHB; WOI); Bronchospasms (f1; WOI); Cachexia (f; SKJ); Callus 
(f; BIB; JLH); Cancer (f1; FNF; BIB; HAD); Cancer, abdomen (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, eye (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; JLH; X15785320); Cancer, liver (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, nose (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); Candidiasis (1; FNF); 
Cardiopathy (1; X8270171); Catarrh (f; DEP; HHB); Chest (f; GHA); Childbirth (f; GHA; SUW); 
Cholera (1; MPI); Cold (f; DEP); Colic (f; BIB); Congestion (f; GHA); Conjunctivosis (f; GHA); 
Constipation (f; GHA; SKJ); Convulsion (1; X15795687); Corn (f; BIB; JLH); Cough (f1; BOU; 
SKJ; WOI; X15890471); Cramp (f1; HHB; MAD); Dermatophyte (1; X15908151); Dermatosis (f1; 
HAD; SUW; WOI; X15908151); Diabetes (f1; HAD; X11744291; X5326549); Diarrhea (f1; MAD; 
X11381824); Dysentery (f; HHB; SKJ); Dysmenorrhea (f; BOU; DEP; KAP); Dyspepsia (f; BIB); 
Dyspnea (f1; GHA; NAD); Eczema (f; DEP; NAD); Emaciation (f; SKJ); Enterosis (f; BIB; BOU; 
MAD); Epilepsy (1; X15795687); Eruptions (f; BIB); Escherichia (1; KAP; MPI); Fever (f1; BIB; 
MAD; SUW; WOI); Fibrosarcoma (1; X11531013); Flu (f; BIB; BOU; HJP); Fungus (1; X10548758; 
X15908151); Gas (f; BOU; MAD); Gout (1; HHB); Halitosis (f; NAD); Headache (f; BIB; BOU; 
HJP); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB; BOU; GHA; KAB); Hepatosis (f1; BIB; JLH; MAD; X10883736); High 
Blood Pressure (1; MPI; X8270171); High Cholesterol (1; HAD); High Triglycerides (1; X5326549); 
HIV (1; HAD); Hydrophobia (f; BIB); Hyperlipidemia (1; X10755708); Induration (f; JLH; MAD); 
Infection (f1; HAD; X15908151); Inafl mmation (f1; X10552840); Jaundice (f; BIB; HHB; MAD); 
Leprosy (f; BOU; SKJ); Leukemia (1; X1270717); Leukorrhea (f; MAD); Lice (f; DEP); Malaria 
(f; KAP; NAD); Migraine (f; BOU); Mycosis (1; X10548758); Myrmecia (f; BIB); Nephrosis (1; 
X10755708; X5326549); Obesity (f1; FNF); Ophthalmia (f; HAD; KAB); Orchosis (f; BIB); Pain 
(f1; HAD; NAD); Paralysis (f; BIB); Parasite (f1; BOU; HAD); Pityriasis (f; DEP; NAD); PMS (f1; 
HAD; KAP); Polio (f; GHA); Proctosis (f; SKJ); Prolapse (f; SKJ); Proteinuria (1; X10755708); 
Pityriasis (f; DEP); Puerperium (f1; KAB; WOI); Pulmonosis (f; HAD; HHB; MAD); Respirosis (f; 
BOU); Rheumatism (f; PR14:323; X15890471); Rhinosis (f; BIB; JLH; NAD); Salmonella (1; HAD); 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Sclerosis (f; BIB); Sinusosis (f; BOU); Smallpox (f; SKJ); Snakebite (f; BIB); Snifefl s (f; MAD); 
Splenosis (f; MAD); Staphylococcus (1; HAD; MPI); Sting (f; HAD; SUW); Stomachache (f; BIB; 
MAD); Stomatosis (f; HAD); Swelling (f; BIB; NAD); Syphilis (f; SKJ); Taenia (f1; BOU; MPI); 
Thrombosis (1; X15830841); Toothache (f; BOU; MAD); Tumor (f; BIB; HAD); Ulcer (f1; HOS); 
Uterosis (f; JLH); Vibrio (1; MPI); Virus (1; HAD); Worm (f; BOU; MAD); Wound (f; HAD); Yeast 
(1; X10548758).
d osages (bla Ck Cumi N):
FNFF = !!
Seeds eaten as spice; mixed in bread in Europe; used whole or ground as a afl voring, especially in 
oriental cookery (BIB; TAN). Whole seeds used in Russian rye and Turkish breads; sprinkled on 
food or mixed with pepper. Seed oil also used culinarily. Arabs mix the seed with honey as a co-n
fectionary. Ethiopians add them to Capsicum pepper sauces, or use with Aframomum, Piper, and 
Zingiber in local alcoholic beverages (BIB). 1–5 g seed (KAP); 10–20 g for amenorrhea, dysmeno-r
rhea (KAP); 0.6–1.2 g seed (HHB; MAD); 1 tsp seed in hot tea (MAD).
• Algerians take the roasted seeds with butter for cough, and with honey for colic (BIB, HJP).
• Arabians rub crushed seed with Rhazya leaf, Teucrium, Zingiber, and oil onto polio 
(GHA).
• Arabians use seed as lactagogue, soaking in rose oil as eyedrops for eye infections (BIB; 
GHA).
• Asian Indians use bruised and fried seeds, in muslim (via inhalation), for catarrh and 
cold (NAD),
• Asian Indians use the seed tincture for anorexia, diarrhea, dyspepsia, and fever (KAP).;
• Asian Indians use seed oil or powdered seed in sesame oil for dermatosis (KAB; KAP).
• Ayurvedics consider the herb anthelmintic, carminative, emmenagogue, and stimulant 
(KAB).
• Ethiopians mix seed with melted butter, wrap in cloth, and sniff for headache (BIB).
• Indonesians add seeds to astringent medicines for abdominal disorders (BIB).
• Lebanese take seed extract for liver ailments (BIB).
• Malayans poultice seeds onto abscesses, headache, nasal ulcers, orchitis, and rheumatism 
(BIB).
• North Africans mix seed with honey for morning aperitif (BOU).
• One Pakistani B’hai was very impressed with how the plant lowered recalcitrant high 
triglycerides (JAD).
• Unani, considering the plant abortifacient, anthelmintic, diuretic, and emmenagogue, use 
it for cough, fever, hydrophobia, jaundice, paralysis, pulmonosis, and sore eyes (KAB).
• Yemeni use the seeds for hemorrhoids (GHA).
d ow Nsides (bla Ck Cumi N):
Seeds poisonous to man in high doses (BOU).
extra Cts (bla Ck Cumi N):
The Prophet Mohammed reportedly recommended black cumin as a cure-all to his associates in 
Arabia 1400 years ago. It remains one of the most famous medicinal herbs in the Moslem world. 
Nigellone protects guinea pigs from histamine-induced bronchospasms (WOI), suggesting one 
rationale behind its use in asthma, bronchitis, and cough. The lipid portion of the ether extract of 
the seeds has shown lactagogue activity in rats, verifying its folk usage as a lactagogue. In large 
quantities, the seeds are also used to induce abortion. LD50 alcoholic extract is 540–580 mg/kg ipr 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 0
mus MPI. The seed oil produces a concentration-dependent inhibition of tissue-type plasminogen 
activator (-tPA), urokinase-type plasminogen activator (u-PA), and plasminogen activator inhibitor 
type 1 (PAI-1). The seed oil decreases the bfi rinolytic potential of human bfi rosarcoma cells in vitro, 
possibly slowing local tumor invasion and metastasis (X15693715). Khan and Sultana (2005) show 
inhibition of renal carcinogenesis, oxidative damage, and hyperproliferation bNy igella sativa. Rats 
treated orally with 50 and 100 mg/kg body weight showed decreased gamm-aglutamyl transpepti-
dase, lipid peroxidation, xanthine oxidase, HO generation, blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, 
2 2
renal ODC activity, DNA synthesis (P < 0.001), and the incidences of tumors, and glutathione and 
antioxidant enzymes were increased signicafi ntly. In rats, Nigella could be a potent chemopreven-
tive agent suppressing oxidative stress, hyperproliferative responses, and renal carcinogenesis in 
rats (X15785320). Hosseinzadeh et al. (2005) showed that intracerebroventricular administration of 
thymoquinone suppresses epileptic seizures in rats. Thymoquinone is anticonvulsant, hypnotic, and 
muscle relaxant and alters motor coordination and locomotor activity (X15795687). Alpha-spin-as
terol signicafi ntly (circa 1000 x simvastin, a coenzyme-A inhibitor) modulates development and/or 
progression of diabetic nephropathy. It reduced signicafi ntly attendant increases of serum triglyce-r
ides, renal weight, and urinary protein excretion in diabetic mice (X13526549).
Wh Ite WAte RLILy (n ymp h AeA Alb A L.) +++ NyMph AeACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Castalia alba (L.) Woodv. & Wood; Castalia minoriflora Simonk; Castalia speciosa Salisb.; Leu-
conymphaea alba (L.) Kuntze; Nymphaea alba f. csepelensis Soó; Nymphaea alba f. limosa Soó; 
Nymphaea alba var. melocarpa Casp.; Nymphaea alba subsp. occidentalis (Ostenf.) Hyl.; Nym-
phaea erythrocarpa Hentze; Nymphaea exumbonata Rupr.; Nymphaea melocarpa (Casp.) Asch. 
& Graebn.; Nymphaea minoriflora (Simonk.) E. D. Wissjul.; Nymphaea occidentalis (Ostenf.) 
Moss; Nymphaea officinalis Gaterau; Nymphaea parviflora Hentze; Nymphaea polystigma E. H. 
L. Krause; Nymphaea rotundifolia Hentze; Nymphaea splendens Hentze; Nymphaea suaveolens 
Dumort.; Nymphaea urceolata Hentze; Nymphaea venusta Hentze
Notes (w Hite w aterlily ):
And the chapiters that were upon the top of the pillars were of lily work in the porch, four cubits.
I Kings 7:19 (KJV)
Numerous sculptured representations in ancient Egyptian tombs show their concern with waterli-l
ies, probably N. alba or N. lotus. Zohary reports N. alba as the only white-ofl wered waterlily in 
Israel. UPW lists Nelumbo lotus as the Egyptian waterlily. As UPW notes, the common names used 
in Africa (see UPW entries below, ascribed to the closely related Nymphaea lotus) could apply to 
any white-ofl wered waterlily. The ofl wers are still admired by Egyptians, whose belles often wear 
them in their headdresses. The ofl wer was sacred to Egyptians more than 4000 years ago. Waterli-l
ies prevail in such distant cultures as Mexico, Japan, India, and China. Even ancient Greeks had a 
legend that a beautiful nymph, deserted by Hercules, ufl ng herself into the Nile to be transformed 
into a white lotus. It is the national ofl wer of Thailand. Some suspect waterlilies of being narcotic. 
Rhizomes are used for tanning. There was, in Homer’s Odyssey, a mythical nation where the people 
subsisted wholly on lotus, and lived in dreamy indolence induced by the diet. In later stories, these 
people became the North African lotophagi or “Homeric lotus eaters.” Osinis, the great Egyptian 
God of the Underworld, and Judge of the Dead, is represented as wearing a crown of sacred lotus 
ofl wers. Horus, the God of Silence, sits, like Buddha, on a lotus with a finger to his lip, commanding 
silence (BIB). Regarded as an aphrodisiac, astringent, diaphoretic, hemostat, narcotic, and sedative, 
this species has reportedly served as a folk remedy for cancer, diarrhea, spasms, and tumors (e.g., 
of the testes).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
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FIGURe . White Waterlily (Nymphaea alba).
Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 0
Commo N Names (w Hite w aterlily ):
Alga Palustris (?; JLH); Bach Lieu Tu (Ic.; KAB); Bado (Hausa; KAB); Beyaz Nilüfer (Tur.; EFS); 
Bhash es Samak (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Bishine (Nig.; UPW); Bololol (Upper Volta; UPW); Bondai 
(Niger; UPW); Brimposh (Kas.; DEP; NAD); Cacabus Veneris (?; JLH); Carfano (It.; EFS; KAB); 
Cobetenas (Sp.; EFS); Duilleoghuidhebhaitighe (Irish; KAB); European White Waterlily (Eng.; 
Ocn.; AH2); Flatterdock (Eng.; TAN); Golfão Branco (Por.; EFS); Grzybienie (Pol.; KAB); Hung 
Pai (China; KAB); Jaberri Faro (Gambia; UPW); Kamud (Kas.; DEP); Kien Thiet (Vn.; KAB); 
Kubishka (Rus.; KAB); Kumuda (Ayu.; Sanskrit; AH2; NAD); Lis Blanc des Étangs (Fr.; EFS); Lis 
d’Eau (Fr.; KAB); Lotus Lily (Eng.; KAB); Ndairi (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Nénuphar Blanc (Fr.; EFS); 
Nénuphar Blanco (Sp.; EFS); Nilofar (Kas.; DEP); Nilufar (Arab.; KAB); Nimphea Branca (Por.; 
KAB); Ninfea Bianca (It.; EFS); Ninfea Blanca (Sp.; KAB); Ntanowa (Ghana; UPW); Nttanowa 
(Akwapim; KAB); Nungu (Guinea; UPW); Nymphéa Blanc (Fr.; USN); Pandharenkamal (Bom.; 
KAB); Papaver Palustre (?; JLH); Papeo (It.; EFS); Platos (Sp.; EFS); Pluta (Rom.; KAB); Rosa de 
Amor (Sp.; EFS); Sasa (Sierra Leone; UPW); Sebluomen (?; JLH); Sidi (Greek; KAB); Sjoeblad 
(Swe.; KAB); Soeblomster (Den.; KAB); Sórose (Den.; EFS); Tchingalir (Guinea-Bissau; UPW); 
Tertermantrer (Ga.; KAB); Ul Haudhan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Water Rose (Eng.; KAB); Weisse Se-e
blume (Ger.; KAB); Weisse Seerose (Ger.; EFS; USN); Weisse Teichrose (Ger.; EFS); White Pon-
dlily (Eng.; EFS); White Waterlily (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; EFS; USN); Witte Plomp (Dutch; EFS); Witte 
Waterlelie (Dutch; EFS); Yi a Kwe (Liberia; UPW).
a Ctivities (w Hite w aterlily ):
Anaphrodisiac (f; DEP; EFS); Anodyne (f; HJP); Antiinafl mmatory (f; GAZ); Antioxidant (1; 
X15881650); Antiperoxidant (1; X15881650); Antiproliferant (1; X15881650); Antispasmodic (f1; 
EFS; WOI); Astringent (f; DEP; EFS); Chemopreventive (1; X15881650); Demulcent (f; NAD); Dig -
italic (1; WOI); Diaphoretic (f; DEP); Diuretic (1; MPI); Glutathiogenic (1; X15881650); Hemostat 
(f; EFS; HJP); Narcotic (f; DEP; EFS); Nephroprotective (1; X15881650); Paralytic (f1; WOI); Sed-a
tive (f1; WOI); Vulnerary (f; HJP); Xanthine-Oxidase Inhibitor (1; X15881650).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite w aterlily ):
Bleeding (f; HJP); Boil (f; HJP); Cancer (f1; HJP; JLH; X15881650); Cancer, kidney (1; X15881650); 
Cancer, testes (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; HJP); Cramp (f; EFS); Diarrhea (f; DEP; EFS; KAB); Dy-s
entery (f; DEP; KAB; HJP); Gastrosis (f; HJP); Inafl mmation (f; GAZ); Insomnia (f; GAZ); Leukor -
rhea (f; GAZ); Nephrosis (1; X15881650); Nymphomania (f; GAZ); Orchosis (f; JLH); Pain (f; HJP); 
Pharyngosis (f; GAZ); Parasite (f; HJP); Stomatosis (f; GAZ); Ulcer (f; HJP); Vaginosis (f; GAZ); 
Venereal Disease (f; HJP).
d osages (w Hite w aterlily ):
FNFF = !!
Seeds, roots, and stalks are common foodstuffs in Egypt. The seeds are ground into ofl ur for bread, or 
are roasted and eaten like a nut. Rhizomes are boiled before consumption. Rootstocks and seeds also 
eaten elswehere; starch-rich roots are a source of starch; fermented to make a French beer (BIB; DEP).
• Gabonese eat stewed leaves in pregnancy, applying leaves to itch (N. lotus) (UPW).
• Hausa use seed (N. lotus) for eruptive fevers (UPW).
• Iranians take ofl wers, often mixed with sugar, Adiantum, Viola, Ziziphus, and “oxtongue,” 
for chest ailments and fevers (BIB).
• Ivory Coastals use decoction for bronchitis and cough (N. lotus) (UPW).
• Lebanese slice and boil dried or powdered roots for boils, dysentery, parasites, ulcers, 
and venereal disease (HJP).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Nigerians take leaf decoction (N. lotus) as anodyne and to prevent abortion (UPW).
• Nigerians use seed (N. lotus) for skin diseases (UPW).
• Pennsylvanians apply the root to tumors (JLH).
• Senegalese attribute (N. lotus) antiemetic, sedative, and vermifugal properties (UPW).
• Tanganyikans sprinkle fruit ashes on burns, using root decoction for insanity N(. lotus) 
(UPW).
d ow Nsides (w Hite w aterlily ):
None reported (GAZ).
extra Cts (w Hite w aterlily ):
Roots contain gallic acids. The alkaloid nymphaeine is present in all parts of the plant, except 
the seeds. Toxic to frogs, it produces tetanus-like symptoms. Alcoholic extracts of the rhizome 
(containing the alkaloid) are mildly sedative and spasmolytic; they do not signicafi ntly depress the 
heart; in large doses, they paralyze the medulla. A glycoside nymphalin with digital-ilsike action 
occurs in the ofl wers (BIB). Khan and Sultana (2005) showed anticarcinogenic effects against o-xi
dative damage, hyperproliferative response, and renal carcinogenesis in Wistar rats. Treatment with 
100 and 200 mg/kg body weight signicafi ntly decreased gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, lipid per-
oxidation, xanthine oxidase, HO generation, blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, renal ODC 
2 2
activity, DNA synthesis, and incidence of tumors. Renal glutathione also recovered (X15881650).
o LIve (o le A europe A L.) ++ o LeACeAe
Notes (o live ):
His branches shall spread, and his beauty shall be as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon.
Hosea 14:6 (KJV)
His shoots shall spread out; his beauty shall be like the olive, and his fragrance like Lebanon.
Hosea 14:6 (RSV)
His twigs will go forth, and his dignity will become like that of the olive tree, and his fragrance 
will be like that of Lebanon.
Hosea 14:6 (NWT)
Olive is mentioned in 33 works of the KJV, including, for example, 5 citations in Deuteronomy.
As one of the most valuable of Holy Land trees, small wonder that it is also one of the most fr-e
quently mentioned. Even my best African resource book (UPW), naming many antimalarial plants 
in Africa, notes that it is not only oft mentioned in the Old Testament, but it also features prom-i
nently in Greek mythology. “It has become symbolic of peace, plenty, prosperity, and achievment” 
(UPW), and let me add health and the Mediterranean diet. Romans thought it the idyllic status sy-m
bol to have juice of the grape, alias wine, inside, and oil of the olive, alias olive oil, outside (UPW). 
And that oil was olive oil, one of our better sources of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs). Bib-li
cal passages, where the word anoint appears, usually mean anoint with olive oil, often used as the 
carrier for perfumes. One scholar has said that no tree is more closely associated with the history of man 
and development of civilization than the olive. An Arabic proverb has it that gardens are folly while 
olives are kings. Olive oil was the base of the perfumed ointments sold in classic Athens and Rome. It is 
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 0
also used in the textile industry in wool combing. Olive pomace, the residue after milling, is used in 
animal feeds. The stones (seeds) are used in the manufacture of molded products and plastics. The 
bitter glucoside, oleuropein, of green olives is usually neutralized with lye or caustic soda before 
pickling. Wood is hard, beautifully grained, used in turnery and cabinet making. In Italy, an olive 
branch is hung over the door to keep out evil spirits (BIB).
Commo N Names (o live ):
Aceituno (Peru; Sp.; KAB); Amil (Ber.; BOU); Amourgha (Arab.; BOU); Arbre Eternel (Fr.; EFS); 
Azeboudj (Ber.; BOU); Azemmour (Ber.; BOU); Bouttaillaou (Lan.; KAB); Elaia (Greek; KAB); 
Itm (Arab.; GHA); Jaituni (Fula; Nig.; UPW); Jirjir (Arab.; Malaya; IHB); Julipe (Kan.; KAB); 
Karazeytin (Tur.; EB51:195); Man Zaitun (Hausa; UPW); Maslin (Rom.; KAB); Mitan (Dho.; Oman; 
GHA); Ölbaum (Ger.; HH2); Oleastro (It.; EFS); Olijfboom (Dutch; EFS); Oliva (Rus.; KAB); Olive 
(Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Oliveira (Por.; EFS); Oliveira Brava (Por.; UPW); Oliven Ölbaum (Ger.; 
EFS); Olivenbaum (Ger.; HH2); Olivera (Cat.; KAB); Olivier (Fr.; BOU); Olivier Sauvage (Fr.; 
BOU); Olivio (Sp.; EFS); Olivo (It.; Peru; Sp.; EFS; HH2; KAB; ROE); Olivo Selvatico (It.; EFS); 
Oliwa Drzewo (Pol.; KAB); Oljetroee (Den.; KAB); Oljetroeed (Swe.; KAB); Saisun (Tam.; KAB); 
Tahatimt (Tamachek; MALI); Tazbboujt (Ber.; BOU); Thatimt (Ber.; BOU); Tsi T’un (China; TAN; 
UPW); Tzetta (Ber.; BOU); Ulivo (It.; KAB; HH2; UPW); Zait (Arab.; Malaya; IHB); Zaitun (Arab.; 
Malaya; IHB); Zayit (Heb.; KAB); Zaytoun (Arab.; BOU); Zebboudj (Arab.; BOU); Zebbour (Arab.; 
BOU); Zebbug (Malta; KAB); Zeytin (Tur.; EB49:406); Zeytin Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Zeytun (Arab.; 
Malaya; Mali; IHB; UPW); Zzit (Ber.; BOU).
a Ctivities (o live ):
ACE Inhibitor (1; VVG); Antiadrenergic (1.×  1507016);1 Antiarrhythmic (1; PHR; PH2; X15070161); 
Antiatherosclerotic (1; X12648829); Antidysrhythmic (1; X15070161); Antihypertensive (1; APA; 
X12648829); Antiischemic (1; X15070161); Antioxidant (1; APA); Antipyretic (f; VVG); Antiscle-
rotic (f; ZUL); Antiseptic (f; EFS); Antispasmodic (1; PHR; PH2; ZUL); Astringent (f1; EFS; KAB; 
ZUL); Bactericide (f1; BIB; BOU); Beta-Adrenergic Antagonist (1; X15070161); Beta-Blocker (1; 
X15070161); Cardioprotective (1; X15070161); Cardiotonic (1; X15070161); Cholagogue (f; BIB; BOU; 
EFS); Collyrium (f; ZUL); Depurative (f; ZUL); Diuretic (f1; APA; BOU; PHR; VVG; X12648829); 
Dromotropic (1; X15070161); Febrifuge (f; EFS); Hypocholesterolemic (1; HH2); Hypoglycemic (1; 
APA; BIB; BOU; HH2; VVG); Hypotensive (f1; APA; BIB; BOU; PH2; SKJ; VVG; ZUL; X15070161); 
Hypouricemic (1; ZUL); Lactogogue (f; NMH); Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (1; X15086818); Mollusci-
cide (1; HH2); Myorelaxant (1; ZUL); Nephrotonic (f; VVG); Pectoral (f; BIB); Positive Inotropic (1; 
X15070161); Tonic (f; VVG); Vasodepressor (1; X15070161); Vasodilator (1; ZUL).
iNdi Catio Ns (o live l ea F):
Aphtha (f; BOU); Arrhythmia (1; PH2); Atherosclerosis (1; HH2; X12648829); Bacteria (f1; BIB; 
BOU; ROE); Boil (f; GHA); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, gum (f; JLH); Ca-r
diopathy (1; APA; PH2; X15070161); Cataract (f; GHA); Colic (f; VVG; ZUL); Condyloma (f; BIB; 
JLH); Constipation (f; GHA); Corns (f; ZUL); Cough (f; BOU); Cystosis (f; ZUL); Dermatosis (f; 
GHA); Diabetes (f1; APA; BIB; BOU; HH2; ROE); Diarrhea (f; UPW; VVG); Diptheria (f; ZUL); 
Dysrhythmia (1; X15070161); Fever (f; APA; HH2; UPW; VVG); Fracture (f; GHA); Gingivosis (f; 
GHA; JLH); Gout (f; HH2; ROE); Headache (f; ZUL); Hemorrhoid (f; EB51:195); Hepatosis (f; BIB); 
High Blood Pressure (1; APA; PH2; ROE; X15070161); High Cholesterol (1; HH2); Hypertonia (1; 
PHR); Malaria (f; FEL; KAB; ZUL); Mastosis (f; JLH); Ophthalmia (f; UPW; VVG; ZUL); Pain 
(f; EB51:195); Rheumatism (f; HH2; ZUL); Schistosomiasis (1; HH2); Scrofula (f; EFS; ZUL); Sore 
(f; UPW); Sore Throat (f; UPW; VVG; ZUL); Sprain (f; EB51:195); Stenocardia (1; X15070161); 
Stomatosis (f; BOU); Swelling (f; EB51:195); UTIs (f; ZUL); Venereal Disease (f; JLH); Virus (1; 
X15869811); Wart (f; BIB; JLH); Wounds (f; APA).
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FIGURe . Olive Leaf (Olea europea).
d osages (o live ):
FNFF = !!!
Although processed olives are a mainstay in American culture, it takes a lot of processing to make 
them edible. The relatively inedible fruits are pickled or cured with brine, lye, oil, salt and/or water. 
They can be sun-cured and eaten as relish. Leaves of the African variety are used as a condiment. 
(FAC). Leaves are capable of exuding manna (UPW): 7–8 g dry leaf in 150 ml water, 3–4 ×/day 
(that totals to an ounce of leaf (APA); 2 tsp leaf in hot water and steep 30 minutes (PHR).
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• Algerians chew the leaves for toothache and oral sores caused by excess tobacco (HJP).
• Dhofari apply pounded leaves to boils, dermatoses, and itch, and apply burnt leaf ashes 
to blisters and sores (GHA).
• Dhofari take bark decoction or macerate for constipation (GHA).
• Eclectics suggest a “wineglass” of leaf decoction every 3 hours for malaria (FEL).
• Levant citizenry boil a handful in a quart of water until reduced to a pint, and drink for 
obstinate fevers (GMH).
• North Africans use leaves or their extracts as an antibacterial, antidiabetic, cholagogue, 
diuretic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, and pectoral, the wood decoction for aphtha and 
stomatitis (BOU).
• Peruvians suggest the diuretic leaf decoction for high blood pressure (EGG).
• Saudis use the stems as toothbrushes to keep the gums healthy (GHA).
d ow Nsides (o live ):
None known at proper dosage (PHR).
Natural History (o live ):
Beta-sitosterol, more so than beta-sitosteryl-D-glucoside, stimulated feeding of the olive weevil 
(Dyscerus perforatus) (X12872942). (-)-Olivil and (+)-1-acetoxypinoresinol, minor lignans, were 
signicafi ntly higher feeding attractants for the female than for the male weevil (X12729011).
extra Cts (o live ):
From extra-virgin olive oil, Beauchamp et al. (2005) describe a new antiinafl mmatory COX-2-
inhibiting phytochemical, oleocanthal, comparable, they say, to ibuprofen, even in pungency 
(X16136122). Micol et al. (2005) demonstrated antiviral activity against viral haemorrhagic s-ep
ticaemia rhabdovirus (VHSV), a salmonid rhabdovirus, for leaf extracts and oleuropein, reducing 
viral infectivity 10 to 30%, respectively (X15869811). Somova et al. (2004) demonstrated cardi-o
tonic and antidysrhythmic activities of oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, methyl maslinate, and uvaol, 
all of which showed low toxicity on brine shrimp. Oleanolic acid and methyl maslinate displayed 
a signicafi nt, dose-related vasodepressor effect on sinus bradycardia, acting as beta-adrenergic 
antagonists, blocking the effect of adrenaline and isoprenaline. They also exhibited positive in-o
tropic and dromotropic effects (X15070161). Here is a suite of compounds acting on cardiopathy at 
many levels: antiarrhythmic, antidysrhythmic; anti-ischemic; beta-blocker; cardioprotective; ca- r
diotonic; dromotropic, hypotensive, positive-inotropic; and vasopressor. LD50 = 1300 mg/lg ipr 
mus; >3000 mg/kg orl mus.
o LIve o IL (o le A europe A L.) +++
Notes (o live o il ):
The Mediterranean diet (high in olive oil, vegetables, fruit, sfi h, and lean meat) signicfi antly 
reduces recurrence of adenoma, and may reduce the recurrence of colorectal adenomas, at least in 
women (X15677892).
a Ctivities (o live o il ):
Adaptogenic (1; X15566625); Antiaggregant (1; APA); Antiatherosclerotic (1; X15585759); Antidote 
(f; BOU); Antidote (lead) (f; FEL); Antiinafl mmatory (1; X15665734); Apoptotic (1; X15642702); 
Cardioprotective (1; APA); Chemopreventive (1; X15677892; X15642702); Cholagogue (f; BOU); 
Demulcent (f; KAB; WOI); Emollient (f1; APA; KAB; WOI); Enteroprotective (1; APA; X15677892); 
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Gastroprotective (f1; APA); Hypercholesterolemic (1; APA; X15572303);  Hypoglycemic (1; APA); 
Laxative (f1; APA; KAB; WOI); Orexigenic (f; BOU); Purgative (f; BOU); Vulnerary (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (o live o il ):
Abscess (f; BOU); Adenoma (1; X15677892); Anorexia (f; BOU); Antidote (poison) (f; GMH); 
Arthrosis (f; GMH; ROE); Asthenia (f; BOU); Atherosclerosis (1; X15585759); Biliousness (f; 
ROE); Bite (f; FEL); Blister (f; GHA); Boil (f; BOU); Bruise (f; FEL); Burn (f; FEL); Calculus 
(f; ROE); Callus (f; JLH; X15677892); Cancer (f1; JLH; X15677892); Cancer, breast (f1; JLH; 
X15677892; X15642702); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH; X15677892); Cancer, liver (f1; JLH; X15677892); 
Cancer, neck (f1; JLH; X15677892); Cancer, spleen (f1; JLH; X15677892); Cancer, stomach (f1; 
JLH; X15677892); Cardiopathy (1; APA); Cholecocystosis (1; PHR); Colic (f; ROE); Constipation 
(f; BOU; ROE); Corns (f; ZUL); Dermatosis (f; GHA; GMH); Diabetes (1; APA); Dropsy (f; GMH); 
Earache (f; FEL); Earwax (f1; APA); Endotoxic Shock (1; X15665734); Enterosis (f1; APA; GMH); 
Exanthema (f; FEL); Gallstone (f; GMH); Gastrosis (f1; APA; JLH); Hepatosis (f; BOU; JLH; ROE); 
High Cholesterol (1; APA); Induration (f; JLH; X15677892); Inafl mmation (1; X15665734); Itch (f; 
GMH); Mastosis (f; FEL); Myalgia (f; GMH); Ophthalmia (f; GHA; JLH); Phthisis (f; FEL); Plague 
(f; FEL; GMH); Proctosis (f; FEL); Pulmonosis (f; GMH); Rheumatism (f; ROE); Scarlatina (f; 
FEL; GMH); Shock (1; X15665734); Sore (f; GHA); Splenosis (f; JLH); Sting (f; ROE); Stone (f; 
FEL; ROE); Stress (1; X15566625); Typhoid (f; GMH); Worm (f; FEL; GMH); Wound (f; FEL).
d osages (o live o il ):
FNFF = !!!
Romans thought it an idyllic status symbol to have juice of the grape, alias wine, inside, and oil of 
the olive, alias olive oil, outside. Olive oil has been deemed one of the best MUFA oils. As early as 
1931 we read that it is best for cooking, and a valuable article of diet for both sick and healthy of all 
ages. Delicate babies absorb its nourishing properties through the skin (GMH). 1–2 oz olive oil as a 
laxative (APA); 1 Tbsp olive oil in the morning to protect the GI tract linings (APA); 1 oz as purge 
(FEL); 15–60 ml olive oil (PNC).
• Algerians use for baldness, cough, earache, fractures, gonorrhea, hemorrhage, hernia, 
impotence, liver congestion, skin diseases, sprains and stones (HJP).
• Arabs apply fruit juice around the eyes to soothe (GHA).
• Arabs mix powdered fruits with dates and salt to paste on fractures (GHA).
• Dutch East Indians apply olive oil or fruits to cancers (JLH).
• Germans and North Americans apply olive oil poultice to breast cancer (JLH).
• Latinos rub arthritic areas with olive oil (JAD).
• Peruvians treat cancer with olive oilP/lumbago salve (JLH).
d ow Nsides (o live o il ):
Class 1 (JAD). Commission E reports the oil should not be used in patients with gall- or bile stones 
because of the risk that a biliary colic is induced. Topical application rarely results in allergic skin 
reactions (AEH).
extra Cts (o live o il ):
Olive oil contains 0.05–1% phenolics (3–11 ppm p-hydroxyphenylethanol; 1.4–5.5 ppm 3,4-dihydroxy-
phenylethanol; 0.8–3.2 ppm protocatechuic acid; 0.9–3.5 ppm p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 0.5–2.2 ppm 
vanilic acid; 0.4–1.8 ppm syringic acid, 0.3–1.1 ppm cinnamic acid, 0.3–1.2 ppm p-coumaric acid, 0.3–
1.2 ppm o-coumarinic acid, 0.4–11.7 ppm caffeic-acid); 0 0.0125–0.75% carbohydrates, 0.125–0.25% 
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sterols, 500 ppm triterpenealcohol and hydroxytriterpene acids, 175–200 ppm tocopherol, 40–135 phos-
pholipids, 3–13 ppm carotenoids, 1–10 ppm chlorophyll, and 0.2–20 ppm phaeophytine. The oil contains 
1310 ppm beta-sitosterol, 58 ppm delta-7-stigmasterol, 29 ppm delta-5-avenasterol, 28 ppm campesterol, 
and 14 ppm stigmasterol. Obied et al. (2005) reported the following chemicals and activities in olive mill 
wastes, estimating recovery of 98% of the biophenols; that suggests to me that one would be 49 times 
better off eating the residues as the olive, at least as far as biophenols are concerned (e.g., caffeic acid 
(antiatherogenic, antidepressant, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiseptic, chemopreventive); catechol 
(antioxidant, antiseptic, antitumor, carcinogenic, herbicide); -pcoumaric acid (antioxidant, antiseptic, 
chemopreventive); elenoic acid (antiseptic, antiviral); hydroxytyrosol (antiatherogenic, antiinflamma-
tory, antioxidant, antiseptic, atheroprotective, cardioprotective, chemopreventive, whitener); oleur-o
pein (antiatherogenic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, cardioactive, hypoglycemic); 
rutin (antiatherogenic, antiinafl mmaory, antioxidant, cardioactive, cytostatic, thyrostimulant); tyrosol 
(antiatherogenic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, cardioactive, cytostatic, thyrostimulant); vanillic acid 
(antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, antiseptic); and verbascoside (antiatherogenic, antiinflammatory, 
antioxidant, chemopreventive) (FNF; X15712986). It is thus another recitation of the same old story 
— the unprocessed food is an order of magnitude better than the processed. Our paleolithic foods were 
better than that brought to us by our USDA and food processing industry.
LeBANese o ReGANo ( o r ig Anum syri Ac um L.) +++ LAMIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Amaracus syriacus (L.) Stokes; Marjorana crassa Moench.; Marjorana crassifolia Benth Raf.; 
Marjorana maru (L.) Brig.; Marjorana nervosa Benth.; Marjorana scutellifolia Stokes; Marjorana 
syriacum (L.) Raf.; Origanum crassa (Moench.) Chev.; Origanum maru L.; Origanum pseudo-
onites Lindberg fide HH2
Notes (l eba Nese o rega No ):
Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean: wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.
Psalms 51:7 (KJV)
Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean; wash me, and I shall be whiter than snow.
Psalms 51:7 (RSV)
May you purify me from sin with hyssop, that I may be clean; may you wash me, that I may 
become whiter even than the snow.
Psalms 51:7 (NWT)
This is the first time I remember both the KJV and the RSV reading exactly alike, in these two in 
the imperative. And the meaning is pretty much the same in the NWT. As almost always, at least 
in my limited purview, the NWT takes more space to say the same thing. However, it is difcfi ult 
to simplify a Psalm such as this one. Recent scholars suggest that the hyssop of the Old Testament 
is most probably Origanum syriacum, not Origanum maru, as I concluded in my 1985 book. The 
herb more usually called hyssop, Hyssopus officinalis , does not even grow in Israel or Sinai (ZOH). 
Tucker and DeBaggio, like Zohary, refer bibliophiles to Origanum syriacum as the plant name for 
hyssop in the Bible. This species is abundant in the Holy Land, usually among dwarf shrubs on 
stony grounds. Alternatively, many scholars tend to agree that the hyssop of the Crucifixion is a sor-
ghum. The common oregano (O. vulgare), herb of the year in 2005, so well known in gardens, grows 
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to the north of the biblical settings, while O. syriacum abounds throughout the central hills. An 
aromatic substance is obtained from the crushed and dried leaves. The “hyssop” of the Scriptures 
was used to sprinkle the doorposts of the Israelites in Egypt with the blood of the Paschal Lamb so 
that the angel of death would pass by that house. It was employed in the puricatfi ion of lepers and 
leprous houses, suggesting the Psalmists purge.
Commo N Names (l eba Nese o rega No ):
Biblical Hyssop (Eng.; TAD); Echter Staudenmajoran (Ger.; HH2); Egyptian Marjoram (Eng.; BIB); 
Ezov (Heb.; TAD; ZOH); Hyssop (Eng.; BIB; TAD); Lebanese Oregano (Eng.; TAD; USN); Syrian 
Hyssop (Eng.; TAD; ZOH); Syrian Majoram (Eng.; HH2); White Oregano (Eng.; TAD); Wild Ma-r
joram (Eng.; X12009988); Ysop (Eng.; HH2); Za’atar (Arab.; TAD; ZOH). One author mentioned 
more than fifty species in six plant families going under the confusing common name “oregano” 
(EB42:232). Nscn.
a Ctivities (l eba Nese o rega No ):
Analgesic (f; HH2); Antiacetylcholinesterase (1; X15652288); Antioxidant (1; X14969528); Antir-a
dicular (1; X14969528); Antispasmodic (f; BIB); Diuretic (f; BIB); Emmenagogue (f; BIB); Fungi-
cide (1; TAD); Insecticide (1; HH2); Iron Chelator (1; X14969528); Laxative (f; BIB); Purgative (f; 
BIB); Stimulant (f; BIB); Sudoric (fi f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (l eba Nese o rega No ):
Cancer (f; JLH); Cardialgia (f; HH2); Cardiopathy (f; HH2); Cold (f; BIB); Colic (f; BIB); Cons-ti
pation (f; BIB); Cough (f; HH2); Debility (f; HH2); Dermatosis (f; BIB); Dysmenorrhea (f; HH2); 
Fibroid (f; BIB); Fungus (1; TAD); Infection (1; TAD); Leprosy (f; BIB); Mycosis (1; TAD); Pain (f; 
HH2); Paralysis (f; BIB); Polyp (f; BIB); Rheumatism (f; BIB); Sprain (f; BIB); Swelling (f; BIB); 
Toothache (f; HH2); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; JLH).
d osages (l eba Nese o rega No ):
FNFF = !!
Fruits of Sicilian sumac are crushed with Origanum syriacum to constitute main ingredients of the 
Middle Eastern spice mixture called za’atar (FAC; TAD). Arabs use it in teas and cook it in baked 
foods. Sold in the markets, it is a popular Arab spice (ZOH). The uses of the Syrian marjoram, if in 
fact it is specicafi lly distinct, are not expected to differ from those of the true marjoram (BIB).
• Lebanese apply leaves to rheumatic sprains and swellings (BIB).
• Lebanese take tea of Origanum maru for childrens colds and colic (HPP)
extra Cts (l eba Nese o rega No ):
As theoretically one of the richest sources of carvacrol in my USDA database (up to 5% essential 
oil; up to 80% of which can be carvacrol), this plant probably shares many of the biological activ-i
ties of carvacrol.
st AR o F Bet h Lehe M (o rnith o g Allum umbe l l Atum L.) + LILIACeAe
Notes (star o F bet HleHem ):
And there was a great famine in Samaria: and, behold, they besieged it, until an ass’s head was sold 
for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove’s dung for vfi e pieces of silver.
2 Kings 6:25 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogallum umbellatum).
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And there was a great famine in Sama’ria, as they besieged it, until an ass’s head was sold for 
eighty shekels of silver, and the fourth part of a kab of dove’s dung for five shekels of silver.
2 Kings 6:25 (RSV)
In time a great famine arose in Sama’ria, and look! they were besieging it until an ass’s head got 
to be worth eighty silver pieces, and the fourth of a cab measure of dove’s dung was worth vfi e 
silver pieces.
2 Kings 6:25 (NWT)
Whether in the KJV, the RSV, or the NWT, in 2 Kings 6:25 it is consistently “dove’s dung,” appar-
ently a famine food that commanded good money during a famine in Samaria. To this day, I still 
think of it only as famine food. And yet Zohary neither indexes Ornithogalum nor “dove’s dung,” 
nor the more euphonious “Star of Bethlehem,” alluding to the six white points of the ofl wer. So be it. 
Bulbs were used for food in Syria. In Dioscorides’ day, the bulbs were commonly gathered, ground 
into meal, and mixed with ofl ur to make bread. Modern Italians in time of scarcity eat the bulb. 
As Moldenke and Moldenke (1952) note, “These apparently authentic reports are remarkable since 
chemical analysis shows that the entire plant is intensely poisonous. Grazing animals avoid it, or, if 
they do eat of it are poisoned … the bulbs are edible only after being thoroughly roasted or boiled.” 
Having read such alarming notes, I ventured out one March morning and boiled a few of the bulbs 
from the dark green weedy patches in my lawn. I boiled the tubers vigorously, without salt, and then 
cautiously consumed one. It had a saponaceous quality, suggesting to me that I might be consum-
ing a hemolytic saponin from a dangerous family. There was a bitter aftertaste. Then I salted the 
bulb, which was a bit more palatable. I would need to be near starvation to consume more of these. I 
experienced a shortness-of-breath following the ingestion of only two bulbs. Philips (HJP) said that 
Egyptians and Syrians stored the bulbs for their pilgrimages to Mecca. My favorite foraging book 
for use in the efi ld, Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, also treats them as edible, while 
my favorite poisonous plants text reports that the bulbs have caused death in cattle in the United 
States. Because the pretty stars open rather late in the day, they have been called “Sleepy Dick” 
or “Eleven O’Clock Lady.” They marked 11:00 a.m. in Linnaeus’s ofl ral clock. I find that even as a 
ofl ral clock species, it is not very timely. Specimens pulled during the day and left under ufl orescent 
bulbs until 11:00 p.m. never close; hence, they do not open the next day. However, similar batches 
of specimens placed on a table in the unlit gazebo of the Green Farmacy Garden do close, early on 
dark days, later on bright days, to reopen with the morning light (BIB).
Commo N Names (star o F bet HleHem ):
Aglio Florido (It.; HHB); Bath Asparagus (Eng.; GMH); Bella d’Undici Ore (Fr.; EFS); Belle d’Onze 
Heures (Fr.; EFS); Bogelmelk (Dutch; EFS); Cipollone Bianco (It.; HHB); Dame d’Onze Heures 
(Fr.; EFS); Dolden Milchstern (Ger.; USN); Doldiger Milchstern (Ger.; HH2); Dove’s Dung (Eng.; 
GMH); Ebenstraussige (Ger.; HHB); Great Arabic Star Flower (Eng.; GMH); Leche de Gallina (Sp.; 
EFS); Leite de Galinha (Por.; EFS); Lesser Spanish Star (Eng.; GMH); Milchstern (Ger.; EFS); Nap 
at Noon (Eng.; HOC; USN); Ornitagalo (Sp.; EFS); Ornithogalum (Greek; GMH); Sleepy Dick 
(Eng.; USN); Snowdrop (Eng.; HHB; HOC); Star of Bethlehem (Eng.; CR2; EFS); Star of Hungary 
(Eng.; GMH); Stern von Bethlehem (Ger.; USN); Tükrükotu (Tur.; EFS); Vogelmilch (Ger.; EFS; 
HHB); White Field Onion (Eng.; GMH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (star o F bet HleHem ):
Cardiotonic (1; HOC); Digitalic (1; HOC); Emollient (f; HHB; HOC); Poison (f; CRC).
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iNdi Catio Ns (star o F bet HleHem ):
Adenopathy (f; CRC; HJP); Cancer (f; GMH); Cardiopathy (1; HOC); Debility (f; CRC; HJP); Lym-
phosis (f; CRC). Bulbs of other eastern species were used for cachexia, infections, parotitis, scabs, 
ulcers, and wasting disease.
d osages (star o F bet HleHem ):
FNFF = ?
Although EFS defines it as nutritive, and FAC, GMH, HOW, and TAN, and even Dioscorides, say 
that bulbs are edible, raw or cooked, I no longer feel safe with these bulbs as food. Facciola says the 
ofl wers are eaten baked in bread (FAC).
• Lebanese used the bulb for lymphatic ailments and recommended them in diets for debi-l
ity (HJP).
d ow Nsides (star o F bet HleHem ):
For a change, I should like to mention Peggy Duke, who illustrated Steve Hill’s and Peggy Duke’s 
1985 100 Poisonous Plants of Maryland. “The bulbs contain toxic alkaloids that have killed sheep 
and cattle. There have been heavy losses in Maryland, where more than 1000 sheep were lost in a 
single year after eating bulbs that were brought to the surface by frost heaves. Apparently the leaves 
are not poisonous” (Hill and Duke, 1985).
extra Cts (star o F bet HleHem ):
Although early reports of the gout medicine colchicine have been extricated from the credible liter-a
ture, there are still reports of other toxins (e.g., convallotoxin, convalloside, and strophanthidin) in 
Ornithogalum.
Ch RIst ’s tho RN (pAliuris spin A-christi MILL.) + Rh AMNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Paliurus aculeatus Lam.; Paliurus australis Gaertn.; Rhamnus paliurus L.
Notes (CHrist ’s t Hor N):
And when they had platted a crown of thorns, they put it upon his head, and a reed in his right 
hand: and they bowed the knee before him, and mocked him, saying, Hail, King of the Jews!
Matthew 27:29 (KJV)
And plaiting a crown of thorns they put it on his head, and put a reed in his right hand. And 
kneeling before him they mocked him, saying, “Hail, King of the Jews!”
Matthew 27:29 (RSV)
And they braided a crown out of thorns and put it on his head, and a reed in his right hand. And 
kneeling before him they made fun of him, saying, “Good day, you King of the Jews!”
Matthew 27:29 (NWT)
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To my surprise, there are two Rhamnaceous crown of thorns: one in the genus Paliurus, and the other 
is Ziziphus. Paliurus has a dry afl ttened, probably inedible fruit with a wing-like margin; Ziziphus 
has a efl shy globular edible fruit. Pliny the elder reported it useful for inafl med tumors (JLH).
Commo N Names (CHrist ’s t Hor N):
Christ’s-thorn (Eng.; USN); Farah Joli (Tur.; GEP); Paliure (Sp.; VAD); Samur (Arab.; Syria; GEP); 
Nscn.
a Ctivities (CHrist ’s t Hor N):
Anticathartic (f; FP2); Antiinafl mmatory (f; JLH); Astringent (f; FP2); Diuretic (f; FP2; VAD); 
Hypocholesterolemic (f; VAD); Hypotensive (f; VAD); Tonic (f; FP2).
iNdi Catio Ns (CHrist ’s t Hor N):
Arteriosclerosis (f; VAD); Cancer (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; VAD); High Blood Pressure (f; VAD); 
High Cholesterol (f; VAD); Inafl mmation (f; JLH); Oliguria (f; VAD); Stone (f; VAD); Tumor (f; 
JLH); Urolithiasis (f; VAD).
d osages (CHrist ’s t Hor N):
FNFF= ?
Facciola erroneously equates this species with the edible Ziziphus spinus-christi. Otherwise, I find 
no reference to this species being edible. 30g/l in tea, 3 to 4 cups a day (VAD); 30 drops ufl id extract 
(1:1) 3 ×/day (VAD); 50–100 drops tincture (1:5) 1–3 ×/day (VAD).
seA DAFFo DIL (pAncr Atium m Aritimum L.) + AMARyLLIDACeAe
Notes (s ea d a FFodil ):
The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice, and 
blossom as the rose.
Isaiah 35:1 (KJV)
The wilderness and the dry land shall be glad, the desert shall rejoice and blossom; like the crocus.
Isaiah 35:1 (RSV)
The wilderness and the waterless region will exult, and the desert plain will be joyful and blossom 
as the saffron.
Isaiah 35:1 (RSV)
Like Panax, the name Pancratium implies all powerful, alluding to its healing potential (Greek pan 
= all; krotion = power). Widely cultivated as an ornamental, the plant also volunteers along tropical 
seashores, sometimes reaching higher latitudes. Zohary is skeptical about this representing either 
the biblical lily or the biblical rose, as some non-Israeli writers had suggested. Looks like RSV and 
NWT identiefi d it with the saffron crocus.
Commo N Names (s ea d a FFodil ):
Busayl (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Qa’bul (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Qu’bul (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sanbak Bahari 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sand Lily (Eng.; HJP); Sea Daffodil (Eng.; FAC; TAN; ZOH); Shoshan (Heb.; 
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ZOH); Soosan (Arab.; Egypt; X9617056, 1998); Susan (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Susan al Bahr (Arab,; 
ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (s ea d a FFodil ):
Acaricide (1; X9617056); Anticancer (1; X15909123); Antimalarial (f; X14669261); Antinociceptive 
(1; X9379365); Aphrodisiac (f; HJP); Apoptotic (1; X15909123); Emetic (f; DAW); Larvicide (1; 
X9617056); Mosquitocide (1; X9617056); Poison (f; HJP); Purgative (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (s ea d a FFodil ):
Impotence (f; HJP); Malaria (f; X14669261); Pain (1; X9379365); Sore (f; HJP); Splenosis (f; DAW); 
Venereal Disease (f; HJP); Wound (f; HJP).
d osages (s ea d a FFodil ):
FNFF = !
“Bulbs may be edible” (TAN). Edible bulbs exhibited with other foods at the International Exhib-i
tion of 1862 (FAC; TAN). Seeds apparently eaten in ancient Greece (GAC).
d ow Nsides (s ea d a FFodil ):
As of July 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed titles alluding to toxicity of this species.
Natural History (s ea d a FFodil ):
The sea daffodil is regarded as a herald of rain in Israel. Flowering late in summer in the Holy Land, 
the leaves develop later. Flowers, like the evening primrose, open late in the afternoon, and are po-l
linated by nocturnal hawk moths — during their “one night stand.” The plant, growing on unstable 
beaches and shorelines, has contractive roots that pull exposed roots deeper into the ground (ZOH).
MILLet ( pAnicum mili Aceum L.) ++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Panicum asperimum L.; Panicum effusum R. Br.; Panicum miliaceum L. convar. effusum Alef.; Pani-
cum miliaceum L. var. effusum Alef.; Panicum miliaceum L. var. ruderale Kitagawa;P anicum milium 
Pers.; Panicum ruderale fide DEP and POR (Kitag.) Chang;P anicum spontaneum Lysov ex Zuk
Notes (millet ):
Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentiles, and millet and fitches, and 
put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof, according to the number of the days that 
thou shalt lie upon thy side, three hundred and ninety days shalt thou eat thereof.
Ezekiel 4:9 (KJV)
And you, take wheat and barley, beans and lentils, millet and spelt, and put them into a single 
vessel, and make bread of them. During the number of days that you lie upon your side, three 
hundred and ninety days, you shall eat it.
Ezekiel 4:9 (RSV)
And as for you, take for yourself wheat and barley, and broad beans and lentils, and millet and 
spelt, and you must put them in one utensil, and make them into bread for you, for the number of 
days that you are lying upon your side, three hundred and ninety days you shall eat it.
Ezekiel 4:9 (NWT)
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FIGURe . Millet (Panicum miliaceum).
Ezekiel is said to have received an order from God to make bread with wheat, barley, beans, lentils, 
and pannag (millet), (and spelt or tfi ches, depending on the version). The mixture was moistened with 
camel’s milk, oil, or butter. It was the main food that the common people ate. And as I stated prev-i
ously, it certainly sounds healthier than some of today’s breads — even the fortiefi d breads. Zohary 
notes that millet or dohan was mentioned only once in the scriptures, suggesting that it may have 
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become more popular after biblical times. He suggests that it derived from Ethiopian Panicum cal-
losum. Relics are found in Mesopotamia as early as 3000b .c., but no traces have been found in Israel, 
where it requires irrigation. Some writers suggest that pannag may be etymologically related to the 
Greek panexia, meaning a universal medicine or panacea, considered by Greek physicians as the cure 
for many ailments. It is eaten, often cooked unground like rice, during the religious fasts of Hindus. 
Proso millet is grown mainly in the United States as a grain crop, but may occasionally be grown for 
forage, but as forage the stems are coarse, hairy, and unpalatable. The seeds are chewed and the juice 
is applied to children’s sores. Decoction is used as an antidote tMo omordica poisoning (BIB).
Commo N Names (millet pa NiC):
Acte hirse (Ger.; NAD); Ægte Hirse (Den.; POR); Akdari (Tur.; EFS); Anne (Pun.; DEP); Anu (San-
skrit; DEP); Arzan (Iran; DEP); Azhaum (Ashkobi; KAB); Azhdan (Kila Saifulla; KAB); Azhdun 
(Tobu; KAB); Bansi (Bundel.; KAB); Barag (Mar.; KAB); Baragu (Kan.; NAD; WOI); Bili Baragu 
(Kan.; DEP); Borona de Filipinas (Sp.; EFS); Bread Millet (Eng.; HHB); Broomcorn Millet (Eng.; 
Ocn.; AH2; NPM); Cavers (Tur.; POR); Chabor (Shoran; KAB); Cheena (Beng.; WOI); Chenaa 
(Hindi; Pun.; POR); Cheno (Mah.; NAD); Chi (China; EFS); Chin (Hindi; DEP; KAB); China (Beng.; 
Hindi; Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Chinh (Bihar; DEP); Chino (Dec.; Mah.; Sindh; NAD); Chinu (Sin.; 
DEP; KAB); Chinwa (Kas.; DEP; KAB); Ciinaa (Guj.; POR); Cino (Nepal; POR); Cinu (Nepal; POR); 
Common Millet (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; DEP; NPM); Dhengali (Mah.; NAD); Dhengli (Mah.; NAD); 
Dhurah Hhamrâ’ (Arab.; POR); Dick Hirse (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Dohan (Heb.; ZOH); Dohna (Arab.; 
ZOH); Dokhu (Arab.; DEP); Dudha Vari (Mah.; NAD); Duhn (Arab.; ZOH); Dukhn (Arab.; POR); 
Echte Hirse (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Flatter Hirse (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Gadio (Guj.; NAD); Gamh (Quetta; 
KAB); Gemeiner Hirse (Ger.; EFS); Gewöhnliche Rispenhirse (Ger.; POR); Ghoti Savi (Mah.; NAD); 
Hairy Millet (Eng.; POR); Harilik Hirss (Estonia; POR); Hirs (Swe.; POR); Hirse (Den.; POR); Hirssi 
(Fin.; POR); Hog Millet (Eng.; NPM); Indian Buffalo Grass (S. Afr.; KAB); Indian Millet (Eng.; 
POR); Ji (China; POR); Kadukanni (Tam.; WOI); Katakanai (Tam.; DEP); Khra ma (Tibet; NPM); 
Kibi (Japan; POR); Klumpe Hirse (Ger.; EFS; HHB); Köles (Hun.; EFS); Kuri (Guj.; Nwp.; DEP; 
NAD); Mainairi (Sin.; DEP; POR); Miglio (It.; EFS); Miglio Nostrale (It.; EFS); Miglio Nostrano 
(It.; Swiss; POR); Mijo (Sp,; USN); Mijo Común (Sp.; EFS); Mijo Mayor (Sp.; EFS); Mil (Fr.; POR); 
Mil en Branches (Fr.; KAB); Milho Miudo (Por.; EFS); Milho Painço (Por.; POR); Millet (Eng.; Scn.; 
AH2); Millet Commun (Fr.; EFS); Millet d’Inde (Fr.; EFS); Millet Panic (Eng.; USN); Millet Paniculé 
(Fr.; EFS); Millet Rond (Fr.; NAD); Milocorn (Eng.; HHB); Panico Coltivato (It.; Swiss; POR); Panico 
Miglio (It.; POR); Panivaragu (Tam.; POR); Phikai (Bundel.; DEP); Pliumgierst (Dutch; EFS); Plu-i
mgierst (Dutch; POR); Proso Millet (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; NPM); Proso Obyknovennoe (Rus.; POR); 
Proso Posevnoe (Rus.; POR); Proso Sornoe (Rus.; POR); Proso Zwyczajne (Pol.; POR); Rad (San-
skrit; DEP); KRalle (Mah.; NAD); Rispenhirse (Ger.; POR); Russian Millet (Eng.; HHB); Salar (Pun.; 
KAB); Sama (Bom.; KAB); Samli (Guj.; DEP; KAB); San Zhi Ji (China; POR); Sava (India; EFS); 
Save (Kan.; KAB; NAD); Sawan Chaitwa (Nwp.; DEP); Sawanjethwa (Nwp.; KAB); Shamakh (Dec.; 
DEP); Shu (China; DEP; POR); Small Millet (Eng.; NAD); Thulo Kaguno (Nepal; POR); Trosgierst 
(Dutch; POR); True Millet (Eng.; POR); Tzedze (Ladak; DEP; KAB); Vara (Mah.; NAD); Varagu 
(Tam.; KAB; POR); Varaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Vari (Bom.; Dec.; Mah.; Sindh; DEP; NAD); Variga 
(Tel.; WOI); Varo (Mar.; WOI); Viljahirssi (Fin.; POR); Vogelgierst (Dutch; POR); Waaraagaalu (Tel.; 
POR); Wadi (Bom.; DEP); Wari (Dec.; KAB); Wild Millet (Eng.; POR); Wild Proso Millet (Eng.; 
POR); Wilde Rispenhirse (Ger.; POR); Worga (Tel.; DEP; KAB); Worglo (Arab.; KAB); Ye Sheng Ji 
(China; POR); Ye Sheng Ji Cao (China; POR).
a Ctivities (millet pa NiC):
Antidote (Cinnabar) (f; DAW); Antidote M( omordica) (f; DAW); Demulcent (f; DAW; EFS; NAD); 
Diuretic (f; DAW; EFS); Intoxicant (f; DAW); Pectoral (f; DAW; EFS); Refrigerant (f; BIB; DAW).
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iNdi Catio Ns (millet pa NiC):
Abscess (f; DAA; DAW); Bleeding (f; DAW); Boil (f; DAW); Cancer (f; DAA); Cancer, breast (f; DAW); 
Childbirth (f; DAW); Cough (f; DAW); Dermatosis (f; DAA); Diarrhea (f; NAD); Fever (f; DAW); Gon-
orrhea (f; KAB); Hematuria (f; DAW); Mastosis (f; BIB); Sore (f; DAA; DAW); Venereal Disease (f; 
DAW).
d osages (millet pa NiC):
FNFF = !!!
As human food, millet is used as meal for making bread and other baked foods, as a paste from 
pounded wet seeds or as a boiled gruel. Prepared with milk and sugar, it is frequent at Indian 
marriage ceremonies. In Bihar, it is boiled and parched to make markha. In eastern Europe, the 
Balkans, Caucasus, and Asia, it is used to make an alcoholic beverage. The grain is eaten readily 
by livestock (mainly hogs, cattle, and poultry), but is not suited for horses. It is also grown for com-
mercial birdfeed. It should be ground for livestock feed, equal to or superior in food value to oats 
(BIB; DEP; NPM).
• Baluchistanis use the plant to treat gonorrhea (KAB).
• Germans paste powdered seeds onto mammary cancers, (it was even tried at Memorial 
Hospital in New York) (JLH).
op IUM poppy ( pApAve r somniferum L.) (+++ 
seeDs) (xxx o pIUM) pApAve RACeAe
Notes (o pium poppy ):
They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with gall: and when he had tasted thereof he would not drink.
Matthew 27:34 (KJV)
They offered him wine to drink, mingled with gall; but when he tasted it, he would not drink it.
Matthew 27:34 (RSV)
They gave him wine mixed with gall to drink; but after tasting it, he refused to drink.
Matthew 27:34 (RSV)
Unlike Zohary (ZOH), I am still inclined to believe that the biblical gall was opium. First I quote 
from my 1985 book, now out of print: “Walker equates this gall with Papaver somniferum while 
Moldenke and Moldenke equate it with Citrullus colocynthis, not even considering the opium 
poppy.” The gall added to the vinegar and offered to Jesus was the juice of the opium poppy, a 
ofl wer thriving in the Holy Land. The plant provides a narcotic that induces a heavy sleep. When the 
Roman soldiers at Golgatha took pity on their prisoner on the cross, they added poppy juice to the 
sour wine. Opium is the air-dried milky exudation obtained from excised unripe fruits. Egyptians 
claim to become more cheerful, talkative, and industrious following the eating of opium. When fal-l
ing asleep, they have visions of orchards and pleasure gardens embellished with many trees, herbs, 
and various ofl wers (BIB). Jewish authorities maintain that the plant and its stupefacience were well 
known among the Hebrews more than 2000 years ago. The Jerushalmi warns against opium eating 
(BIB). Perhaps the following from Associated Press will strengthen my case: Researchers uncovered 
evidence of a thriving Bronze Age drug trade which supplied narcotics to ancient Mediterranean 
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FIGURe . Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum).
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cultures to ease pain of childbirth and disease. Ancient ceramic pots, most nearly identical in shape 
and about vfi e inches long, found in settlements throughout the Middle East, date as far back as 
1400 BC, according to Joe Zias, anthropologist, Hebrew University, Jerusalem. If turned upside 
down, the thin-necked vessels with rounded bases each resemble a poppy pod. The Mycenaean 
ceramics, analyzed with gas chromatography, turned up traces of opium. (Associated Press, August 
8, 2002). And now there is new evidence as to why this plant has been a balm (and bane) to mankind 
for at least 5 millennia.
Commo N Names (o pium poppy ):
Abin (Sin.; DEP; NAD); Abini (Tam.; Tel.; DEP; NAD); Abkini (Tel.; DEP); Abou en Noum (Arab.; 
BOU); Abunom (Arab.; DEP); Adormidero (Sp.; EFS); Afim (Dec.; Hindi; Kasahmir; Nepal; Pun.; 
DEP; KAB; NAD); Aofi un (Arab.; BOU); Afu (Mah.; NAD); Afyun (Arab.; Hindi; GHA; KAB); 
Agria (Greek; KAB); Ahiphena (Sanskrit; DEP; NAD; WOI); Amapola (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Anão fi
(Por.; POR); A Phien (Ic.; KAB); Aphim (Bom.; Guj.; Mah.; Nepal; NAD; POR); Aphina (Guj.; 
DEP); Aphioni (Greek; POR); Aphu (Mar.; DEP; KAB); Aphukam (Sanskrit; POR); Apkim (Nepal; 
DEP; KAB); Appo (Bom.; DEP; KAB); Balewort (Eng.; KAB); Bhain (Burma; DEP); Bhainzi 
(Burma; KAB); Bhinbin (Burma; NAD); Bilgasgase (Kan.; KAB; WOI); Birkes (Den.; POR); Biz-
rulkhashkhash (Arab.; KAB); Blauwmaanzaad (Dutch; POR); Bou en Noum (Arab.; BOU); Boudi 
(Arab.; BOU); Boundi (Arab.; BOU); Bungapion (Malaya; KAB); Cascall (Cat.; KAB); Chosa (S-an
skrit; KAB); Doda (Kachhi; Pun.; DEP; KAB); Dormideira (Por.; EFS); Dormidera (Sp.; KAB); 
Gartenmohn (Ger.; EFS); Gasagasala (Tel.; KAB); Gasagase (Kan.; DEP); Gasalu (Tel.; WOI); 
Gashagasha (Tam.; NAD); Harir Igran (Arab.; BOU); Hashas (Tur.; EFS); Hashash (Tur.; KAB); 
Heul (Dutch; KAB); Hishas (Arab.; GHA); Kasakase (Kan.; Kon.; NAD); Kaskakasha (Mal.; KAB); 
Keshi (Japan; POR); Khas Khas (Sanskrit; EFS); Khashkhash Aswad (Arab.; Iran; BOU; DEP; 
KAB); Khashkhashsufaid (Urdu; KAB); Kheskkhash (Arab.; BOU); Khuskhus (Guj.; Mar.; WOI); 
Koknar (Iran; KAB); Kuru (Mal.; DEP); Maankop (Dutch; EFS; POR); Maanzaad (Dutch; POR); 
Mák (Hun.; EFS); Mak Lekarski (Pol.; POR); Mak Opiinyi (Rus; POR); Mak Opijnyj (Rus.; POR); 
Mák Sety (Czech; POR); Mak Snotvornyi (Rus.; KAB; POR); Oeillette (Fr.; POR); Oopiumiunikko 
(Fin.; POR); Opievallmo (Swe.; POR); Opium Poppy (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Opiumvallmo (Swe.; 
POR); Opiumvalmue (Den.; Nor.; POR); Papavero (It.; EFS); Papavero da Oppio (It.; POR); Papoula 
Branca (Por.; KAB); Parag Tarbuti (Heb.; POR); Pasto (Beng.; KAB); Pavot (Fr.; BOU); Pavot So-m
nifére (Fr.; EFS); Peony Poppy (Eng.; KAB); Pest (Hindi; KAB); Pianta da Oppio (Malta; KAB); 
Pikincha (Sa.; ROE); Pioniunikko (Fin.; POR); Pionvallmo (Swe.; POR); Posht (Kum.; DEP); Post 
(Beng.; Hindi; DEP); Posta (Oudh; DEP); Postaka (Tam.; KAB; WOI); Posta Katol (Tel.; NAD); 
Posto Dheri (Beng.; NAD); Saphenaka (Sanskrit; NAD); Schlafmohn (Ger.; EFS); Slaapbol (Dutch; 
EFS; POR); Slaappapaver (Dutch; POR); Somnisor (Rom.; KAB); Sufeed Srah (Hindi; NAD); 
Tilidout (Ber.; BOU); Uniko (Fin.; POR); Vallmo (Swe.; KAB); Valmúafræ (Iceland; EFS); Valmue 
(Den.; Nor.; EFS; POR); Valmue Frø (Den.; POR); Vrtni Mak (Croatia; POR); Yang Gwi Bi (Korea; 
POR); Yanko Maiwa (Sa.; ROE); Ya Pin (China; NAD); Ying Su (Pin.; DAA); Ying Tzu Shu (China; 
EFS); Za Zang (Laos; POR).
a Ctivities (o pium poppy ):
Abortifacient (f; SKJ); Analgesic (f1; APA; CRC; PHR); Anaphrodisiac (f1; FEL); Anodyne (f1; 
CRC; KAP); Anorectic (1; PR14:401); Antidiarrheal (f; PNC); Antidote (Atropine) (f; FEL); Ant-i
dote (Physostigmine) (f; FEL); Antidote (Strychnine) (f; FEL); Antiinafl mmatory (f; DEP); Antino -
ciceptive (f1; PR14:401); Antispasmodic (f1; APA; DEM; DEP; FEL; PNC); Antitussive (f1; APA; 
PHR; PNC); Aphrodisiac (f; CRC; KAB); Astringent (f1; CRC; DAA; KAB); Bactericide (1; BIB); 
Bradycardic (1; PR14:401); Calmative (f1; CRC); Carminative (f; BIB; CRC); Cerebrostimulant (1; 
KAP; FEL); Chemopreventive (1; JAC7:405); Constipative (f1; PR14:401); Decongestant (1; CRC); 
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Deliriant (f; KAB); Demulcent (f; BIB; CRC); Diaphoretic (f; FEL; PNC); Diuretic (f; KAB); 
Emmenaogue (f; BOU); Emollient (f; CRC); Euphoric (f1; APA); Expectorant (f; CRC; ROE); Feb -
rifuge (f1; FEL); Glutathiogenic (1; JAC7:405); Hemostat (f; CRC; KAB); Hypotensive (f; BIB; 
CRC); Hypnotic (1; APA); Intoxicant (f1; CRC); Lipogenic (f; KAB); Myorelaxant (f1; APA; FEL); 
Narcotic (f1; APA; CRC; SUW); Nervine (f; BIB; CRC; EFS); Refrigerant (f; KAB); Sedative (f1; 
APA; CRC; KAP); Spinostimulant (f; FEL); Stimulant (1; APA); Sudoric fi (f; CRC); Tonic (f; BIB; 
CRC); Tranquilizer (f; DEM); Vasodilator (1; CRC).
iNdi Catio Ns (o pium poppy ):
Abscess (f; NAD); Amenorrhea (f; BOU); Anemia (f; KAB); Angina (1; DAA); Anxiety (f1; APA); 
Asthma (1; APA; CRC; FEL); Bleeding (f; KAB); Boil (f; BIB; CRC); Bronchosis (f; KAP; PHR); 
Bruise (f; CRC); Calculus (f1; FEL; NAD); Cancer (f1; CRC; FNF; JAC7:405); Cancer, bladder (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH); Cancer, ear (f1; JLH); Cancer, esophagus 
(f1; JAC7:405); Cancer, eye (f1; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; JLH); Cancer, nose (f1; JLH); Cancer, skin 
(f1; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; JLH); Cancer, 
tongue (f1; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; JLH); Cancer, uvula (f1; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f1; JLH); C-ar
buncle (f; NAD); Cardiopathy (f; NAD; WOI); Catarrh (f; CRC; FEL; ROE); Childbirth (f1; FEL); 
Cholecocystosis (f; PHR); Cholera (f; DEP; FEL; NAD); Cold (f; CRC); Colic (f; DEP; PHR; PH2); 
Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; CRC; FEL; NAD; PH2); Convulsion (f; KAP); Cough (f1; 
APA; FEL; PHR; PNC; ROE); Cramp (f1; APA; BOU; DEM; PH2); Cystosis (f1; BIB; CRC; DEP; 
PH2); Delirium (f; DEP; FEL); Depression (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; FEL; JLH; ROE); Diabetes 
(f; NAD); Diarrhea (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; FEL; PH2); Duodenitis (f; WOI); Dysentery (f1; CRC; 
DEP; FEL; PH2); Dysmenorrhea (f; CRC; DEP); Dyspepsia (f; FEL; NAD); Earache (f; NAD); 
Eclampsia (1; FEL); Embolism (1; WOI); Enterosis (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; FEL; PH2); Epistaxis 
(f; BIB); Erysipelas (f; FEL); Fever (f; CRC; DEP; PH2); Flu (f; ROE; WOI); Flux (f; CRC); Gall-
stone (f; PH2); Gangrene (f; DEP); Gastrosis (f1; APA; DEP); Gonorrhea (f; FEL); Gout (1; FEL); 
Headache (f; CRC; DAA); Hemicrania (f; BIB; CRC; NAD); Hemorrhoid (f; FEL; NAD); Hepatosis 
(f; DEP; JLH); Hernia (f; NAD); High Blood Pressure (f; CRC); Hyperacidity (f; WOI); Hypochon-
dria (f; CRC); Hysteria (f; CRC; FEL); Induration (f; JLH); Inafl mmation (f; CRC; EGG; PH2); 
Inhibition (1; APA); Insomnia (f1; APA; CRC; GHA); Itch (f; BIB); Kidney stone (f; PH2); Labor (f; 
NAD); Leprosy (f; NAD); Leukorrhea (f; CRC; DAA); Lumbago (f; NAD); Malaria (f; CRC; NAD); 
Mania (f; BIB; CRC); Mastosis (f; JLH); Melancholy (f; CRC); Menorrhagia (f; DEP); Metritis 
(f; NAD); Mucososis (f; FEL); Myocardosis (f; WOI); Nausea (f; CRC; FEL); Nephrosis (f; DEP; 
FEL); Neuralgia (f; CRC; FEL); Neurosis (f; DEP; GHA); Ophthalmia (f; DEP; PH2); Otosis (f; 
CRC); Pain (f1; APA; BOU; FEL); Peritonosis (f; DEP; FEL); Pertussis (f; CRC; WOI); Phthisis (f; 
DEP; FEL); Polyp (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; CRC; FEL; PH2); Prolapse (f; CRC; PH2); Pulmonosis (f; 
FEL; ROE); Raynaud’s (1; WOI); Respirosis (f1; APA; FEL); Rheumatism (f; CRC; DEP); Scirrhus 
(f; JLH); Scrofula (f; NAD); Smallpox (f; NAD); Snakebite (f; CRC; NAD); Sore Throat (f; EGG; 
JLH); Spasm (f1; PHR); Spermatorrhea (f; CRC; DAA); Splenosis (f; JLH); Sprain (f; BIB; CRC); 
Stomachache (f1; APA; BIB; CRC); Stomatosis (f; EGG); Sunstroke (f; NAD); Swelling (f; CRC); 
Tenesmus (f; FEL; NAD); Tetanus (f; DEP; FEL; NAD); Toothache (f; CRC; DAA); Tuberculosis (f; 
PH2; WOI); Tumor (f; CRC); Typhoid (f; FEL); Typhus (f; NAD; PH2); Ulcer (f; CRC; PH2; WOI); 
Urethrosis (f; NAD); Urogenitosis (f1; BOU; PHR); Uterosis (f; DEP; FEL; JLH; NAD); Uvulosis (f; 
JLH); Vaginosis (f; JLH); Vomiting (f; DAA); Wart (f; CRC; JLH); Wound (f1; PHR).
d osages (o pium poppy ):
FNFF = !!!
Seeds widely eaten or used as oil seed. Seeds contain no opium, and are used extensively in ba- k
ing and sprinkling on rolls and bread. Although the seeds contain no narcotic alkaloids, urinalysis 
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following their ingestion may suggest morphine or heroin use. Leaves not so widely eaten as potherb 
or salad (BIB; DEP). Prescription only (for opiates). I do not believe I would recommend the dosage 
in KAP that is, 30–125 mg).
• Algerians tamp opium into tooth cavities (BIB).
• Ayurvedics, consider seeds aphrodisiac, constipating, and tonic, the fruit antitussive, 
binding, cooling, deliriant, excitant, and intoxicant, yet anaphrodisiac if freely indulged, 
the plant aphrodisiac, astringent, fattening, stimulant, tonic, and good for the complexion 
(KAB).
• Chinese use poppy heads for diarrhea, dysentery, and fluxes (KAB).
• Iranians use the seeds for epistaxis; applying a paste made from Linum, Malva, and 
Papaver to boils (BIB).
• Lebanese use opium wisely, to quiet excitable people, to relieve toothache, headache, 
incurable pain and for boils, coughs, dysentery, and itches (HJP).
• Peruvians suggest decoction of white flowers for flu, with milk for cough (ROE).
• Peruvians suggest floral or capsular tea for oral inafl mmation (EGG).
• Unani medicine suggests the fruit for anemia, chest pains, dysentery, fever. Deemed hyp-
notic, narcotic, and perhaps harmful to the brain (KAB).
d ow Nsides (o pium poppy ):
Seeds Class 1 (AHP, 1997). Not indexed in Commission E. Opium overdoses can cause cold clammy 
skin, fast weak pulse, ufl id in the lungs, cyanosis, pupil constriction, and possible death from circu-
latory and respiratory failure. Opium addicts can reportedly tolerate 2000 mg over 4 hours, but 300 
mg will kill many naive subjects. Opiates have been detected in urine of poppy seed eaters as much 
as 48 hours after ingestion.
Natural History (o pium poppy ):
Although some self-pollination occurs before the ofl wers open, cross-pollination by insects also 
occurs. Some of the fungi attacking opium poppy include the following species: Alternaria bras-
sicae var. somniferi, Cladosporium herbarum, Erysiphe polygoni, Fusarium scirpi var. caudatum, 
Heterosporium echinulatum, Macrosporium papaveris, M. bresdolae, Mucor mucedo, Ophiobolus 
sativus, Oidium erysiphoides, Peronospora arborescens, P. papaveracea, Rhizoctonia solani, 
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Trichothecium roseum. Plants are also attacked by the bacteriBa acil-
lus (Erwinia) papaveri, causing bacterial blight, and Xanthomonas papavericola. The following 
nematodes have been isolated from the opium poppy: Ditylenchus dipsaci, Longidorus maximus, 
Meloidogyne sp., Pratylenchus crenatus, P. penetrans, and P. pratensis. Insect pests include Aphis 
papaveris, Ceutorhynchus abbreviatus, C. albovittatus, C. maculaalba, Cynips minor, Dasynevra 
papaveris, C. callida, Lestodiplosis callida, Mamestra brassicae, Phytomiza albiceps, Sciophila 
wahlbomiana, and Stenocarus fuliginosus (HOE).
extra Cts (o pium poppy ):
Like ginkgo, it “increases blood ofl w to the brain” (APA). But there is more. Poeaknapo (2005) 
reports de novo formation of morphine in human cells. Morphine, the major alkaloid of opium of 
Papaver somniferum, is one of the strongest analgesics known. “Endogenous morphine” has been 
long isolated and authenticated by mass spectrometry in trace amounts from specicfi animal and 
human tissue or ufl ids. The most widely accepted explanation presently is that morphine detected 
in human and animal tissues is of exogenous sources (e.g., dietary origin). Poeaknapo concludes 
that morphine, reticuline, and norlaudanosoline are unequivocally biosynthesized by cultured 
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human cells, the precursors conclusively shown to be oxygen, tyramine, reticuline, and thebaine 
(X15874902). Phillips et al. (2005) quantiefi d the phytosterols in poppy seed: delta-5-avenasterol, 
177 ppm; delta-7-avenasterol; campestanol, 26 ppm; campesterol, 290 ppm; phytosterols, 
1850 ppm; poriferasta-7,25-dienol, 89 ppm; poriferasta-7,22,25-dienol; sitostanol, <13 ppm seed; 
beta-sitosterol, 1093 ppm; spinasterol; stigmastanol; delta-7-stigmastenol and stigmasterol, 68 ppm 
(X16302759).
DAte p ALM (phoenix d Actylifer A L.) +++ AReCACeAe
Notes (d ate palm ):
And the greater house he cieled with fir tree, which he overlaid with fine gold, and set thereon 
palm trees and chains.
2 Chronicles 3:5 (KJV)
The nave he lined with cypress, and covered it with fine gold, and made palms and chains on it.
2 Chronicles 3:5 (RSV)
And the great house he covered with juniper wood, after which he covered it with good gold, and 
then he brought up upon it palm tree figures and chains.
2 Chronicles 3:5 (NWT)
The versions are consistent with the palm, but the ceiling was fir in KJV, cypress in RSV, and juni-
per in NWT. Zohary says the date palm is one of the Holy Land’s most ancient fruit trees (cultivated 
remains found in Chalcolithic [circa 3700 b.c.] and Ubaidian [circa 4000 b.c.] strata at several 
sites in the Near East). In Judges 4:5, Deborah sat under the palm tree, poetic symbol of justice, 
righteousness, and upright stature. It continues to symbolize holiness and resurrection in Christian 
worship. Jericho was described as the “city of palm trees” (Deuteronomy 34:3). Date palm has long 
been associated with Palestine, even being the symbol on its coinage. Arabs say that there are as 
many uses for dates as there are days in the year. There is an Arab adage: “its head should be in fire 
(sunshine) and its feet in water.” And Psalmists say “the righteous shall ofl urish like the palm tree.” 
There is sap in the palm tree that, after fermentation, is used as a liquor. This may be some of the 
strong drink or wine of the Bible (BIB; ZOH).
Commo N Names (d ate palm ):
Abdandan (Kej.; KAB); Agjjuf (Ber.; BOU); Arabian Date (Eng.; KAB); Balah (Arab.; Nig.; Syria; 
AVP; BOU; HJP; UPW); Begamjangi (Panjgur; KAB); Blah (Arab.; BOU); Chhomer (Heb.; KAB); 
Chohoraa (Nepal; POR); Chhuharra (Bom.; NAD); Chuara (Bom.; DEP); Chuhara (India; EFS); 
Curmal (Rom.; KAB); Dabino (Gambia; UPW); Dabinos (Sudan; AVP); Daddel (Den.; Nor.; POR); 
Daddelpalme (Den.; Nor.; POR); Dadelpalm (Dutch; EFS); Dadels (Dutch; AVP); Daktyle (Pol.; 
AVP); Daktylowiec (Pol.; POR); Date (Eng.; USN); Date Palm (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Dátil (Cuba; 
Peru; Sp.; AVP; EGG); Datilero (Col.; Peru; Sp.; AVP; EGG); Datte (Fr.; Haiti; AVP); Dattel (Ger.; 
AVP); Dattelpalm (Ger.; EFS); Dattelpalme (Ger.; POR); Datteri (It.; AVP); Dattero (It.; EFS); Dattier 
(Fr.; Haiti; AVP; BOU; EFS); Dattier Commun (Fr.; POR); Dipya (Sanskrit; KAB); Dvash (Heb.; ZOH); 
Dwane (Ivo.; UPW); Echte Dadelpalm (Dutch; POR); Echte El-nakheil (Arab.; BOU); Edible Date 
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FIGURe .0 Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera).
(Eng.; NAD); Finikovaia Pal’ma (Rus.; POR); Gajjira (Badaga; KAB); Gewone Dadelpalm (Dutch; 
POR); Gharar Khejur (Beng.; NAD); Gijjira Hannu (Kan.; NAD); Hai Zao (China; POR); Hazdacht 
(Ber.; BOU); Hurma Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Ichu (Tam.; KAB); Indi (Singh.; DEP; KAB); Inthaphalam 
ˆ
(Thai; POR); Isgaren (Ber.; BOU); Ita (Tel.; KAB); Itta (Mal.; KAB); Ittappazham (Mal.; WOI); 
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Kajura (Kan.; Nwp.; Pushtu; DEP; KAB); Karchuram (Tam.; POR); Karek (Guj.; DEP; KAB); 
Kerjura Kaya (Tel.; NAD); Karmah (Tur.; DEP); Kasser (Bhutan; DEP); Khaji (Hindi; Pun.; KAB; 
POR); Khajur (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Mar.; Kon.; Pun.; Sharig; KAB; NAD; POR; WOI); Kharakia 
(Guj.; NAD); Kharchuram (Tam.; WOI); Kharik (Mah.; NAD); Kharjjuraha (Sanskrit; DEP); Kh-ar
jur (Mar.; KAB); Kharjura (Ayu.; Kan.; AH2; DEP; WOI); Kharjuramu (Tel.; WOI); Khorjjuri 
(Oriya; KAB; WOI); Khourma (Tur.; AVP); Khurma (India; Nasiribad; Urdu; EFS; KAB); Khu-r
mae Yabis (Arab.; DEP); Khurmal Kshusk (Iran; EFS; NAD); Khurmal Yabis (Arab.; EFS; NAD); 
Kurma (Sin.; DEP); Mach (Kohhaja; KAB); Mtende (Swahili; POR); Nakhel (Arab.; GHA); Nakhl 
(Arab.; Iran; Syria; BOU; DEP; GHA; HJP); Nakhleh (Arab.; KAB); Natchla (Arab.; Mali; UPW); 
Natsuma yashi (Japan; TAN); Natsume Yashi (Japan; POR); Nekhla (Arab.; BOU); Ntamaro (West 
Cameroons; UPW); Palma (It.; Malta; KAB); Palma Datil (Sp.; EFS); Palma Datilifera (Sp.; EFS); 
Pal’ma Finikovaia (Rus.; POR); Palmeira (Por.; KAB); Palmera (Sp.; AVP); Palmera Datilera (Sp.; 
POR); Palmier Dattier (Fr.; BOU; USN); Palmera de Dátiles (Sp.; POR); Palmizio (It.; POR); Palm-
trae (Swe.; KAB); Perichchankay (Tam.; DEP; NAD; POR); Perita (Tel.; DEP); Phinikovoe Dyerevo 
(Rus.; KAB); Phoinix (Greek; KAB); Pinda Kharjura (Sanskrit; NAD); Pindakhejur (Hindi; India; 
EFS; NAD); Salma (Hindi; POR); Sendhi (Hindi; POR); Sunbalun (Burma; KAB); Swonpalwon 
(Burma; DEP); Taatelipalmu (Fin.; POR); Tafinaout (Ber.; BOU); Tamalo (Sierra Leone; UPW); 
Tamar (Arab.; Heb.; POR; ZOH); Tamara (Por.; AVP); Tamareira (Por.; Mad.; AVP); Tamaruy 
(Sen.; UPW); Tambaroohi (Upper Volta; UPW); Tammar (Arab.; GHA); Tammr (Arab.; BOU; 
GHA); Tanekht (Ber.; BOU); Tar (Sin.; KAB); Tayniyut (Ber.; BOU); Tazdait (Ber.; BOU); Te-e
ney (Niger; UPW); Temer (Arab.; POR); Tenitta (Mal.; WOI); Tiyni (Ber.; BOU); Tomer (Heb.; 
KAB); Ton Inthaphalam (Thai; POR); Ttmer (Arab.; BOU); Uttatti (Kan.; NAD); Vrai Dattier (Fr.; 
UPW); Wu Lou Zi (Pin.; DAA; EFS; KAB); Ye Zao (China; POR); Zao Ye (China; POR); Zao Ye 
Zi (China; POR).
a Ctivities (d ate ):
Allergenic (1; X1485659); Antihistaminic (1; X15814265); Antiinafl mmatory (f; KAB); Antimuta -
genic (1; X11804538); Antioxidant (1; X15814265); Antiradicular (1; X11804538); Aphrodisiac (f; 
BIB; BOU; DEP; EFS; GHA); Candidicide (1; FNF); Contraceptive (f; BIB); Demulcent (f; BIB; 
DEP); Deobstruent (f; HJP); Depurative (f; KAB); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS); Emollient (f; BIB); Estro-
genic (1; BIB; FNF); Expectorant (f; BIB); Fungicide (1; FNF); Gastroprotective (1; X15814265); 
Hepatotonic (f; KAB); Immunostimulant (1; X10904150); Laxative (f; BIB); Nephrotonic (f; KAB); 
Pectoral (f; BIB); Purgative (f; BIB); Refrigerant (f; BIB); Tonic (f; BOU; EFS; GHA).
iNdi Catio Ns (d ate ):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Ague (f; BIB); Anemia (f; BIB); Asthma (f; BIB; KAB); Bleeding (f; BOU); 
Blepharosis (f; BOU); Bronchosis (f; BIB; PH2); Bruise (f; GHA); Cancer (f; BIB); Cancer, abdomen 
(f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, parotid (f; 
JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testes (f; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; 
JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, vagina (f; JLH); Candida (1; FNF); Catarrh (f; BIB); Chest (f; 
BIB); Coma (f; KAB); Condylomata (f; BIB); Cornea (f; NAD); Cough (f; BIB; BOU; KAB); Dia-r
rhea (f; BIB; BOU; DEP); Enterosis (f; KAB); Fatigue (f; BIB); Fever (f; BIB); Flu (f; BIB); Gastro-
sis (f1; JLH; PH2; X15814265); Gonorrhea (f; BIB; KAB); Halitosis (f; DEP); Hangover (f; NAD); 
Headache (f; GHA; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Impotence (f; BIB); Induration 
(f; BIB; JLH); Infertility (f; BIB; BOU; UPW); Inafl mation (f; PH2); Intoxication (f; NAD); Jaundice 
(f; BOU); Keratitis (f; DEP); Leprosy (f; KAB); Longevity (f; BIB); Malaria (f; NAD); Mastosis (f; 
HHB); Mycosis (1; FNF); Nausea (f; KAB); Nephrosis (f; PH2); Opacity (f; NAD); Ophthalmia 
(f; BIB; NAD; PH2); Orchosis (f; JLH); Paralysis (f; KAB); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pterygia (f; BIB); 
Pulmonosis (f; KAB); Smallpox (f; NAD); Sore (f; BOU); Sore Throat (f; JLH); Splenosis (f; BIB; 
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JLH); Sterility (f; BIB); Stomachache (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f; JLH); Thirst (f; BIB; BOU); Toothache 
(f; BIB); Tuberculosis (f; BIB); Ulcer (f1; X15814265); Unconsciousness (f; KAB); Urogenitosis (f; 
BIB); Uterosis (f; JLH); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Wart (f; BIB); Whitlow (f; BIB); Wound (f; PH2); Yeast 
(1; FNF).
d osages (d ate ):
FNFF = !!!
Fruits widely eaten; green fruits pickled and eaten; spathes soaked in water and chewed; male in-ofl
rescence (with estrone-containing pollen) eaten; pollen eaten; seeds occasionally eaten; pressed 
for edible oil; sap tapped for sugar or fermented. In some areas, 95% of the people survive on 
dates 9 months of the year. Fruits often preserved by drying or pressing them together into large 
cakes. Other products include date “honey” (bees are mentioned only four times in the Bible, while 
“honey” is mentioned 49 times), made from the juice of fresh fruit; date sugar; date sap, often made 
into a fermented beverage; date palm ofl ur, made from pith of tree; oil from seeds; the kernels are 
ground up or soaked in water for days and used for animal food; both wine and honey are derived 
from the date; Nigerians feed dates with bran and Sterculia to immature young heifers to make 
them more prolic (fi BIB; FAC; TAN).
• Algerians smoke the seed powder for fever (HJP).
• Arabians consider the estrogen-containing pollen aphrodisiac and tonic (GHA).
• Arabians paste fruit on head and eyes for headache, salted fruits on bruises (GHA).
• Arabians use dates folklorically for gastric ulcers, and they work (X15814265).
• Arabians use green fruits as an astringent for hemorrhoids, applying powdered seeds or 
directing their smoke onto any affliction (BIB).
• Ayurvedics, viewing fruits as alexiteric, aphrodisiac, and tonic, use them for asthma, bro-n
chosis, enterosis, fatigue, fever, leprosy, thirst, tuberculosis, and unconsciousness (KAB).
• Hausa add dates with hot peppers to native beer to make it less intoxicating (BIB).
• Lebanese believe the sugar from the fruits helps hepatitis (HJP).
• North Africans use fruit in vaginal pessary with other herbs to improve fertility (BOU).
• North Africans plaster powdered seeds on genital sores (BOU).
• North Africans ingest terminal bud for diarrhea, internal bleeding, and jaundice (BOU).
• North Africans use seed ashes in ophthalmic collyria (BIB).
• Unani consider the leaves aphrodisiac, hepatotonic; the ofl wers depurative, expectorant, 
febrifuge; the fruits aphrodisiac, nephrotonic, used for paralysis and pulmonosis; they 
apply the antiinafl mmatory seed to wounds (KAB).
d ow Nsides (d ate ):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates no dosage!; JAD).
Natural History (d ate ):
The Agriculture Handbook No. 165 lists the following diseases affecting the date palmA: lternaria 
sp. (leaf spot), Alternaria citri (brown spot of fruit), Alternaria stemphylioides (fruit spoilage), 
Aspergillus niger (calyx-end rot), Auerswaldia palmicola (on leaves), Catenularia fuliginea (fruit 
rot), Ceratostomella radicicola (root rot), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (on leaves), Diplodia 
phoenicum (leafstalk rot, shoot blight, fruit rot), Endoconidiophora paradoxa (black scorch, heart 
bud rot), Fusarium spp. (inofl rescence blight, fruit rot), Graphiola phoenicis (leaf spot, false smut), 
Meliola furcata (black mildew), Meloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes), Omphalia pigmentata 
(decline disease), Omphalia tralucida (decline disease), Penicillum roseum (fruit rot), Pestalotia 
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sp. (leaf spot), Phomopsis phoenicola (fruit rot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (on roots), Pleospora 
herbarum (fruit rot, mold), and Poria spp. (wood rot). Popenoe (1920) assesses the percent damage 
caused by some of the major insect pests. Tackholm and Drar (1969–1973) give a good account of 
Egyptian diseases and pests.
extra Cts (d ate ):
A 5% date extract showed better growth inhibition on C. albicans as compared to amphotericin 
B. The date extract caused a leakage of cytoplasmic contents from the yeast cells (Sallal, El-Teen, 
and Abderrahman, 1998). Al-Qarawi et al. (2005) demonstrated ameliorative effects of dates on 
ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats. Aqueous extracts of the fruit demonstrated potent antioxidant 
and antimutagenic properties (X11804538). The ethanolic undialyzed extract was more effective 
than other extracts tried (X15814265). Vayalil (2002) demonstrated potent antioxidant and antim- u
tagenic properties of the aqueous extracts of the fruits (X11804538).
Co MMo N ReeD (phr Agmites Austr Alis (CAv.) t RIN. ex ste AD.) ++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Arundo phragmites L.; Arundo vulgaris Lam.; Phragmites communis Trin.; Phragmites communis 
var. longivalvis (Steud.) Miq.; Phragmites longivalvis Steud.; Phragmites vulgaris (Lam.) Crép.; 
Phragmites vulgaris var. longivalvis (Steud.) W. Wight
Notes (Commo N r eed):
For the LORD shall smite Israel, as a reed is shaken in the water, and he shall root up Israel out 
of this good land, which he gave to their fathers, and shall scatter them beyond the river, because 
they have made their groves, provoking the LORD to anger.
1 Kings 14:15 (KJV)
Zohary adduces evidence for identifying kaneh with “reed,” in analogies with the reed pen that 
I mentioned in my first Bible book (III John 13), the broken reed of a staff (II Kings 18:21; mea -
sures of length, Ezekiel 40:5), and the shaft of the lamp stand (Exodus 25:31). During the biblical 
period, reeds were extensively grown and used for efi ld hedges, ufl tes, housing, mats, pens, scales, 
and walking scales (ZOH). Extensively used in Mediterranean regions and elsewhere for building 
dwellings, lattices, fences, arrows by Indians, and for weaving mats and carrying nets. A variegated 
form is used as an ornamental grass. The reed is useful in the manufacture of pulps for rayon and 
paper. It contains more than 50% cellulose and has a bfi er 0.8 to 3.0 mm long and 5.0 to 30.5 µm 
in diameter. It is also useful in the production of homogeneous boards of good strength. It can be 
processed into a fine bfi rous material suitable as a filling material in upholstery. Flowering stalks 
yield a bfi er suitable for rope making. It is also used for thatching and for making partitions, fences, 
coarse mats, baskets, sandals, etc. Panicles are used for making brooms and for decoration. Pens for 
writing on parchment were cut and fashioned from this reed, and the stems were used as a linear 
measuring device. Bedouins use the stem to make ufl tes. Chinese commonly use the stem for fuel. 
Common reed provides high-quality, warm-season forage and is readily eaten by cattle and horses. 
However, it becomes tough and unpalatable after maturity. Animals grazing this grass during the 
winter should be fed a protein concentrate (BIB).
Commo N Names (Commo N r eed):
Aqraban (Arab.; GHA); Aranim (Ber.; BOU); Ashi (Japan; TAN); Bog Reed (Eng.; EFS); Bous 
(Arab.; BOU); Bus (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Cana (Sp.; TAN); Cañeta (Sp.; EFS); Caniço (Por.; EFS); 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Common Reed ( Phragmites australis).
Canna da Spazzole (It.; EFS); Canna di Palude (It.; EFS); Cannuchia (It.; EFS); Carrizo (Sp.; EFS); 
Common Reed (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; BOU; CR2; WOI); Common Reed Grass (Eng.; TAN); Dila (Pun.; 
DEP); Ditch Reed (Eng.; BOU); Djaboub (Ber.; BOU); Ghab (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Hagna (Arab.; 
BOU); Hajna (Bahrain; Sausi; GHA); Heish Moddeid (Arab.; BOU); Ilili (Ber.; BOU); Jonc à 
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Balais (Fr.; BOU); Kamis (Tur.; EB54:155); Kaneh (Heb.; ZOH); Kasab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kita 
Yoshi (Japan; TAN); Lang Ku Ten (China; EFS); Lu Gen (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Lu Jing (China; AH2); 
Lu Ti Ken (China; EFS); Lu Wei (China; AH2; EFS); Phragmites (Scn.; AH2); Qasba (Arab.; BOU); 
Reed (Eng.; BUR); Riet (Dutch; EFS); Roseau (Fr.; BOU); Roseau Balais (Fr.; EFS; BOU); Roseau 
Commun (Fr.; BOU); Roseau de Maris (Fr.; BOU); Sazkamisi (Tur.; EFS); Schilfrohr (Ger.; EFS); 
Sokarik Otu (Tur.; EB54:155); Tagasiba (Ber.; BOU); Tebu Salah (Malaya; EFS); Tiouli (Ber.; BOU); 
Tiranimine (Ber.; BOU); Tissendjelt (Ber.; BOU); Tra’a (Arab.; BOU); Wild Broomcorn (Eng.; 
FAC).
a Ctivities (Commo N r eed):
Alexiteric (f; BIB); Antiemetic (f; BOU; GHA; WOI); Depurative (f; BUR); Diaphoretic (f; BOU; 
HHB; JFM; PH2; WOI); Diuretic (f; BOU; BUR; EFS; HHB; JFM; PH2); Emetic (f; DEM); Expec-
torant (f; DEM); Febrifuge (f; BIB; BOU); Litholytic (f; JFM); Sialogogue (f; BIB); Stomachic (f; 
BIB; BOU); Sudoric (fi f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (Commo N r eed):
Abscess (f; BOU); Arthrosis (f; BOU); Bite (f; PH2); Bleeding (f; BIB); Boil (f; DEM); Bronchosis 
(f; BIB); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH; PH2); Carbuncle (f; DEM); Cholera (f; BIB); 
Condyloma (f; BIB); Cough (f; AAH); Dermatosis (f; DEM); Diabetes (f; HHB; PH2; WOI); Diar-
rhea (f; DEM); Dropsy (f; EFS); Dysuria (f; BIB); Earache (f; BIB); Fever (f; BIB; BOU); Food 
Poisoning (f; BOU); Fracture (f; DEM; HJP; WOI); Gastrosis (f; BIB; DEM; HJP); Gout (f; EFS); 
Hematuria (f; BIB); Hiccup (f; BIB); Induration (f; JLH); Jaundice (f; BOU); Kidney stones (f; 
JFM); Leukemia (f; HHB; JLH; PH2); Mastosis (f; BIB; JLH); Measles (f; BIB); Nausea (f; BIB); 
Pain (f; BIB); Pneumonia (f; DEM); Pulmonosis (f; BOU; DEM); Rheumatism (f; EFS; WOI); Sore 
(f; BIB); Sore Throat (f; BIB); Sunstroke (f; BIB); Thirst (f; BIB); Toothache (f; BIB); Typhoid 
(f; BIB).
d osages (Commo N r eed):
FNFF = !
Young shoots sometimes eaten like bamboo shoots; grain edible; partly unfolded leaves eaten as a 
vegetable; young leaves of var. longivalvis are dried, ground, and made into dumplings with cereal 
ofl ur; rhizomes sometimes cooked and eaten like potatoes; sugar extracted from rhizome; scorched 
plant used as coffee substitute. In Russia, they are harvested and processed into starch. Stalks exude 
a manna-like gum, which is eaten. (BIB; EFS; FAC; HHB; TAN; EB54:155).
• Arabians make a cooling and antiemetic beverage from the plant (GHA).
• Chinese use the plant for leukemia (JLH).
• Africans use the sugary exudate for chest pain and pneumonia (BIB).
• Cape Africans apply powdered seed to burns (BIB).
• Chinese used as a remedy for hiccups and poisoning from eating stale seafood (BIB).
• East Asians use the plant for rheumatic ailments (WOI).
• Hebrides inhabitants make a cough medicine from reed and stinging nettle (AH2).
• Lebanese pack fractures with broken reeds (HJP).
• Orientals make a packing of reeds as a splint for fractures (BIB).
d ow Nsides (Commo N r eed):
No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of suggested therap-eu
tic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 designates no dosage!; JAD).
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CALABRIAN pINe (pinus bruti A t eN.) +++ pINACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Pinus brutia subsp. eldarica (Medw.); Pinus brutia var. pendulifolia Frankis.; Pinus brutia var. 
pityusa (Steven) Silba; Pinus brutia var. stankewiczii (Sukaczev) Frankis.; Pinus halepensis subsp. 
brutia (Ten.) Holmboe; Pinus halepensis var. brutia (Ten.) A. Henry; Pinus halepensis var. brutia 
(Ten.) Elwes et Henry; Pinus halepensis subsp. brutia (Tenore) Holmboe; Pinus persica Strangw.; 
Pinus pityusa Steven fide CJE and USN
Notes (Calabria N piNe):
And that they should publish and proclaim in all their cities, and in Jerusalem, saying, Go forth 
unto the mount, and fetch olive branches, and pine branches, and myrtle branches, and palm 
branches, and branches of thick trees, to make booths, as it is written.
Nehemiah 8:15 (KJV)
And that they should publish and proclaim in all their towns and in Jerusalem, “Go out to the 
hills and bring branches of olive, wild olive, myrtle, palm, and other leafy trees to make booths, 
as it is written.”
Nehemiah 8:15 (RSV)
And that they should make proclamation and cause a call to pass throughout all their cities and 
throughout Jerusalem, saying “Go out to the mountainous region and bring in olive leaves, and 
the leaves of oil trees and myrtle leaves and palm leaves and the leaves of branchy trees to make 
booths, according to what is written.”
Nehemiah 8:15 (NWT)
Zohary, working with the RSV, comments that pine forests were once copious in the Holy Land. 
The Hebrew word for pine today (oren) meant laurel in biblical times. But etz shemen occurs vfi e 
times side by side with the olive and should be rendered “pine tree” and not “olive wood” or “wild 
olive” as in the RSV. Jewish villages in North Kurdistan, where Pinus brutia forms natural forests, 
preserve the name etz shemen, probably since the Babylonian exile. This is very closely related 
to the Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis, which see), and probably shares many phytochemcials and 
medicinal indications. Zohary prefers the Aleppo pine to the Calabrian pine. I include accounts 
for both, not knowing who is correct. Quite candidly, I would be as happy to consider this “wild 
olive” following olive in the RSV to be the Elaeagnus, which see. After Nehemiah, the word “pine” 
is said not to reoccur in the Bible, but about 500 years later it is mentioned by Josephus, who says 
Solomon had pine wood brought in ships from Ophir, which was used for pillars and support to the 
King’s temple and palace, and partly for musical instruments (e.g., cymbals, harps, and psalteries), 
for the gloricatfi ion of God by the Levites. Some writers equate the pine branch of Nehemiah with 
Elaeagnus and the thick trees with Pinus brutia, whose boughs might have been used to make 
booths for the Feast of the Tabernacles (Moldenke and Moldenke, 1952). Whether or noPit nus bru-
tia is properly identiefi d as the biblical pine branch, the turpentine was doubtless used for medicine, 
like other turpentines. This one certainly is close to Pinus halepensis. I have not assigned all the 
medicinal virtues of generic turpentine or other pine extracts, but I frankly suspect they can be used 
interchangeably. The substance burasu, common in the herbals of ancient Assyria, was prepared by 
soaking some pine wood in water. It was applied externally to muscles and ligaments as an embr-o
cation. Internally, it was taken for kidney or liver ailments (BIB).
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FIGURe . Calabrian Pine (Pinus brutia).
Commo N Names (Calabria N piNe):
Calabrian Pine (Eng.; CJE; USN; X14987727); Etz Shemen (Heb.; KJV; ZOH); Kizilççam (= Red 
pine) (Tur.; CJE); Oren (Heb.; KJV; ZOH); Pitys (Greek; CJE); Turkish Pine (Eng.; CJE; USN); 
Türkische Kiefer (Ger.; USN); Wild Olive (Eng.; KJV; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (Calabria N piNe):
Antiseptic (1; X10548751); Bactericide (1; X10548751).
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iNdi Catio Ns (Calabria N piNe):
Bacillus (1; X10548751); Bacteria (1; X10548751); Enterobacter (f; X10548751); Escherichia (f; 
X10548751); Infection (f; X10548751); Klebsiella (f; X10548751); Listeria (f; X10548751); Myco-
bacterium (f; X10548751); Pneumonia (f; X10548751); Proteus (f; X10548751); Pseudomonas (f; 
X10548751); Staphylococcus (f; X10548751).
Natural History (Calabria N piNe):
This is reportedly the most important forest tree in the northeastern Mediterranean area. A sap-
sucking insect, Marchalina hellenica, produces large amounts of honey-dew, harvested by honey-
bees and sold as “pine honey” (CJE).
ALeppo p INe (pinus h Alepensis MILL.) ++ ABIet ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Pinus abasica Carr.; P. alepensis Poir. in Lamarck; Pinus arabica Sieber ex Spreng.; Pinus carica D. 
Don in Fellows; Pinus ceciliae Llorens et L. Llorens; Pinus genuensis S.E. Cook; Pinus halepensis 
Mill. var. abasica (Carr.) Carr.; Pinus halepensis Mill. var. carica (D. Don) Carr.; Pinus halepen-
sis Mill. var. ceciliae (Llorens et L. Llorens) Rosello et al.; Pinus halepensis Mill. var. genuensis 
(S.E. Cook) Antoine; Pinus halepensis Mill. var. minor Antoine; Pinus hispanica J. Cook; Pinus 
loiseleuriana Carr.; Pinus maritima Mill.; Pinus maritima Aiton non Mill.; Pinus parolinii Vis.; 
Pinus penicillus Lepeyr.; Pinus pseudohalepensis Denhardt ex Carr.; Pinus x saportae Rouy; Pinus 
sylvestris L. var. maritima Aiton fide CJE
Notes (a leppo piNe):
As for the stork, the fir trees are her house.
Psalms 104 (KJV)
Source of Greek turpentine, the Aleppo “pine” is a handsome tree. Most of the “fir tree” refer -
ences in the Bible are now believed to refer to the Aleppo pine, Pinus halepensis. The Bible tells 
us the timber is quite useful; it is used for construction (doors, homes, rafters, ships) and musical 
instruments. The bark contains up to 20% tannin, and is used for tanning. Zohary tells us that pine 
forests were once widespread in the Holy Land, but Aleppo pine is much scarcer now, due to abuse 
throughout the years. There are still a few stands in Mediterranean parts of Israel, some atta-in
ing 20 m tall and living 150 years. The Hebrew etz shemen, which occurs in the Bible vfi e times, 
should be rendered pine, not olive wood. The modern Hebrew word for pine, oren, was in biblical 
times used for laurel (ZOH). The myriad uses of “turpentine” from any species of pine might as 
well accrue to Pinus halepensis turpentine as well. “Turpentine” is loosely defined as the oleoresin 
obtained from longleaf and slash pines and other pines that yield exclusively terpene oils, or the 
essential oil obtained from the oleoresin. Turpentine from one species or another has been used 
for catarrh, cough, dysuria, dyschezia, gonorrhea, leucorrhea, and rheumatism. Unquestionably, 
turpentine has antiseptic, counterirritant, and rubefacient properties; and it is apparently also al-ler
genic and tumorigenic, causing albuminuria, coma, cough, erythema, hematuria, headache, inso-m
nia, nausea, and urticaria. The rosin from various pine species has been used for abscesses, boils, 
and cancers. Pine tar has been used in expectorant cough syrups for bronchitis, catarrh, colds, etc. 
Rosin has also been used for skin diseases such as psoriasis, ringworm, and toothache. In Russia, 
steroids have been extracted from pine pulp. In Dioscorides’ day, the seeds were used for cough, and 
the cones for stomach ailments (BIB). And I suspect that the pine bark will also be well endowed 
with OPCs (oligomeric procyanidins), like the French Maritime Pine, whose bark and OPCs and 
pycnogenol gets so much praise.
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Commo N Names (aleppo piNe):
Aleppo Pine (Eng.; USN); Amelzi (Ber.; BOU); Etz Shemen (Heb.; ZOH); Hab Krash (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Igengen (Ber.; BOU); Jerusalem pine (Eng.; USN); Oren (Heb.; ZOH); Ouazouri (Ber.; BOU); 
Pin Blanc (Fr.; BOU); Pin d’Alep (Fr.; BOU); Pin de Jérusalem (Fr.; BOU); Pinheiro Francês (Mad.; 
JAD); Pinheiro do Alepo (Mad.; JAD); Pino Carrasco (Sp.; USN); Sanawbar (Arab.; BOU; HJP); 
Sanawbar Hhlab (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Senouber (Arab.; BOU); Seekiefer (Ger,; USN); Snawbar Barri 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Snouber (Arab.; BOU); Taida (Ber.; BOU); Zgougou (Arab.; BOU); Nscn.
a Ctivities (a leppo piNe):
Analgesic (f; HJP); Antioxidant (1; X10694042); Antiseptic (f; BOU; HJP); Astringent (f; BOU); 
Diaphoretic (f; HJP); Diuretic (f; HJP); Spermagenic (f; BOU); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (a leppo piNe):
Chafing (f; HJP); Cold (f; HJP); Cough (f; HJP); Dermatosis (f; BOU; HJP); Gastrosis (f; HJP); 
Hemorrhoid (f; HJP); Impetigo (f; HJP); Infection (f; BOU; HJP); Infertility (f; BOU); Pain (f; HJP); 
Sore (f; HJP); Toothache (f; HJP); Venereal Disease (f; HJP); Wound (f; BOU).
d osages (a leppo piNe):
FNFF = !!
Thin-shelled seeds are prized by animals and humans. North Africans add them to festive cakes, 
and mix with sorghum to make a Ramadan beverage. Ground seeds are sprinkled over Tunisian 
pastries. Resin is used in fermenting wines (FAC).
• Lebanese scrape resinous exudates to make pills and suppositories (HJP).
• Lebanese use crude sap, called pitch or tar, internally for colds and coughs, externally for 
sores and venereal ailments (HJP).
• North Africans apply astringent powdered bark to wounds and use the tar as antiseptic 
(BOU).
• North Africans eat the seeds in honey first thing in the morning to augment sperm (BOU).
d ow Nsides (a leppo piNe):
As of July 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed titles alluding to toxicity of this species.
Natural History (a leppo piNe):
Common crossbills ( Loxia curvirostra) feed on seeds of Aleppo pine, as do European red squirrels 
(Sciurus vulgaris). On the Iberian Peninsula, Sciurus exerted directional selection favoring larger 
cones with larger scales, which has caused cones there to be larger than in the Balearic Islands 
where Sciurus are absent (X15715841).
sto Ne pINe (pinus pine A L.) + ABIet ACeAe
Notes (sto Ne piNe):
He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak, which he strengtheneth for 
himself among the trees of the forest: he planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it.
Isaiah 44:14 (KJV)
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He cuts down cedars; or he chooses a holm tree or an oak and lets it grow strong among the trees 
of the forest; he plants a cedar and the rain nourishes it.
Isaiah 44:14 (RSV)
There is one whose business is to cut down cedars; and he takes a certain species of tree, even a 
massive tree, and he lets it become strong for himself among the trees of the forest. He planted the 
laurel tree, and the pouring rain itself keeps making it get big.
Isaiah 44:14 (NWT)
There is much ambiguity between the versions above, and you will not find “pine” in any of them, 
although you will find cedar in all three passage versions. Working with the RSV, which translated 
“holm” rather than the underlined “cypress” above, Zohary notes that this is the only place where 
the Hebrew word tirzah occurs in the scriptures. He notes that this may have led Saadia Gaon, 
translator of the Bible into its first Arabic version (10th century), to render tirzah as “stone pine.” 
Indeed, in Arabic, as in many languages, the names of several conifers include the radical rz or arz. 
Jewish villages in north Kurdistan, where closely relatedP inus brutia forms natural stands, have 
probably preserved the name etz shemen for that pine, perhaps since the Babylonian exile. That was 
partly why I included Pinus brutia in my first biblical book. Meanwhile, stone pine was reportedly 
common in the coastal plain of Palestine, forming extensive forests during the last century. Groves 
of stone pine at Yarka on the coastal plain of Galilee and on Mt. Carmel may represent remnants of 
extensive old groves, planted or spontaneous. At one time, the nuts were exported as pignolia nuts 
(ZOH). More than just edible, the nuts are considered aphrodisiac. The Roman poet Ovid (born in 
the 1st century b.c.), in his The Art of Love, lists aphrodisiacs including pine nuts. The Greek phys-i
cian Galen (2nd centurya .d.) suggests pine seeds, honey, and almonds, taken before bedtime three 
nights in a row, to increase potency. Apicius, a Roman celebrity, recommended pine nuts, cooked 
onions, white mustard, and pepper as an aphrodisiac. Some Arabian sources suggest popularly 20 
almonds and 100 pine nuts with a glassful of thick honey three nights before bedtime (CJE).
Commo N Names (sto Ne piNe):
Cypress (Eng.; ZOH); Holm (Eng.; ZOH); Italian Stone Pine (Eng.; FAC; USN); Nuces de Pino 
(JLH); Parasol Pine (Eng.; USN); Pignolia-nut Pine (Eng.; USN); Pin Parasol (Fr.; USN); Pin Pignon 
(Fr.; USN); Pinheiro Manso (Mad.; Por.; JAD); Pinie (Ger.; USN); Schirmkiefer (Ger.; USN); Stone 
Pine (Eng.; HJP; USN; ZOH); Tirzah (Heb.; ZOH); Umbrella Pine (Eng.; USN); Nscn.
a Ctivities (sto Ne piNe):
Acaricide (1; X12137480); Allergenic (1; X12911512); Antiseptic (f; HJP); Aphrodisiac (f; CJE); 
Culicide (1; X15662650); Fungicide (f; HJP); Hemostat (f; HJP); Insecticide (1; X15662650); Insec-
tifuge (1; X15662650); Larvicide (1; X15662650); Purgative (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (sto Ne piNe):
Arteriosclerosis (f1; HOC); Arthrosis (f; JLH); Bleeding (f; HJP); Burn (f; HJP); Callus (f; JLH); 
Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH); Cancer, 
liver (f; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Condyloma (f; JLH); Constipation 
(f; HJP); Cystosis (f; JLH); Fungus (f; HJP); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Impotence (f; CJE); Induration (f; 
JLH); Infection (f; HJP); Mastosis (f; JLH); Mycosis (f; HJP); Nephrosis (f; JLH); Phymata (f; JLH); 
Ringworm (f; HJP); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; JLH); Worm (f; HJP).
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d osages (sto Ne piNe):
FNFF = !!!
One of the best of edible pine seeds, eaten raw or roasted or used in cakes, cookies, dolmas, pesto, 
picada, pilaf, sauces, soups. Romanians grind up whole green pine cones as a spice for game dishes. 
Gourmet oils produced from seeds in France (BIB; FAC).
• Druse apply the oil and resin to circumcision wounds (HJP).
• Early Greeks and Romans suggested almonds, honey, and pine nuts for aphrodisia (CJE).
• Lebanese use the sap or oil (called “priest’s oil”) as a purgative and an emollient for burns 
(HJP).
d ow Nsides (sto Ne piNe):
Several abstracts refer to anaphylactic reactions to these nuts.
extra Cts (sto Ne piNe):
Macchioni et al. (2002), “studying essential oils of four pine species”, found thaPt . pinea oil and its 
two constituents (1,8-cineole and limonene) were most effective, showing 100% acaricidal activity 
at 6 and 8 µl, respectively (X12137480). Traboulsi et al. (2005) found extracts against fourth-instar 
larvae of the mosquito Culex pipiens molestus and some repelled mosquito bites. Terpineol and 
1,8-cineole were the most effective at preventing bites, offering complete protection for 1.6 and 2 h, 
respectively (X15662650). Fortunately for nut-lovers, Phillips et al. (2005) quantiefi d the phytoster -
ols in vfi e accesions of nuts. Such phytosterols are medicinally important, for example, in BPH and in 
high cholesterol (X16302759). The phytosterols in pine nuts (not necessarily P. pinea) based on vfi e 
accessions were as follows: delta-5-avenasterol, 139–403 ppm; campestanol, 26—38 ppm; campes-
terol, 137–198 ppm; phytosterols 1470–2370 ppm; poriferasta -7,25-dienol, 66–177 ppm; sitostanol, 
<17–59 ppm; beta-sitosterol, 1044–1320 ppm; and stigmasterol, <17 ppm (X16302759).
Mo UNt A t LAs MAst IC (pist Aci A Atl Antic A DesF.) ++ ANACARDIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Pistacia atlantica var. latifolia DC.; Pistacia mutica Fisch & Mey
Notes (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
Although less common than the other Pistacias in Palestine, this handsome long-lived species 
was probably adored and even deiefi d by the ancients (FP2). Like oaks, terebinths were de-i
efi d and revered by early Hebrews and other peoples. The Hebrew name elah, like that of the 
oak, stems from the Hebrew el (God), associated with strength and sturdiness. Zohary notes 
that “many translators and exegetes, unacquainted with the local ofl ra, and embarrassed by the 
frequent occurrence in the Bible of elah, elon, el, alah, and allon, have seriously misunderstood 
these names. There are too many variations in the translations of different authors, and (as in the 
RSV) much inconsistency even within any given translation.” (ZOH) Zohary concludes that, in 
general, allon and elon should be rendered oak, andel ah and alah should be rendered terebinth. 
Terebinth stands often served as places of worship and incense burning, and even as revered burial 
sites. Terebinths feature in many biblical quotations. Saul and sons were buried under a terebinth 
(I Chronicles 10:12). Jacob buried idols under a terebinth (Genesis 35:4). An angel appeared to 
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Gideon under a terebinth (Judges 6:11). David slew Goliath in the Valley of Elah (which is Hebrew 
for terebinth) (I Samuel 17:2). David’s son perished when his hair was caught in terebinth branches 
(II Samuel 18:9) (ZOH). Of the vfi e species of Pistacia native to Israel and/or Sinai and Edom, 
the terebinth could have been either of the deciduous species, according to Zohary, who suspects 
the Atlantic terebinth more likely. While not mentioning it as a biblical species, Zohary does 
note that Pistacia lentiscus is co-dominant with carob in an evergreen scrub forest that grows in 
the foothills west of the mountain range, from Judea to the Lebanese border, as well as some of 
the eastern slopes of the mountains of Galilee and Samaria. SoP, . lentiscus must be considered 
a potential biblical species as well. Hence, I have included the following species as biblical, with 
some redundancy, while Zohary may not have:
• Deciduous trees: (Pistacia vera is also deciduous):
• —Leaf rhachis winged; leaefl ts obtuse, muticous: P. atlantica
• — Leaf rhachis not winged; leaefl ts acute to acuminate: P. palaestina
• Evergreen shrub or tree:
• — P. lentiscus (FP2)
Commo N Names (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
Alah (Heb.; ZOH); Alk el Anbat (Arab.; BOU); Atlantic Pistacio (Eng.; BOU); Atlantic Terebinth 
(Eng.; ZOH); Betoum (Fr.; BOU); Botoum (Arab.; BOU); Elah (Heb.; ZOH); Gatouf (Arab.; BOU); 
Gueddain (Ber.; BOU); Hwadja (Arab.; BOU); Idj (Ber.; BOU); Iqq (Ber.; BOU); Khathiri (Arab.; 
BOU); Lggt (Ber.; BOU); Liez ou Illeg (Ber.; BOU); Mt. Atlas Mastictree (Eng.; USN); Pistachier 
de l’Atlas (Fr.; USN); Tecemlall (Ber.; BOU); Terebinth (Eng.; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
Allergenic (1; X3608141); Alpha-Amylase Inhibitor (1; X15182916); Hypoglycemic (f; X15182916).
iNdi Catio Ns (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
Diabetes (f; X15182916); Scrofula (f; BOU).
d osages (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
FNFF = !!
Acid fruits edible; sold in markets; used to season dates. Kernel used in pastries. Ripe fruits P(. 
palaestina) used in mideastern Zaatar, a mix of aromatic and food plants (BOU; FP2; X14759150).
• Jordanian herbalists recommend the species for hypoglycemic activity, which did not 
prove out in laboratory tests (X15182916).
• North Africans plaster leaves for scrofula (BOU).
Natural History (mou Nt a tlas masti C):
In planted groves in Lahav Forest, Israel, scientists measured bird microhabitat selection in fruit-
manipulated trees, trapping a total of 2357 birds. Sylviids exhibited a higher frugivory level than 
turdids. Sylviids selected densely foliated trees, while turdids were randomly distributed. Both 
species groups selected fruit-rich stopover habitats before further migration. Predation avoidance 
explains the sylviids’ microhabitat selection; the migrants used foliage cover to reduce bird dete-ct
ability by raptors (X15455207). Leaf galls produced by Baizongia pistaciae, on Pistacia palaestina 
(X14759150).
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MAst IC (pist Aci A lentiscus L.) ++ ANACARDIACeAe
Notes (masti C):
As the turpentine tree I stretched out my branches, and my branches are the branches of honour 
and grace.
Sirach (Apocrypha) 24:15 (KJV)
Like a terebinth I spread out my branches, and my branches are glorious and graceful.
Sirach (Apocrypha) 24:15 (RSV)
The mastic is a tree of spreading habit, with a thick trunk. The wood is hard and white. Its foliage 
is dense enough to cast a heavy shade on the deserts heated in the sun. When the bark is cut, Chian 
turpentine ofl ws out; this has an agreeable perfume, not unlike jessamine, and is mild to the taste. 
Exposure to the air solidiefi s it to a transparent gum. This Gilead turpentine probably formed part of 
the spicery carried into Egypt from Gilead by the Ishmaelites as mentioned in Genesis 37:25. Bark 
and leaves are a source of tannin. The astringent leaves are also used for dyeing. The gum is used 
to sweeten the breath (e.g., in Tehran). Few resins have a greater “repertoire” in anticancer folklore 
than this plant, used for ascites, calluses, cancers (of the breast, face, lip, liver, medullary, pylorus, 
rectum, spleen, testicle, tongue, uterus, vagina), carcinoma, corn, cysts, epithelioma, excrescences, 
fungoids, inafl mmation, melanosis, polyps, sclerosis (breast, liver), skin ailments, and tumors (espe -
cially of the spleen) (JLH). With tannins, sitosterol, and shikimic acid reported, perhaps this cancer 
“repertoire” is justiefi d. The gum is similar to “Chian turpentine which was recommended about 
fifty years ago as a remedy for cancer.” (BIB) Leaves are used as an emmenagogue and for alb-u
minuria and diarrhea. Lebanese infuse the leaves for diarrhea and fever. Dioscorides suggested that 
terebinth or turpentine was antidotal, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and expectorant (BIB).
Commo N Names (masti C):
Almecegueira (Por.; USN); Arbre au Mastic (Fr.; USN); Battoum (Arab.; BOU); Chios Mastictree 
(Eng.; USN); Darw (Arab.; Dhou (Ber.; BOU); Dirw (Arab.; BOU); Dro (Arab.; BOU); Drw (Arab.; 
BOU); Fadhiss (Ber.; BOU); Fethies (Ber.; BOU); Fustuq Sharqi (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Goudhim 
(Ber.; BOU); Goudhoum (Ber.; BOU); Gueddain (Ber.; BOU); Imidek (Ber.; BOU); Kinnah (Iran; 
EFS); Kinneh (Iran; DEP); Kinnoli (Iran; DEP); Kundari (Iran; NAD); Kundurumi (Beng.; Hindi; 
DEP; TAN); Lentisco (It.; Sp.; EFS; USN); Lentisk (Eng.; BOU; EFS; FAC); Lentisk Pistache (Eng.; 
FAC; UPH); Lentisque (Fr.; BOU; EFS; USN); Mastaka i Rumi (Iran; DEP); Mastic (Eng.; Fr.; CR2; 
EFS; USN); Mastiche (Eng.; NAD); Mastic tree (Eng.; BOU); Mastik (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Mast-ik
boom (Dutch; EFS); Mastiki (Hindi; DEP); Mastixbaum (Ger.; EFS; USN); Mistaka (Arab.; GHA); 
Moesstakim (Malaya; EFS); Mustagi Rumi (India; EFS); Mustaka Sultani (Arab.; GHA); Mustiva 
(Arab.; GHA); Mustoka (Arab.; DEP); Rumi Mastaki (India; EFS); Rumi Mastungi (Beng.; DEP; 
SKJ); Rumi Mustiki (Hindi; SKJ); Sakir Rumi (Iran; NAD); Sakiz Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Saris (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Shagar el Mastika (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Sondro (It.; EFS); Tadist (Ber.; BOU); Tantarik 
(Pun.; DEP); Terebinth (Eng.; BIB; RSV); Tidekst (Ber.; BOU); Tidekt (Ber.; BOU); Turpentine 
(Eng.; BIB; KJV); Uluk Bagh Dame (Arab.; EFS); Uluk Baghdani (Arab.; DEP).
a Ctivities (masti C):
Allergenic (f; CRC); Analgesic (f; BIB; BOU; CRC); Antiatherogenic (1; X15136059); Antiox-i
dant (1; X15848018); Antiperoxidant (1; X15848018); Antisarcomic (1; HH3); Antisecretory (1; 
X3724207); Antiseptic (1; HH3); Antitumor (1; HH3); Antitussive (f; BIB; BOU; CRC); Antiulcer 
(f1; GAZ; HH3; PH2; X3724207); Aphrodisiac (f; CRC; DEP; EFS; IHB); Apopotic (1; X15796160); 
Astringent (f1; EFS; PHR; PH2); Bactericide (1; HH3); Candidicide (1; HH3); Cardioprotective 
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(1; X15136059); Carminative (f; CRC; UPH); Cathartic (f; CRC; FDA); Corroborant (f; DEP); Culicide 
(1; X11997977); Depilatory (f; BIB; BOU); Diuretic (f; CRC; DEP; EFS; HH3); Emmenagogue (f; 
BOU); Expectorant (f; BOU; CRC; EFS); Fungicide (f; HH3); Hemostat (f; CRC; EFS); Hepatopro-
tective (f1; X12413719); Hypotensive (1; HH3; X1409845); Insecticide (1; X11997977); Larvicide 
(1; X11997977); Masticatory (1; CRC; BIB); Orexigenic (f; CRC); Sedative (f; BOU); Stimulant (f; 
DEP; EFS; HH3; UPH); Stomachic (f; CRC; EFS); Sudoric (fi f; CRC; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (masti C):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Amenorrhea (f; BOU); Aphthae (f; NAD); Aposteme (f; CRC; JLH); Athero-
sclerosis (1; X15136059); Bacteria (1; X8808717); Bleeding (f; CRC; ERS); Blenorrhea (f; CRC); 
Boil (f; BIB; BOU; CRC); Bronchosis (f; FEL; NAD); Cancer (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, anus (f; CRC; 
JLH); Cancer, breast (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, colon (1; X15796160); Cancer, intestine (f1; BIB; JLH; 
X15796160); Cancer, liver (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, parotid (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; CRC; 
JLH); Cancer, stomach) (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, throat (f; CRC; JLH); 
Cancer, uterus (f; CRC; JLH); Candida (1; HH3; X8808717); Canker (f; BIB; CRC); Carbuncle (f; 
BOU; CRC); Cardiopathy (f; BOU); Caries (f; CRC; FEL); Catarrh (f; CRC; FEL; HH3; NAD); 
Childbirth (f; BOU); Cholecocystosis (f; BIB; CRC; HJP); Cirrhosis (f; CRC; HH3); Condyloma (f; 
CRC; JLH); Cough (f; BIB; BOU; GHA); Cystosis (f; GAZ); Debility (f; CRC; NAD); Dermatosis 
(f; GHA); Diarrhea (f; CRC; HH3; HJP); Dysentery (f; CRC; HH3); Enterosis (f; GAZ); Escherichia 
(1; HH3); Fever (1; GHA); Fracture (f; HJP); Fungus (1; HH3; X8808717; X126288418); Gastrosis (f; 
BIB; BOU; CRC); Gingivosis (f1; FEL; PHR; PH2); Glossosis (f; NAD); Gonorrhea (f; CRC; HH3); 
Gout (f; HH3); Halitosis (f; BIB; BOU; CRC; DEP; FEL; PHR); Heart (f; CRC); Hepatosis (f1; BIB; 
CRC; HH3; X12413719); High Blood Pressure (1; HH3; X1409845); Impotence (f; DEP); Induration 
(f; CRC; JLH); Infection (1; X8808717); Inafl mmation (f; JLH); Itch (f; BIB; BOU); Jaundice (f1; 
X12413719); Leukorrhea (f; CRC; HH3); Mastosis (f; BOU; CRC); Mucososis (f; CRC; UPH); Myco-
sis (1; HH3; X8808717; X126288418); Myosis (f; BOW); Nephrosis (f; FEL); Pain (f; BOU; CRC; 
GHA); Phymata (f; CRC); Proctosis (f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; GHA); Respirosis (f; NAD); Rheumatism 
(f; BIB; BOU; HH3); Ringworm (f; BOW); Scirrhus (f; CRC; JLH); Sclerosis (f; CRC); Sore (f; HH3); 
Spermatorrhea (f; NAD); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; HH3); Stomatosis (f; GAZ; NAD); 
Throat (f; BOU); Toothache (f; CRC); Tumor (f; CRC); Ulcer (f1; BOU; PH2; X3724207); Venereal 
Disease (f; CRC; HH3); Urethrosis (f; GAZ); Wound (1; GHA); Yeast (1; HH3; X8808717).
d osages (masti C):
FNFF = !!
Mastic widely chewed; Romans used fruits as spice; seed kernels yield the edible shina oil of Cyprus; 
bark used as spice; wood used to smoke meat. Turks use in preparing the liqueur raki (DEP; FAC; 
TAN). 150 ml 10% aqueous resin decoction per day (HH3).
• Arabians chew the resin to enhance appetite and improve breath (GHA).
• Asian Indians suggest the tincture to stop leech bites (NAD).
• Jordanians treat jaundice with aqueous extract (both boiled and non-boiled), which 
showed antihepatotoxic activity (X12413719).
• Lebanese take the resin tincture with lemon for cholecocystosis, diarrhea, and hepatosis 
(HJP).
• Mohammeden physicians consider it aphrodisiac, diuretic, and stimulant (DEP).
• North Africans use oil from peeled nuts for itch and rheumatism (BOU).
• North Africans boil resin in milk for throat troubles (BOU).
• North Africans take root decoction for cough (BOU).
• North Africans take 1 tsp mastic pounded with 1 tsp honey each morning for 3 weeks 
for ulcer (BOU).
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d ow Nsides (masti C):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) (PH2 designates no 
dosage!; JAD).
extra Cts (masti C):
Ethanolic extracts antiseptic, bactericidal at 1 g/l, candidicidal at >1 g/l. Decoction kCilals ndida 
parapsilopsis, Escherichia, Sarcina, and Staphylococcus at 312 mg/l; Candida albicans and Cryp-
tococcus at 625 mg/l (HH3). Lyophilized aqueous extracts hypotensive in normotensive rats as 25 
mg/kg orally. Tannins, especially ellagitannins, arrested tumor growth (5–10 mg/kg ipr mus (HH3); 
LD50 of the lyophilized aqueous extract is 680–1120 mg/kg ipr mus (HH3). Extracts or essential 
oil effective against Culex larvae (LC50 = 70 mg/l) (X11997977); Dedoussis et al. (2004) demon-
strated cardioprotectrive antiatherogenic effects of the resinous exudate resin (used culinarily in 
some Mediterranean diets (X15136059). Balan et al. (2005) note that Chios mastic extracts induce 
apoptosis in human colon cancer (X15796160).
te ReBINth ( pist Aci A terebinthus L.) ++ ANACARDIACeAe
Notes (t erebi Nt H):
I like the DEP account better than most because it seems to lump all the potential biblical species 
under this catchall species. My accounts of the mastic and the terebinth are very similar. The sp-e
cies and their folklore have been confused for centuries. Over a hundred years ago, DEP fingered 
var. mutica as the biblical alah of the Old Testament. DEP notes that it is the true primitive turpen-
tine celebrated as the finest, superior to pine resins and mastic. Yet, DEP states that “The resin of 
var. mutica sesembles that of P. lentiscus and is used in the East as a substitute for mastic.” Variety 
mutica also carries the same vernacular names and is considered identical with the resin Piof sta-
cia vera. NAD followed DEP in treating P. cabulica, P. khinjuk, and P. mutica as synonyms. USN 
keeps them all separate. So, although starting to view them as all separate as I started working on 
P. atlantica, I evolved to think of them as one great taxon, with a great overlap in common names 
and uses. But I keep them distinct for now, more for the readers’ convenience than for science. 
These turpentines, like pine turpentines, share many chemicals, activities, and indications. KAB 
treated only one species, not this one. When the bark is cut, Chian turpentine ofl ws out; this has an 
agreeable perfume, not unlike jessamine, and is mild to the taste. Exposure to the air solidiefi s it to 
a transparent gum. This Gilead turpentine probably formed part of the spicery carried into Egypt 
from Gilead by the Ishmaelites as mentioned in Genesis 37:25. Few resins have a greater “repe-r
toire” in anticancer folklore than this plant, used for ascites, calluses, cancers (of the breast, face, lip, 
liver, medullary, pylorus, rectum, spleen, testicle, tongue, uterus, vagina), carcinoma, corn, cysts, 
epithelioma, excrescences, fungoids, inafl mmation, melanosis, polyps, sclerosis (breast, liver), skin 
ailments, and tumors (especially of the spleen) (JLH). With tannins, sitosterol, and shikimic acid 
reported, perhaps this cancer “repertoire” is justiefi d. According to Hooper, the gum is similar to 
“Chian turpentine, which was recommended about 50 years ago as a remedy for cancer.” Leaves are 
used as an emmenagogue and for albuminuria and diarrhea. Dioscorides suggested that terebinth or 
turpentine was antidotal, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and expectorant (BIB).
Commo N Names (t erebi Nt H):
Ban (Bal.; DEP); Bargabana (Iran; DEP); Baume de Cypres (Fr.; EFS); Bombay Mastiche (Eng.; 
NAD); Butz (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Butz Saqis (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Buzaganja (Bom.; NAD); Chian 
Turpentine (Eng.; BIB; EFS); Chios Terpentijn Boom (Dutch; EFS); Chios Terpentinbaum (Ger.; 
EFS); Cornalheiro (Por.; EFS); Cornicabra (Sp.; EFS); Cyprian Turpentine (Eng.; EFS); Cyprischer 
Chio (It.; EFS); Cyprus Turpentine (Eng.; SKJ; USN); East Indian Mastiche (Eng.; NAD); Guli 
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Pistah (Hindi; Iran; NAD); Gwan (Bal.; DEP); Habba Khadhra (Algiers; Arab.; JLH); Kabuli M-us
taki (Bom.; Hindi; NAD; SKJ); Kanjak (Afg.; DEP); Khinjak (Pun.; DEP); Kinjad (Iran; DEP); 
Kunjad (Iran; DEP); Mastaki (Bom.; Hindi; DEP); Menengiç (Tur.; EFS); Pistachier Térébinthe 
(Fr.; USN); Qalafournis (Egypt; JLH); Scornobecco (It.; EFS); Terpentinbaum (Ger.; EFS); Ter-
ebinth (Eng.; HJP; NAD; USN); Terebinthe de Chio (Fr.; EFS); Terebinto (Por.; Sp.; EFS); Terebinto 
di Chio (It.; EFS); Wan (Bal.; DEP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (t erebi Nt H):
Antidote (f; HJP); Antiinafl mmatory (f; X11988853); Antiseptic (1; X126288418); Antitussive (f; 
HJP); Aphrodisiac (f; DEP; HJP); Astringent (f; HJP; SKJ); Deodorant (f; HJP); Digestive (f; HJP); 
Diuretic (f; HJP); Emmenagogue (f; BIB); Expectorant (f; HJP); Febrifuge (f; HJP); Fungicide (1; 
X126288418); Hemostat (f; DEP); Sedative (f; DEP); Stimulant (f; DEP; HJP); Stomachic (f; DEP); 
Vulnerary (f; DEP).
iNdi Catio Ns (t erebi Nt H):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Albuminuria (f; BIB; HOC); Amenorrhea (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; JLH); Ascites (f; 
DAW); Bite (f; HJP); Bleeding (f; DEP); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f; DEP; HJP); Cancer, brain (f; JLH); 
Cancer, breast (f; HJP); Cancer, diaphragm (f; HJP); Cancer, face (f; HJP); Cancer, lip (f; HJP); Cancer, 
liver (f; HJP); Cancer, medullary (f; HJP); Cancer, pylorus (f; HJP); Cancer, rectum (f; HJP); Cancer, 
spleen (f; HJP); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f; HJP); Cancer, tongue (f; HJP); Cancer, uterus 
(f; HJP); Cancer, vagina (f; HJP); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Caries (f; EFS); Cheilosis (f; JLH); Colic (f; DEP); 
Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; HJP); Cyst (f; JLH); Dermatosis (f; HOC; JLH); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Diaphragmo-
sis (f; HJP); Dyspepsia (f; DEP; HJP); Encephalosis (f; JLH); Epithelioma (f; JLH); Excrescences (f; JLH); 
Fever (f; HJP); Fungus (f; X126288418); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Glossosis (f; JLH); Gout (f; HOC); Halitosis 
(f; HJP); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Impotence (f; HJP); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; X126288418); Inafl m -
mation (f1; HJP; X11988853); Mastosis (f; JLH); Melanosis (f; JLH); Mycosis (1; X126288418); Nausea (f; 
DEP); Orchosis (f; JLH); Parotosis (f; JLH); Polyp (f; JLH); Proctosis (f; JLH); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Scirrhus 
(f; JLH); Scleroma (f; JLH); Sore (f; JLH); Splenosis (f; JLH); Swelling (f; JLH); Tophus (f; JLH); Uterosis 
(f; DEP; HOC); Vaginosis (f; JLH); Vomiting (f; DEP); Wound (f; DEP).
d osages (t erebi Nt H):
FNFF = !
Iranians use the resin as a chewing gum (HJP); Southern Afghans and Baluchistani eat the fruits 
(shiné); kernel oil eaten with bread and relish (DEP).
• Algerians used the seeds in liniments for tumors (JLH).
• Americans, Australians, and Europeans used the Chian turpentine for scores of types of 
cancer (JLH)
• Asian Indians suggest 5 to 10 grains for cancer (NAD).
• Egyptians use the plant to treat excrescences (JLH).
• Iranians chew the gum to sweeten the breath (BIB).
• Iranians use the turpentine with pomade of cinnabar for cancers (JLH).
• Lebanese chew the resin to sweeten breath and improve digestion (HJP).
• Lebanese infuse the leaves for diarrhea and fever (BIB).
• Syrians use the “Cyprus turpentine” for cancer “cures and indurations of the liver” (HJP).
Natural History (t erebi Nt H):
Pinkish galls (khinjak in Punjab) on the leaves, with aroma of turpentine, appear to be caused by an 
Aphis. Leaves eaten by camels, goats, and sheep (DEP).
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pIst ACh Io (pist Aci A ver A L.) +++ ANACARDIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Pistacia narbonensis L.; Pistacia nigricans Crantz.; Pistacia officinarum Ait.; Pistacia reticulata 
Willd.; Pistacia terebinthis Mill. non L.; Pistacia trifolia L.; Pistacia variifolia Salisb. fide HH3
Notes (pista CHio ):
And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the 
land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, 
and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (KJV)
Then their father Israel said to them, “If it must be so, then do this: take some of the choice fruits 
of the land in your bags, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm and a little honey, 
gum, myrrh, pistachio nuts, and almonds.”
Genesis 43:11 (RSV)
Most commentators agree that the “nuts” of Jacob were pistachio nuts. And the RSV edition and 
NWT available to me on computer even specify pistachio nuts. Over a hundred years ago, DEP 
noted that the tree was extensively cultivated in Palestine, Persia, and Syria, and introduced in Italy 
and Spain. Zohary notes that it is mentioned only once in the Bible. The tree has long been cul-ti
vated in Israel. Nuts are found in the late Neolithic strata in Greece. They are imported to India as 
dyeing and tanning agents. Pistacio kernels yield circa 50% of a low-melting fatty oil used to a small 
extent in confectionery as spice oil and in medicine (BIB).
Commo N Names (pista CHio ):
Alfóncigo (Sp.; EFS; USN); Alhócigo (Sp.; EFS); Botnim (Arab.; Heb.; ZOH); Butm (Arab.; ZOH); 
Buzaganja (Bom.; Hindi; NAD); Echte Pistazie (Ger.; HH3); Elah (Heb.; ZOH); Fistuk Baladi (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Fistuk Karmidi (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Fustuk (Arab.; Syria; HH3; HJP); Green Almond 
(Eng.; HH3); Grüner Mandelbaum (Ger.; EFS); Guli Pistah (Bom.; Hindi; NAD); Hu Chên Tzu (China; 
EFS); It Dirsegi (Tur.; EB54:155); O Yüeh Chün Tzu (China; EFS); Pimpernuss (Ger.; HH3); Pipernuss 
(Ger.; HH3); Pista (Afg.; Beng.; Bom.; Hindi; India; Iran; EFS); Pistaccio Vero (It.; EFS); Pistache Noot 
(Dutch; Fr.; EFS); Pistachero (Sp.; USN); Pistachier (Fr.; EFS); Pistachier Cultivé (Fr.; USN); Pistachio 
(Eng.; Scn.; AH2; EFS); Pistacho (Sp.; EFS); Pistakinuss (Ger.; HH3); Pistakion (Greek; JLH); Pistazie 
(Ger.; EFS; USN); Pistazienbaum (Ger.; USN); Pistazier (Den.; EFS); Piste (Iran; HH3); Pisteh (Iran; 
NAD); Pisutachio (Japan; USN); samsfi tigi Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Wu Ming Tzu (China; EFS).
a Ctivities (pista CHio ):
Allergenic (1; X9140524); Anodyne (f; DAW); Antiseptic (1; X15881833); Antiviral (1; X15881833); 
Aphrodisiac (f; DEP); Astringent (f1; NAD); Decoagulant (f; DAW); Demulcent (f; DEP); Digestive 
(f; BIB; DEP); Fungicide (1; X15881833); Phytoalexin (1; X15941348); Sedative (f; BIB; DEP; NAD; 
SKJ); Tonic (f; BIB; DEP; NAD; SKJ).
iNdi Catio Ns (pista CHio ):
Abscess (f; DAW); Amenorrhea (f; DAW); Anodyne (f; DAW); Bacteria (1; X15186116); Bruise (f; 
DAW); Cancer, breast (1; X15941348); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Chest (f; DAW); Circulation (f; DAW); 
Cough (f; BIB); Debility (f; NAD); Dermatosis (f; DAW); Dysentery (f; BIB; DAW); Dysmenorrhea 
(f; DAW); Dyspepsia (f; DEP); Enterosis (f; DAW); Fungus (1; X15881833; X126288418); Gastrosis 
(f; NAD); Gynecopathy (f; DAW); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Impotence (f; HJP); Infection (1; X15881833); 
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FIGURe . Pistachio (Pistacia vera).
Infertility (f; HJP); Mycosis (1; X15881833; X126288418); Nausea (f; DEP); Pain (f; DAW); Pruritis 
(f; DAW); Rheumatism (f; DAW); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; DAW); Trauma (f; DAW); Virus (1; 
X15881833); Vomiting (f; DEP); Wound (f; HJP); Yeast (1; X15186116).
d osages (pista CHio ):
FNFF = !!!
Nuts widely eaten. Pista kernels have a delicious nutty afl vor and are much used as ingredients of 
sweetmeats, confectionery, and ice creams. Pista is also eaten as a dessert; salted and roasted, it is much 
relished. Fruit husks are reported to be made into marmalade in Iran (BIB; FAC; TAN; EB54:155).
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• Algerians used the powdered root in oil for children’s cough (BIB).
• Asians use the expressed oil for stomach problems (NAD).
• Iranians infused the fruit’s outer husks for dysentery (BIB).
• Middle Easterners consider the nut a “hot food” (GHA).
• Lebanese apply the resin to cuts (HJP).
• Lebanese compress the leaves (BIB; HJP).
• Lebanese think the nuts enhance fertility and virility (BIB; HJP).
d ow Nsides (pista CHio ):
Pistacia pollen is a major source of allergy (X9140524).
Natural History (pista CHio ):
Nuts favored by squirrels, blue jays, and red-headed woodpeckers (NUT). Camels, goats, and sheep feed 
on the leaves, hence the name of the gallsb oz ghanj. One common name for the galls translates as “goat’s 
sore” (DEP). The leaves of P. vera bear small, irregularly spheroid galls (Bokhara galls), which have been 
reported to be imported into India for dyeing and tanning purposes; galls contain 50% tannins (WOI).
extra Cts (pista CHio ):
Fortunately for nut lovers, Phillips et al. (2005) quantiefi d the phytosterols in four accessions of 
pistachio nuts. Pistachio was the richest of the biblical nuts in total phytosterols (cf. sunofl wer in 
the American nuts). Such phytosterols could be medicinally important (X16302759). Phytosterols 
in pistachio nuts (four accessions): delta-5-avenasterol (262 ppm); delta-7-avenasterol; campestanol 
(50 ppm); campesterol (101 ppm); phytosterols (2740–2870 ppm); poriferasta-7,25-dienol (126 
ppm); poriferasta-7,22,25-dienol; sitostanol (12 ppm); beta-sitosterol (2098 ppm); spinasterol; stig -
mastanol; and stigmasterol (23 ppm) (X16302759). Ozcelik et al. (2005) demonstrated antibacterial, 
antifungal, and antiviral activities for lipophilic extracts of various parts of the plant (leaf, branch, 
stem, kernel, shell skins, seeds) e.g., Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus 
faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Candida albicans and C. parapsilosis, Herpes simplex (DNA), 
and Parainufl enza viruses (RNA). The extracts showed antifungal but little antibacterial activity 
at 128 to 256 µg/ml. Kernel and seed extracts showed signicafi nt antiviral activity (X15881833). 
Alma et al. (2004) found that the essential oil contained alpha-pinene (75.6%), beta-pinene (9.5%), 
trans-verbenol (3.0%), camphene (1.4%), trans-pinocarveol (circa 1.20%), and limonene (1.0%). The 
antimicrobial results showed that the oil inhibited nine of thirteen bacteria and all three yeasts st-ud
ied. The essential oil of the gum was better than Nystatin against yeast, but weaker than ampicillin 
sodium, and streptomycine sulfate against bacteria (X15186116). Tokusoglu et al. found traces of 
resveratrol, comparable to levels in peanuts, in Turkish pistachios, 0.09–1.67 µg/g (av = 1.15 µg); cf. 
0.03–7.17 µg/g in grapes and wines. There was more cis-transveratrol in pistachios than peanuts. 
In peanut, if not pistachio, resveratrol increases after biotic or abiotic stress. “Trans-resveratrol is a 
chemopreventive agent against human breast cancer” (X15941348).
o RIeNt AL pLANe t Ree (pl At Anus orient Alis L.) ++ pLAt ANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Platanus vulgaris Sah. fide DEP
Notes (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
And Jacob took him rods of green poplar, and of the hazel and chestnut tree; and pilled white 
strakes in them, and made the white appear which was in the rods.
Genesis 30:37 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Oriental Plane Tree (Platanus orientalis).
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Then Jacob took fresh rods of poplar and almond and plane, and peeled white streaks in them, 
exposing the white of the rods.
Genesis 30:37 (RSV)
Then Jacob took for his use staffs still moist of the storax tree and of the almond tree and of the 
plane tree and peeled in them white peeled spots by laying bare white places which were upon 
the staffs.
Genesis 30:37 (NWT)
Here the KJV version renders the Hebrew armon to chestnut while the RSV more properly renders 
it to plane tree. (I will puzzle over the hazel in the KJV as opposed to almond elsewhere, but I do not 
remember the hazel being biblical. And then I will puzzle over the storax in the NWT as opposed to 
the poplar in the KJV and RSV). Life gets complicated. The plane tree is oft cultivated and highly 
valued as an ornamental tree. It is said to be the tree under which Socrates enthralled his students. 
It has a short trunk, a roundish spreading crown, and is mostly grown for shade in parks and on 
roadsides. Seldom felled, it is allowed to grow to large dimensions. The wood is white, tinged with 
yellow or red; heartwood not distinct, fine -grained, moderately hard and heavy (weight circa 657 
kg/cu. m), but strong. It warps during seasoning and is durable only under cover. It is easy to saw 
and presents a decorative gfi ure when quarter sawn. It can be finished to a smooth surface that takes 
a beautiful polish. In Kashmir, the wood is mostly used for small boxes, trays, and similar articles 
that are lacquered and painted. In western Asia and Europe, it is used for cabinet making, furniture, 
veneers, carving, coach building, general turnery, and for wood pulp. It has been reported to be 
suitable for boot lasts (BIB).
Commo N Names (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
Aramon (f; KAB); Armon (Heb.; ZOH); Asiatische Platane (Ger.; EFS); Bhunj (Kas.; KAB); Boin 
(Kas.; DEP; KAB); Bonin (Kas.; DEP; KAB); Buin (India; Kas.; EFS; KAB; NAD); Buna (Kas.; 
DEP; KAB); Chanar (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Chinar (Chaman; Eng.; Iran; Pishin; Pun.; Quetta; Rus.; 
Urdu; EFS; DEP; KAB); Chintar (Pushtu; DEP; KAB); Çinar (Tur.; EFS); Dilba (Arab.; Aramaic; 
ZOH); Dulah (Iran; KAB); Jing Tu Shu (China; USN); Morgenländische Platane (Ger.; EFS); 
Oosterse Plataan (Dutch; EFS); Oriental Plane Tree (Eng.; EFS; USN; ZOH); Plataan (Dutch; 
KAB); Platan (Rom.; KAB); Platane (Fr.; Ger.; KAB); Platane d’Oreint (Fr.; EFS); Platano (It.; 
Por.; EFS; KAB); Plátano de Levante (Sp.; EFS); Plátano de Sombre (Sp.; EFS); Plátano do Oriente 
(Por.; EFS); Nscn.
a Ctivities (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
Antirheumatic (f; EFS); Antiscorbutic (f; EFS); Antiseptic (1; X8302950); Bactericide (1; X8302950); 
Cyanogenic (1; EB30:402); Cytotoxic (1; X10712831); Gram(+)-icide (1; X8302950); Gram(-)-icide 
(1; X8302950); Tonic (f; EFS); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
Bacteria (1; X8302950); Bite (f; KAB); Bronchosis (f; KAB); Cancer (f1; JLH; X10712831); Carc-i
noma (f; BIB); Diarrhea (f; DEP; NAD; WOI); Dysentery (f; WOI); Hernia (f; BIB); Infection (1; 
X8302950); Inafl mmation (f; BIB); Leukemia (1; X10712831); Leukorrhea (f; KAB); Nephrosis (f; 
KAB); Ophthalmia (f; DEP; EFS; NAD); Pharyngosis (f; KAB); Pulmonosis (f; KAB); Rheumatism 
(f; EFS); Scurvy (f; EFS); Sore Throat (f; KAB); Toothache (f; BIB); Tumor (f; BIB); Voice (f; KAB); 
Wound (f; KAB).
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d osages (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
FNFF = ?
• Asian Indians suggest applying bruised leaves to the eye in ophthalmia (DEP; KAB).
• Asian Indians suggest bark, boiled in vinegar, for diarrhea, dysentery, hernia, and too-th
ache (DEP; KAB).
• Unani use the bark for animal bites and leucoderma, the fruits and leaves for lacrym- a
tion, leucoderma, ophthalmia, toothache, and wounds, and disorders of the kidney, lungs, 
throat, and voice (KAB).
Natural History (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
Affected by the leaf spot disease caused by Stigmina platani and S. visianica. Dead wood attacked 
by beetles Aeolesthes sarta, Batocera rufomaculata, and Capnoidis miliaris (WOI).
extra Cts (o rie Ntal pla Ne t ree):
Contains active allantoin and asparagine (EFS).
Demetzos et al. (2000) isolated antileukemic cytotoxic compounds (platanoside and tilirioside) 
from methanolic bud extracts (X10712831). Mitrokotsa et al. (1993) studied antimicrobial activity 
against Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms (X8302950).
Wh Ite pop LAR (populus A lb A L.) ++ sALICACeAe
Notes (w Hite poplar ):
And Jacob took him rods of green poplar, and of the hazel and chestnut tree; and pilled white 
strakes in them, and made the white appear which was in the rods.
Genesis 30:37 (KJV)
Then Jacob took fresh rods of poplar and almond and plane, and peeled white streaks in them, 
exposing the white of the rods.
Genesis 30:37 (RSV)
Then Jacob took for his use staffs still moist of the storax tree and of the almond tree and of the 
plane tree and peeled in them white peeled spots by laying bare white places which were upon 
the staffs.
Genesis 30:37 (NWT)
Zohary, like Moldenke and Moldenke, concluded that water sprouts oPf opulus alba are the most 
likely interpretation of Jacob’s poplar rods. The NWT translates it as storax but Zohary rules that 
out on a phytogeographic basis. Native to Syria and Lebanon; for example, the white poplar thrives 
along water courses. Whether it is native to northern Israel is questionable. The young buds are co-v
ered with a resinous varnish with a balsamic aroma in the spring. Bruised buds produce a fragrant 
resin that may have been the incense burned by Ephraim in the groves of poplars. Because it casts 
a dense shade, white poplar has been extensively cultivated in the Holy Land. Bitten by a poisonous 
snake, Hercules found a mythical antidote in poplar leaves. The tonic bark is used for strangury and 
blood and skin diseases (BIB).
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FIGURe . White Poplar (Populus alba).
Commo N Names (w Hite poplar ):
Abbey (Eng.; EFS); Abele (Eng.; EFS; USN); Able (Eng.; DEP); Ak Kavak (Tur.; EFS); Álamo 
Bianco (Por.; EFS); Álamo Blanco (Sp.; EFS; USN); Alberaccio (Malta; KAB); Alberbaum (Ger.; 
KAB); Alberello (It.; EFS); Aouba (Lan.; KAB); Aspen (Eng.; BUR); Baid (Pun.; DEP); Blanc de 
Hollande (Fr.; KAB); Chanuni (Pun.; DEP); Chita Bagnu (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Chittabagun (Him-a
laya; KAB); Chopo (Sp.; EFS); Choupo Branco (Por.; EFS); European White Poplar (Eng.; BUR); 
Fras (Kas.; Pun.; DEP; KAB); Gattice (It.; EFS); Gin Doro (Japan; USN); Great Aspen (Eng.; 
HOC); Hakuyo (Japan; USN); Ilba (Cat.; KAB); Ispedar (Jhalawan; KAB); Jangli Frast (Pun.; 
DEP); Livneh (Heb.; ZOH); Mal (Pun.; DEP); Nyárfarügy (Hun.; EFS); Pai Yang (China; EFS); 
Peuplier Blanc (Fr.; EFS; USN); Pobo (Sp.; EFS); Popolo Bianco (It.; EFS); Prasti (Pun.; DEP); Prist 
(Pun.; DEP); Rikkan (Pun.; DEP); Safeda (Pun.; DEP); Sannan (Pun.; DEP); Silber Pappel (Ger.; 
EFS; USN); Silver-leaf Poplar (Eng.; UPH; USN); Speda (Afg.; DEP); Spedar (Chaman; Quetta; 
KAB); Spelda (Afg.; DEP); Sperdor (Afg.; DEP); Sufeda (Nasiribad; Sharig; Sibi; KAB); Topol 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
(Rus.; KAB); Urajiro Hako Yanagi (Japan; USN); Weiss Pappel (Ger.; EFS); White Asp (Eng.; 
EFS); White Poplar (Eng.; USN); Witte Abeel (Dutch; EFS); Witte Populier (Dutch; EFS); Xin Bai 
Yang (China; USN); Nscn.
a Ctivities (w Hite poplar ):
Antiperiodic (1; WOI); Antiseptic (f; DAW); Astringent (f; DAW); Bitter (f; DAW); Depurative (f; DEP); 
Diaphoretic (f; AAH); Diuretic (f; DAW; EFS); Febrifuge (f1; DAW; EFS; ZOH); Insectifuge (1; WOI); 
Revulsive (f; DAW); Stimulant (f; DAW; EFS); Tonic (f; DEP; EFS; ZOH); Uricosuric (1; WOI).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite poplar ):
Bone (f; DAW); Caries (f; DAW); Cold (f; DAW); Colic (f; DAW); Complexion (f; DAW); Coryza (1; 
WOI); Cystosis (f; HOC); Dermatosis (f; DAW; DEP); Dyspepsia (f; AAH); Fever (f; DAW); Flux (f; 
DAW); Goiter (f; DAW); Hematochezia (f; DAW); Hemorrhage (f; DAW); Herpes (f; DAW); Malaria 
(1; DAW; WOI); Necrosis (f; HOC); Neuraglia (1; WOI); Night Sweats (f; AAH); Osteosis (f; HOC); 
Rheumatism (f1; DAW); Sciatica (f; HOC); Splenomegaly (f; DAW); Strangury (f; DAW; DEP).
d osages (w Hite poplar ):
FNFF = !
Inner bark used as a flour substitute in survival breadstuffs (TAN).
• Chinese use leaf decoction for bone necrosis and tooth decay (HOC).
• Somerset British use bark infusion for dyspepsia, fever, and night sweats (AAH).
Natural History (w Hite poplar ):
A rust, Melampsora rostrupii, and a powdery mildew, Uncinula salicis, affect the leaves. Defolia-
tors and borers are reported from the tree (WOI).
extra Cts (w Hite poplar ):
Bark contains populnin and salicin, both of which can help eliminate uric acid (WOI).
eUph RAtes pop LAR (populus euphr Atic A oLI v.) ++ s ALICACeAe
Notes (eup Hrates poplar ):
He took also of the seed of the land, and planted it in a fruitful field; he placed it by great waters, 
and set it as a willow tree. And it grew, and became a spreading vine of low stature, whose branches 
turned toward him, and the roots thereof were under him: so it became a vine, and brought forth 
branches, and shot forth sprigs.
Ezekiel 17:5–6 (KJV)
Who would confuse a willow with a poplar? This Euphrates poplar has narrower, more willow-like 
leaves on younger shoots, but broader, poplar-like leaves on older shoots. Zohary notes that the 
Euphrates poplar grows characteristically on river banks along the Jordan, often coexisting with the 
wild date along brackish water courses. And like the Moldenkes, Zohary believes that the “willows” 
(Psalms 137:1–3) on which the Jews hung their harps were, in fact, the Euphrates poplar. Some 
versions of the Bible even say poplars instead of willow. Early Christian legendry, assuming that 
Jesus’s cross was made of aspen (= poplar), has it that aspen trees everywhere started shuddering 
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FIGURe . Euphrates Poplar (Populus euphratica). Source: KAB
when nails were driven into the wood and have trembled ever since. Judas was said to have hanged 
himself on Populus, but some suggest instead Cercis, or Ficus, or Pistacia (BIB; ZOH).
Commo N Names (eup Hrates poplar ):
Aspen (Eng.; BIB); Bahan (Bom.; Pun.; Pushtu; Sin.; KAB); Bahanr (Las Bela; KAB); Bahun 
(Shah Bilawul; Sibi; KAB); Ban (Bom.; KAB); Benti (Pun.; KAB); Bhakaim (Heb.; KAB); Bhan 
(Pun.; Sin. KAB); Bhani (Pun.; KAB); Euphrates Aspen (Eng.; BIB); Euphrates Poplar (Eng.; BIB); 
Gharab (Arab.; Iraq; ZOH); Hodung (Ladak; KAB); Hotung (Ladak; KAB); Hu Yang (China; 
USN); Junglibenti (Pun.; KAB); Labhan (Pun.; KAB); Pada (Afg.; Pishin; Quetta; KAB); Padak 
(Afg.; KAB); Padar (Bal..; KAB); Patk (Jhalawan; Kharan; Sarawan; KAB); Patki (Brahui; KAB); 
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Poplar (Eng.; BIB; ZOH); Putki Gundava; KAB); Safeda (Sin.; KAB); Safedar (Pun.; KAB); Safsaf 
(Arab.; Egypt; ZOH); Safsaf el Abiad (Arab.; Egypt; ZOH); Spana (Kohlu; KAB); Sperawan (Pun.; 
KAB); Spina (Kila Saifulla; Nasirabad; Sibi; KAB); Tzaftzafah (Heb.; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (eup Hrates poplar ):
Dentifrice (f; WOI); Vermifuge (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (eup Hrates poplar ):
Odontosis (f; WOI); Worm (f; KAB).
d osages (eup Hrates poplar ):
FNFF = ?
I have no reports on this one being used for food. The inner bark of other poplar species serves as a 
ofl ur substitute; a few have sprouts that are eaten as greens and salads; the sap can serve as a source 
of sugar, possibly fermentable (FAC; TAN).
ApRICot ( prunus A rmeni Ac A L.) ++ Ros ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Armeniaca vulgaris Lamarck fide AH2
Notes (a pri Cot ):
A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver.
Proverbs 25:11 (KJV)
A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in a setting of silver.
Proverbs 25:11 (RSV)
As apples of gold in silver carving is a word spoken at the right time for it.
Proverbs 25:11 (NWT)
An apple a day keeps the doctor away. An apricot (without sultfi es) a day keeps the undertaker 
away. In biblical days, Solomon said, “comfort me with apples for I am sick.” Could he have meant 
apricots? Some maintain that Abraham used dried apricot pulp on his journey from Ur (HJP). I do 
not know whether the apple or apricot, or even possibly the pomegranate, was intended in the above 
passages. Apple, apricot, and pomegranate, all possible, are good health foods, and all have been 
proposed as the apple of the Bible. Perhaps all are! Hunzas reportedly live well into old age, free 
of cancer and cardiopathy. Was it fresh air and glacial pure water, was it apricot, or was it the real 
apple? One visitor described the Hunza four meals a day as atfl bread with fresh or boiled apricots 
for breakfast, ditto plus vegetables for lunch, apricot soup for dinner, and vegetables and fruit for 
late dinner (no mention of yogurt) (JNU). Could they have meant apricot pits in the Garden of Eden? 
Zohary does not even mention Prunus in his discussion of the biblical apple, believing that apples 
(Malus domestica) had been introduced into the Holy Land by 4000 b.c. As Milton says, “The fruit 
of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our woe.” The seeds 
of both (and many other rose relatives) do contain laetril-elike compounds that can cure or kill, 
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depending on dosage. Were it my Garden of Eden, or even my Garden of Solomon, I would have 
wanted both, and all other edible members of the Prunus and Malus genera. Bitter apricot kernel is 
highly toxic because of the potential cyanide levels. Expressed oil, known as Persic oil or apricot oil, 
is used as a pharmaceutical vehicle; it is obtained by the same process as bitter almond oil. Pit shells 
have been used to prepare activated charcoal, via destructive distillation. Perhaps the tyle-nHolCN 
connection accomplished more to discourage laetrile than did NCI (BIB; ZOH).
Commo N Names (a pri Cot ):
Abricoquer (Cat.; KAB); Abricotier (Fr.; EFS; KAB); Abrikoosboom (Dutch; EFS; KAB); Abrikos 
(Den.; EFS); Abrikosovoi Dyerevo (Rus.; KAB); Albaricoque (Mex.; KAB); Albaricoquero (Sp.; 
KAB; VAD); Albercocco (It.; KAB); Albercooque (Sp.; EFS); Alberge (Sp.; EFS); Albergero (Sp.; 
EFS); Albicocco (Malta; KAB); Albricoquiero (Por.; EFS); Alperciero (Por.; EFS); Alperchiero 
(Por.; EFS); Alukashmiri (Pun.; KAB); Anzu (Japan; TAN); Apricot (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; KAB); 
Aprikose (Ger.; HHB); Aprikosenbaum (Ger.; KAB); Binkook Tuffa Armina (Arab.; India; EFS; 
NAD); Binkuk (Arab.; KAB); Cais (Rom.; KAB); Cherkish (Kas.; KAB); Chhappuh (Heb.; KAB); 
Chilu (Hindi; KAB); Chinaru (India; EFS; NAD); Chinaru (India; NAD); Chinese Bitter Almond 
(Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Chola (Kum.; KAB); Chuari (Hindi; DEP; WOI); Chuaru (Kum.; NAD); Chuli 
(Bhoti; Ladak; Pun.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Chulu (India; NAD); Ciruela (Sp.; EFS); Damasco (Por.; 
Sp.; KAB; USN); Damasquiero (Mad.; Por.; EFS; JAD); Damasquino (Sp.; USN); Galdam (Tibet; 
DEP; KAB); Gardali (Pun.; NAD); Gurdalu (Kas.; DEP); Gurdlu (Pun.; MPI; NAD; SKJ); Hanh 
(Ic.; KAB); Hari (Hazara; Pun.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Hing (China; TAN); Hsing (China; EFS; KAB); 
Iser (Kas.; NAD); Jaldaru (Sutlej; NAD); Jardal (Kon.; KAB); Jardalu (Hindi; Pushtu; NAD); Kayisi 
(Tur.; EB54:155); Kayisi Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Kham Bu (Tibet; NPM); Khista (Pushtu; DEP); Kho-r
pani (Newari; NPM); Khubani (Hindi; Pushtu; Urdu; KAB; NAD; WOI); Khurpani (Nepal; NPM); 
Ku Xing Ren (Pin.; AH2); Kushm Aru (Kum.; DEP); Kushmiaru (Hindi; WOI); Mandata (Pun.; 
Pushtu; DEP; KAB); Marille (Ger.; HHB; USN); Meliaco (It.; EFS); Mishmis (Iran; NAD); Mish-
mish (Arab.; Iran; Syria; DEP; HJP); Moon of the Faithful (Eng.; DEP); Mushmush (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Pak Hang (Malaya; KAB); Pating (Bhote; DEP); Salkunamu (Korea; TAN); Sargabarackfa 
(Hun.; KAB); Sari (Pun.; WOI); Shiran (Pun.; NAD); Siberian Apricot (Eng.; USN); T’ien Mei 
(China; EFS); Tuffa Urmena (Arab.; DEP); Urumaana (Sanskrit; MPI); Xing (Pin.; AH2); Xing Ren 
(Pin.; DAA); Zardalu (Afg.; Iran; Kohlu; Quetta; Sharig; KAB).
a Ctivities (a pri Cot ):
Analgesic (1; X15744067); Anthelmintic (f; CRC; KAB); Antidote (f; CRC; DAA); Antiinafl mma -
tory (1; X15744067); Antioxidant (1; X15723750); Antiprostaglandin (1; X15744067); Antispa-s
modic (f; CRC; EFS); Antithyroid (1; AKT); Antitumor (f; APA), Antitussive (f; CRC); Aphrodisiac 
(f; CRC; EFS); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; X15744067); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor (1; X15744067); Cya-
nogenic (f; CRC); Demulcent (f1; CRC; VAD); Emetic (f; KAB); Emollient (f; CRC; VAD); Expec -
torant (f; BIB; CRC); Hemostat (f; BIB); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X15744067); Laxative (f1; HJP; NAD; 
VAD); NO Inhibitor (1; X15744067); Pectoral (f; CRC; EFS); Peristaltic (1; VAD); Poison (f1; CRC); 
Refrigerant (f; NAD); Sedative (f; CRC); Tonic (f; CRC); Vermifuge (f; CRC); Vulnerary (f; CRC).
iNdi Catio Ns (a pri Cot ):
Aging (f1; VAD); Anemia (f; CRC; EFS); Asthma (f; APA; CRC; DAA); Bleeding (f; BIB; CRC); 
Bronchosis (f12; APA; CRC; DAA); Cancer (f1; APA; CAN; JLH); Catarrh (f; CRC; DAA); Child-
birth (f; CRC); Cold (f; CRC; DAA); Congestion (f; APA), Conjunctivosis (f; CRC); Constipation 
(f; APA; CRC); Cough (f; APA; CRC); Deafness (f; KAB); Dermatosis (1; VAD); Diarrhea (f; 
KAB); Earache (f; KAB); Fever (f; CRC; KAB); Heart (f; CRC); Hemorrhoid (f; KAB); Hepatosis 
(f; KAB); Ichthyosis (f1; VAD); Infertility (f; BIB; CRC); Inafl mmation (f1; CRC; X15744067); Itch 
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(f; APA); Laryngitis (f; CRC); Meningitis (f1; HHB); Mucosis (f1; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; BIB); Oto-
sis (f; KAB); Pachymeningitis (f1; HHB); Pain (1; X15744067); Puerperium (f; BIB); Rheumatism 
(f; CRC); Snakebites (f; APA), Sore (f; APA; JLH); Sore Throat (f; BIB; CRC); Soroche (f; BIB; 
NAD); Spasm (f; CRC); Swelling (f; CRC; JLH); Thirst (f; CRC); Toothache (f; APA); Trichomo-
niasis (2; APA); Tumor (f; APA; CRC; JLH); Ulcer (f; JLH); Vaginosis (2; APA); Vulvosis (2; APA); 
Worm (f; DAA); Wound (f; DAA); Xeroderma (f1; VAD).
d osages (a pri Cot ):
FNFF = !!!
Ripe fruits widely eaten, fresh, preserved, or converted to juice, brandy, liqueurs; unripe fruits 
made into preserves and syrups; seeds, especially the bitter seeds, more medicinal, but eaten, like 
those of the almond and peach; bitter kernels used in macaroons called Ameretti di Saronno and 
liqueurs called Amaretto di Saronno; seed oil sometimes extracted. Kernels produce a sweet edible 
oil sometimes used as substitute for almond oil. Chinese almonds are the seed kernels of several 
sweet varieties of apricot, used for almond cookies, eaten salted and blanched, or made into gruel 
or flour. Afghans also use the seeds as almonds (FAC; TAN; EB54:155).
• Afghans use dried fruits as laxative and refrigerant in fevers (DEP; KAB).
• Chinese use fruits for asthma, bronchosis, cancer, cardiopathy, cold, cough, insomnia, 
worms, wounds, seeds for asthma, bronchosis, catarrh, cough, considering roots an-ti
dotal to seeds (DAA).
• Koreans use the expectorant kernel to treat dry throat (BIB).
• Malayans used dried fruits to quench thirst and allay fever (KAB).
• Tibetans apply fruits, after chewing them, in ophthalmia (DEP).
• Unani use the tonic seed for deafness, earache, hepatitis, piles, and worms, the fruit for 
diarrhea, fever, and thirst (KAB).
d ow Nsides (a pri Cot ):
Class 3 (AHP). Also known as bitter almond. One of the products apricot seed components break 
down into in the human body is highly toxic prussic acid. Fifty to sixty kernels of apricot seed can 
kill adults; 7 to ten kernels can be fatal in children. My CRC handbook says that a “double kernel 
is said to be enough to kill a man” (CRC). I think that is overkill. Headache and nausea occurred 
in some patients being treated for chronic bronchosis with a paste of apricot seed and sugar. Po- s
sible adverse interaction when taken with astragalus, skullcap, or kudzu root (TMA, 1996). Do 
not use, says APA, probably referring to the cyanogenic seed. Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson 
(1996) warn that the cyanogenetic glycosides in the seed can cause cyanide poisoning. Because of 
cyanide toxicity, apricot use in pregnancy and lactation should be avoided. Kernels may cause c-on
tact dermatosis. Avoid in pregnancy; ingestion of cyanogenic substances may be teratogenic. More 
than 20 deaths have been reported from laetrile and apricot kernel ingestion (CAN). Symptoms 
of acute intoxication include convulsions, dizziness, drowsiness, dyspnea, headache, hypotension, 
nausea, paralysis, coma, and then death. Death may occur from 1 to 15 minutes after ingestion. 
Antidotes for cyanide poisoning include aminophenol, cobalt edetate, hydroxocobalamin, nitrite, 
and thiosulphate. Symptoms of chronic intoxication (from HCN, cyanogenic foods, or drugs such 
as laetrile) include ataxia, blindness, cretinism, goiter, hypertonia, increased blood thiocyanate, 
lesions of the optic nerve, mental retardation, and thyroid cancer. Demyelinating lesions and other 
neuromyopathies may occur secondary to chronic cyanide exposure, including long-term laetrile 
therapy. Agranulocytosis has also been attributed to long-term laetrile therapy. Laetrile spelled 
with a capital “L” signiefi s a synthetic patented in 1961 but never sold in the United States. Spelled 
with a small “l,” laetrile is, for lay purposes, synonymous with amygdalin. After making this 
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distinction, APA spells it with a small “l” except, of course, at the beginning of a sentence where 
they say, “Laetrile consists of 6% cyanide (prussic or hydrocyanic acid), a highly poisonous s-ub
stance that can kill by depriving the brain of oxygen.” Then they unleash a hyperbolic error I 
presume, “the laetrile content of apricot pits varies from as much as 8% in some apricot varieties 
to twenty times that amount in wild varieties.” Krebs marketed laetrile with a small “l” as vitamin 
B-17 (AHA).
extra Cts (a pri Cot ):
Among 37 varieties, total carotenoid content ranged from 15 to 165 mg kg (edible portion); beta-
carotene led, followed by beta-cryptoxanthin and gamma-carotene, with less phytoene, phytoufl ene, 
gamma-carotene, lycopene, beta-cryptoxanthin, and lutein (X16076120). I am not surprised by the 
antioxidant capacities reported by Scalzo et al. (2005) for wild strawberry, six varieties of cultivated 
strawberry, and vfi e varieties of apple and with apricot and peach grafts. Wild strawberries >> cul-ti
vated strawberries >> kiwifruit = apples = apricots = peaches. This tells me that the American wild 
strawberry, as I would have predicted, was better than the cultivated strawberry, apple, or apricot 
(X15723750). A retrospective analysis of laetrile in cancer patients showed slight activity. A su-b
sequent clinical trial concluded that laetrile was ineffective in cancer treatment. Claims for laetrile 
were based on three different theories. Theory (1) claimed that cancerous cells contained copious 
beta-glucosidases, which release HCN from laetrile via hydrolysis. Normal cells were reportedly 
unaffected because they contained low concentrations of beta-glucosidases and high concen-tra
tions of rhodanese, which converts HCN to the less toxic thiocyanate. Later, however, it was shown 
that both cancerous and normal cells contain only trace amounts of beta-glucosidases, and similar 
amounts of rhodanese. Also, it was thought that amygdalin was not absorbed intact from the g-as
trointestinal tract (CAN). Theory (2) proposed that after ingestion, amygdalin was hydrolyzed to 
mandelonitrile, transported intact to the liver, and converted to a beta-glucuronide complex, which 
was then carried to the cancerous cells, hydrolyzed by beta-glucuronidases to release mandelo-ni
trile and then HCN. This was believed an untenable theory. Theory (3), calling laetrile vitamin 
B-17, proposed that cancer results from B-17 decfi iency. It postulated that chronic administration 
of laetrile would prevent cancer. No evidence was adduced to substantiate this hypothesis. Furthe- r
more, it was even claimed that patients taking laetrile reduced their life expectancy, both through a 
lack of proper medical care and chronic cyanide poisoning. To reduce potential risks to the general 
public, amygdalin was made a prescription-only medicine in 1984 (CAN).
ALMo ND (prunus dulcis ( MILL.) D.A. WeBB) ++ Ros ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Amygdalus communis L.; Amygdalus dulcis Mill.; Prunus amygdalus Stock
Notes (a lmo Nd):
And their father Israel said unto them, If it must be so now, do this; take of the best fruits in the 
land in your vessels, and carry down the man a present, a little balm, and a little honey, spices, 
and myrrh, nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (KJV)
Then their father Israel said to them, “If it must be so, then do this: take some of the choice fruits 
of the land in your bags, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm and a little honey, 
gum, myrrh, pistachio nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (RSV)
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
So Israel their father said to them, “If, then, that is the case, do this: Take the finest products of 
the land in your receptacles, and carry them down to the man as a gift, a little balsam, and a little 
honey, labdanum and resinous bark, pistachio nuts, and almonds.
Genesis 43:11 (NWT)
Historically, some have argued that almond did not grow naturally in Egypt, because Jacob’s sons 
took almonds to Joseph. (We often take almonds on trips although they are available at either end 
of our trip.) Zohary states, “Flowering almonds are not found in the Sinai today,” (ZOH) but infers 
that they may have been there historically, as they do occur in the Negev Hills. Possibly related 
trees such as the Sinai Hawthorn were used as a substitute for almond in the ofl ral candelabrum. 
Nowadays, the almond is widespread in the Holy Land, one of the earliest trees to ofl wer. In Tus-
cany, almond branches were reportedly used as divining rods to locate hidden treasure. There is the 
legendary story of Charlemagne’s troops’ spears (almond) sprouting in the ground overnight and 
shading the tents the next day. Almonds are also valued for their ornamental ofl wers, one of the 
first trees to ofl wer in the Palestinian spring. Because of their association with spring, the ofl wer is 
associated with life after death or immortality. Modern English Jews carry ofl wering branches into 
the synagogue on spring festival days, as a herald of spring in Israel (BIB; ZOH).
Commo N Names (a lmo Nd):
Acibadem Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Allozo (Sp.; EFS); Almendro (Peru; Sp.; Spain; EFS; EGG; USN; VAD); 
ˆ
Almond (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; USN); Amendi (Kon.; KAB); Amygdalia (Greek; KAB); Anande 
(Fr.; EFS); Amandelboom (Dutch; EFS); Amandier (Fr.; EFS; USN); Amandier Commun (Fr.; USN); 
Amendo (Japan; USN); Amendoeira (Por.; EFS; KAB); Amendosu (Japan; TAN); Amendoeira (Por.; 
USN); Ametlle (Cat.; KAB); Archin (Pab; KAB); Badam (Bom.; Dec.; Guj.; Hindi; Iran; Mal.; Mar.; 
Nepal; Pun.; Surab; Tur.; DEP; EFS; KAB; SUW); Badama (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Badamamu (Tel.; 
KAB); Badami (Kan.; DEP; KAB); Badamitte (Sanskrit; DEP); Badamo (Oriya; KAB); Badams-hi
rin (Urdu; KAB); Badamu (Kan.; NAD); Badamvittilu (Tel.; DEP); Badan (Burma; DEP; KAB); 
Bademi (Tur.; EB54:155); Bilatibadam (Beng.; DEP; KAB; NAD); Bitter Almond (Eng.; USN); Bi-t
termandelbaum (Ger.; USN); Emmellié (Fr.; KAB); Hadankyo (Japan; TAN); Kahero (Wad; KAB); 
Karamomo (Japan; TAN); Lauz (Arab.; GHA); Lawz (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Lawz Myrr (Arab.; Syria; 
HJP); Louz (Arab.; DEP); Louza (Arab.; EFS; NAD); Loz (Arab.; GHA); Lujaalhulu (Arab.; KAB); 
Luz (Arab.; Aramaic; Heb.; ZOH); Mandelbaum (Ger.; EFS; USN); Mandorlo (It.; EFS; KAB); Ma-n
dulafa (Hun.; KAB); Migdal (Pol.; Rom.; KAB); Mindalnoi Dyerevo (Rus.; KAB); Pa Tan Hsing 
(China; KAB); Parsivadumai (Tam.; KAB); Rattokotamba (Sih.; KAB); Shaged (Heb.; KAB); Shaked 
(Heb.; ZOH); Sweet Almond (Eng.; USN); Tatlibadem Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Vadamkottai (Tam.; DEP); 
Vadumai (Tam.; SKJ); Vatamkotta (Mal.; DEP); Vatavairi (Sanskrit; KAB). Many countries rec-og
nize a sweet (low cyanide) var.d ulcis and a bitter (high cyanide) vara. mara, appending their adjec-
tive for bitter or sweet to their word for almond. AH2 used bitter almond and sweet almond as other 
common names for the standardized common name “almond.”
a Ctivities (a lmo Nd):
Allergenic (1; JAF49:2131); Alterative (f; BIB); Antifeedant (1; X11902971); Antiinafl mmatory, 
Antispasmodic (f1; BOW; FNF; VAD); Antitussive (f1; FNF; VAD); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; GHA); 
Astringent (f; BIB; DEP); Bactericide (1; APA; MPI); Carminative (f; BIB); Cerebrotonic (f; NAD); 
Cyanogenic (f; BIB); Demulcent (f1; APA; BIB; EFS; PH2); Deobstruent (f; DEP); Discutient 
(f; BIB; WOI); Diuretic (f; BIB; DEP); Emollient (f1; APA; BIB; EFS); Expectorant (f1; FNF; VAD); 
Hepatoprotective (f; VAD); Hypocholesterolemic (1; X15746835); Hypotensive (f; VAD); Laxative 
(f1; APA; BIB; VAD); Insectifuge (1; X11902971); Lipolytic (1; X15746835); Litholytic (f; BIB; 
DEP; WOI); Memorigenic (f; GHA); Nervine (f; BIB; SUW; WOI); Pectoral (f; VAD); Pediculicide 
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FIGURe . Almond (Prunus dulcis). Source: KAB
(f; DEP); Sedative (f; BIB); Spermatogenic (f; NAD); Stimulant (f; BIB); Sudoric fi (f; VAD); Tonic 
(f; BIB); Vermifuge (f; GHA); Vulnerary (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (a lmo Nd):
Acne (f; BIB); Adenopathy (1; JLH); Ascites (f; BIB); Asthma (f; BIB); Biliousness (f; BIB; KAB); 
Bronchosis (f; BIB; NAD); Burn (f; VAD); Callus (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer, 
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bladder (f1; APA); Cancer, breast (f1; APA; JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; FNF); Cancer, gland (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f1; APA); Cancer, spleen (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, 
stomach (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); Cardiopathy (1; APA; FNF; X15469659); 
Chafing (f; GAZ); Cold (f; BIB; FNF); Colic (f; BIB); Condyloma (f; BIB; JLH); Constipation (f1; 
APA); Corn (f; BIB; JLH); Cough (f1; BIB; DEP; FNF; GHA; PH2); Cramp (f; BIB); Cystosis (f; 
BIB; JLH); Delirium (f; BIB); Dermatosis (f; BIB; PH2; WOI); Diabetes (f; DAA; NAD); Dysmen-
orrhea (f; DEP); Dyspnea (f; BIB; GHA); Dysuria (f; NAD); Earache (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; DEP); 
Furuncle (f; BIB); Gallstone (f; BOW); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gingivosis (f; BIB; DEP); Gleet (f; BIB; 
KAB); Gravel (f; BIB); Headache (f; BIB; DEP); Heartburn (f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; BIB; DEP; JLH); 
Herpes (f; GHA); High Blood Pressure (f; VAD); High Cholesterol (1; APA; X15746835); Hoarse-
ness (f; NAD); Hydrophobia (f; BIB); Ichthyosis (f; VAD); Impotence (f; BIB; GHA); Induration (f; 
BIB; JLH); Infection (f; NAD); Inafl mmation (f; BIB; JLH); Itch (f; BIB; WOI); Kidney stone (f; 
BOW); Leukoderma (f; BIB); Mastosis (f; JLH); Nausea (f; PH2); Nephrosis (f; BIB; NAD); Neu-
ralgia (f; DEP; KAB); Obesity (1; X15746835); Ophthalmia (f; DEP); Pain (f; DEP; KAB); Pedic-u
losis (f; KAB); Polyuria (f; NAD); Psoriasis (f; VAD); Pulmonosis (f; BIB); Respirosis (f; EFS); 
Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; BIB; JLH); Sore Throat (f; BIB; KAB); Splenosis (f; BIB; DEP; JLH); 
Staphylococcus (1; MPI); Stomatosis (f; BIB; DEP; JLH); Stone (f; BOW); Streptococcus (1; MPI); 
Swelling (f; JLH); Ulcer (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; JLH); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Vomiting (f; PH2); 
Worm (f; GHA).
d osages (a lmo Nd):
FNFF = !!!
Nuts widely eaten, raw or roasted; seeds can be blended into almond milk or almond butter; used in 
baked goods and candies; seed oil quite delectable, used in afl voring baked goods, the bitter almond 
oils ending up in confections such as Maraschino cherries and liqueurs such as amaretto. Benz-al
dehyde may be used for almond afl voring, usually being cheaper than almond oil (BIB; FAC; TAN; 
EB54:155). 2–4 tsp oil as laxative (VAD).
• Arabians believe the seed kernels will improve sexual potency (GHA).
• Asian Indians suggest “almond nut cream” for “brain workers” (three almonds, two wa-l
nuts, two ounces of pine kernels crushed and steeped overnight in orange or lemon juice) 
(NAD).
• Ayurvedics consider the fruit, the seed, and its oil aphrodisiac, using the oil for biliou-s
ness, headache, and the seed as a laxative (KAB).
• Icelanders take bitter almonds (imported I suppose) for hepatic and splenic indurations 
(JLH).
• Iranians make an ointment from bitter almonds for furuncles (BIB).
• Lebanese believe that almonds and/or almond oil restore virility (HJP).
• Lebanese use the oil for skin trouble, including white leukoderma-like patches (HJP).
• Middle Easterners use the oil as an emollient to alleviate itching. Raw oil from the bitter 
variety is used for acne. Almond and honey was given for cough. Thin almond paste was 
added to wheat porridge to pass gravel or stone (BIB; DEP; HJP).
• Mohammedens recommend a plaster of bitter almonds with vinegar for neuralgia, with 
starch and peppermint for cough (DEP).
• Pakistanis eat vfi e, seven, or eleven almonds before breakfast to improve the memory 
(GHA).
• Unani use the seed for ascites, bronchitis, colic, cough, delirium, earache, gleet, hepatitis, 
headache, hydrophobia, inafl mmation, renitis, skin ailments, sore throat, and weak eyes 
(KAB).
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d ow Nsides (a lmo Nd):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) (PH2 designates no 
dosage! JAD). Ten bitter almonds said to be fatal to children, 60 to an adult (PH2). 0.5% of United 
States citizens show sensitivity to tree nuts, 0.6% to peanuts, and an additional 0.3% allergic to nuts 
but not specifying or differentiating between tree nut and peanut allergy.
Natural History (a lmo Nd):
Prominent diseases in India include “shot hole” caused by Clasterosporium carpophilum (Lev.) 
Aderh., “white spongy rot” due to Fomes lividus K1, “brown patchy leaf rot” due to Phyllosticta 
prunicola (Spiz) Sacc., “brown rot” due to Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev., and a mosaic di-s
ease due to virus plague almond. The chrysomelid Mimastra cyanura Hope and the almond weevil 
Myllocerus laetivirens Marshall feed on the leaves. The San Jose scalQe uadraspidiotus perniciosus 
Comstock is a minor problem. The almond moth Ephestia cautella Wlk. infests shelled almonds 
and dried apricot, currant, date, gfi , peach, and plum (HOE). Resistance to the buprestid beetle, 
Capnoidis tenebrionis, may be proportional to the prunasin content of the roots (X11902971).
extra Cts (a lmo Nd):
Amandin (almond major protein) is a complex protein with at least 28 peptides and accounts for 
circa 65% of total aqueous extractable almond protein (JAF49:2131). De Pascual et al. (1998) note 
that green almond extracts contain two monomers — (+)-catechin and (--)epicatechin — and 
15 oligomeric procyanidins (six dimers, seven trimers, and two tetramers) (J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 
105(3):449–454, 2005). Almonds in the diet simultaneously improve plasma alpha-tocopherol con-
centrations and reduce plasma lipids (X15746835). The objective of this study was to assess the 
dose-response effect of almond intake on plasma and red blood cell tocopherol concentrations in 
healthy adults enrolled in a randomized, crossover feeding trial. Participants were 16 healthy men 
and women, aged 41 ± 13 years. After a 2-week run-in period, participants were fed three diets 
for 4 weeks each: a control diet, a low-almond diet, and a high-almond diet, in which almonds 
contributed 0, 10, and 20% of total energy, respectively. Changes in blood tocopherol levels were 
assayed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Incorporating almonds into the diet helped meet 
the revised Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of 15 mg/day alpha-tocopherol and increased 
lipid-adjusted plasma and red blood cell alpha-tocopherol concentrations. A signicafi nt dose-
response effect was observed between percent energy in the diet from almonds and plasma ratio of 
alpha-tocopherol to total cholesterol (X15746835). Those who know me have probably heard me 
urging a Gatesian computerized approach, analyzing 1000 of the important food farmacy plants, for 
1000 important phytochemicals, so we could then, via computer, determine which foods were best 
for which malady of mankind. Phillips et al. (2005) certainly dampen my enthusiasm for such an 
approach, showing that just the nuts present huge analytical challenges. My decades of compiling 
have shown me what megavariation there is in the quantitation of phytochemicals within a single 
species. I fear a megagatesian megacybernetic quandary. “The results of this study also illustrate 
the complexity that can be involved in evaluating food phytochemical data. Determination of the 
phytosterol composition of nuts and seeds is not amenable to ‘production-scale’ analysis of pred-e
termined components using existing standard values” (X16302759). What is the most efcafi cious 
mix of the subinfinite combinations of the various phytosterols in a given nut, the phytosterols 
alone or with all the other phytochemicals, or in a biblical seve-nnut/grain mixture, some possibly 
synergic, some probably additive, some possibly even antagonistic? I still optimistically suspect that 
all these sterols have been known to our genes for millions of years of co-evolution, and hence the 
body homeostatically grabs those it needs from the sterol mix, if they are needed, excluding them 
if unneeded. Fortunately for nut lovers, Phillips et al. (2005) quantiefi d the phytosterols in nuts and 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
seeds commonly consumed in the United States. Such phytosterols are medicinally important, for 
example, in BPH and in high cholesterol (X16302759). Here is what they found in almonds, based 
on four accessions: delta5-avenasterol (197 ppm), campestanol (33 ppm), campesterol (49 ppm) phy -
tosterols (1930–2080 ppm), poriferasta-7,25-dienol (101 ppm), sitostanol (32 ppm), beta -sitosterol 
(1434 ppm), and stigmastanol (50 ppm) (X16302759).
ReD sANDALWoo D (pteroc Arpus s Ant Alinu s L. F.) ++ FABACeAe
Notes (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
And the king made of the almug trees pillars for the house of the LORD, and for the king’s house, 
harps also and psalteries for singers: there came no such almug trees, nor were seen unto this day.
I Kings 10:12 (KJV)
Many biblical scholars, including Zohary, believe the “almug” of Kings was the red sandalwood or 
red saunders Pterocarpus santalinus L. Anyhow, it is consistently called almug in KJV, NWT, RSV; 
and its hard and heavy wood, red to garnet colored, takes a good polish, well suited for Solomon’s 
purposes. It was used in construction of the House of the Lord, and is still used for lyres and other 
musical instruments (ZOH). The wood is extremely hard and resistant to termites. Recently, the 
wood has been more important as a dye source, used for imprinting a red or pink color to calico, 
cotton, or silk. Red sandalwood is well known in Europe as an ingredient of “French polish” (BIB). 
JLH and IHB combined medicinal activities of P. indicus and P santalinus.
Commo N Names (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
Agaru Gandhamu (Ap.; SKJ); Algum (Eng.; Heb.; ZOH); Almug (Eng.; Heb.; BIB; ZOH); Atti (Tam-
ilnadu; SKJ); Buckum (Iran; DEP); Caliatur Wood Tree (Eng.; EFS); Chan Chandanam (Mal.; NAD); 
Chandana (India; Sanskrit; EFS; JLH); Chandan Lal (Pun.; DEP); Chendana Dangi (Malaya; IHB); 
Chendana Mera (Malaya; EFS); Dul Surkh (Iran; DEP); Dunkelroche (Ger.; NAD); Erra Chandanam 
(Tel.; DEP); Erra Gandhapu-chekka (Tel.; DEP); Erra Gandhamu (Tel.; NAD); Flugal Frucht (Ger.; 
NAD); Gerra Chandan (Tel.; DEP); Honne (Karnataka; SKJ); Kaliaturholzbaum (Ger.; EFS); Kirmizi 
santal (Tur.; EFS); Kuchandana (Sanskrit; DEP); Kuchunduna (Beng.; DEP); Kuchandanam (Tel.; 
DEP); Lal Chandan (Tel.; DEP); Lala Chandan (Hindi; SKJ); Lalachandana (Bom.; DEP); Lalc-han
dana (Hindi; NAD); Lenyo Caliatur (Sp.; EFS); Patrangan (Kerala; SKJ); Nasa-Ni (Burma; DEP); 
Rachandana (Kon.; NAD); Rakta Chandan (Nepal; Sanskrit; SKJ; SUW); Rakta Chandana (India; 
Sanskrit; DEP; EFS); Raktachandau (Nepal; SUW) Ratanjali (Guj.; SKJ); Sanders Tree (Eng.; EFS); 
Ragat Chandan (Hindi; DEP); Rakta Chandan (Nepal; SUW); Rakta Chandana (Beng.; SUW); Rakta 
Gandhamu (Tel.; NAD); Rakta Sandana (Beng.; Hindi; Kan.; Mah.; Sanskrit; NAD); Rangana (Beng.; 
DEP); Ratanili (Bom.; Guj.; NAD); Ratanjli (Bom.; Guj.; DEP); Red Sandalwood (Eng.; CR2; EFS); 
Red Sanders (Eng.; SKJ); Red Sanders Tree (Eng.; EFS); Red Sanders Wood (Eng.; SUW); Red Sau-n
ders (Eng.; USN; ZOH); Rod Sandel (Den.; EFS); Rood Sandelhoutboom (Dutch; EFS); Rotes San-d
elholz (Ger.; EFS); Sandaku (Burma; DEP); Sandale Ahmar (Arab.; DEP); Sandale Surkh (Iran; EFS; 
NAD); Sandalia (Sp.; EFS); Sandalo (It.; EFS); Sandalo Rose (It.; DEP); Sandalo Vermelho (Por.; JLH); 
Sandel Hout (Den.; DEP); Santal Rouge (Fr.; DEP; EFS; NAD); Seyapu Chandanum (Tam.; DEP); Shen 
Chandanam (Tam.; NAD); Sun (Iran; DEP); Tilaparni (Beng.; DEP); Tambada Chandana (Mar.; DEP); 
Tambada Gand-hacha-chekka (Mar.; DEP); Tilapari (Sanskrit; DEP); Tjendana Djenggi (Malaya; EFS); 
Tzu T’an (China; EFS); Undum (Arab.; Hindi; Iran; DEP); Uruttah Chundanum (Mal.; DEP).
a Ctivities (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Allergenic (1; X8789238); Analgesic (f; HHB); Anthelmintic (f; KAB); Anti-
convulsant (1; HH3); Antidiabetic (1; PH2; X11137350); Antiexudative (1; PH2); Antihyperglycemic 
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(1; X12033810); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; SKJ; X12413723); Antiproliferant (1; X11217086); Antispas -
modic (1; PH2); Aphrodisiac (f; KAB); Astringent (f; SUW; WOI); Chemopreventive (1; X12413723); 
COX-2 Inhibitor (1; X12413723); CNS Depressant (1; HH3; PH2); Collagenic (1; X15866805); 
Depurative (f; EFS; KAB); Diaphoretic (f; SUW; WOI); Diuretic (f; BIB); Emetic (f; BIB); Expec-
torant (f; KAB); Febrifuge (f; KAB); Fungicide (1; WOI); Hemostat (1; NAD); Hypoglycemic (1; 
HHB); Insecticide (1; PH2); Nematicide (1; HH3); Refrigerant (f; SUW); TNF-alpha Inhibitor 
(1; X11217086); Tonic (f; NAD; SUW; WOI); Tranquilizer (1; HH3); Vulnerary (f1; X15866805; 
X15866819).
iNdi Catio Ns (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
Biliousness (f; SUW; WOI); Bleeding (f; KAB); Blepharosis (f; BIB); Boil (f; BIB; DEP; IHB; 
SUW); Burn (f1; X15866805); Cancer (f1; JLH; X12033810); Cancer, abdomen (f; JLH); Cancer, 
breast (f1; X12033810); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cerebrosis (f; KAB); Cho-
lecocystosis (f; HH3; PH2); Conjunctivosis (f; NAD); Debility (f; HH3); Dermatosis (f; SUW; WOI); 
Diabetes (1; PNC; X11137350); Diarrhea (f; PH2); Dysentery (f; DEP; KAB; SKJ; WOI); Enterosis 
(f; JLH); Fever (f; DEP; HH3; PH2; SUW); Fungus (1; WOI); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Genitosis (f; 
NAD); Headache (f; DEP; HHB; PH2; SUW; WOI); Hemicrania (f; KAB); Hemorrhoid (f; NAD); 
Impotence (f; KAB); Inafl mmation (f1; SKJ; SUW; WOI; X12413723); Mastosis (f1; X12033810); 
Metrorrhagia (f; KAB); Mycosis (1; WOI); Neck ache (f; KAB); Ophthalmia (f; DEP; PH2; SUW); 
Prickly Heat (f; IHB); Snakebite (f; PH2); Sore (f; BIB; IHB); Sting (f; BIB); Stomatosis (f; IHB 
JLH); Swelling (f; JLH; SUW); Syphilis (f; IHB); Thrush (1; IHB); Toothache (f; KAB; PH2); Ulcer 
(f; PH2); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Venereal Disease (f; IHB); Vomiting (f; PH2); Wound (f1; X15866805; 
X15866819).
d osages (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
FNFF = !
Powdered redwood used as a red food dye in commercial spice mixes and sauces; in Old England, it 
is used to dye gingerbread, jelly, pottages, etc. (FAC); 5 g tincture (200 parts powdered wood/1000 
parts ethanol, PH2).
• Asians use the plant in bolmes, enemas, ghees, or powders for abdominal tumors (JLH).
• Asian Indians use the wood, lathered up in water, to wash blepharitis and supercfi ial 
excoriations of the genital organs (BIB).
• Ayurvedics, regarding the wood as alexiteric, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, and refrigerant, 
use it for biliousness, blood disorders, eye ailments, fever, mental aberrations, and ulcers 
(KAB).
• Indonesians consider it a secret remedy for poisoning (BIB).
• Iranians sells chips of the wood for use against dysentery (BIB).
• Unani use seeds for dysentery and urethral hemorrhage; applying the wood externally for 
fever, headache, hemicrania, inafl mmation, neckache, and toothache (KAB).
d ow Nsides (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
Class 1. In the United States, allowable as afl vor in alcoholic beverages only (AHP). No health ha-z
ards or contraindications with proper administration of suggested therapeutic dosages (PH2).
extra Cts (r ed sa Ndalwood ):
Extracts potently inhibited COX-2 (IC >80% = 10 µg/ml) (X12413723). Compared with diabetic rats 
treated with glibenclamide, the antihyperglycemic activity of ethanolic bark extract at 20 mg/kg was 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
more effective (X11137350). Biswas et al. (2004) report a vulnerary ointment from the bark, effec-
tive and with no toxic effects (X15866819).
po MeGRANAte ( punic A gr An Atum L.) +++ pUNICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Granatum punicum St.-Lag., Punica florida Salisb., Punica multiflora Hort. ex Siebold & Voss, 
Punica nana L., Punica spinosa Lam. fide POR
Notes (pomegra Nate ):
I would cause thee to drink of spiced wine of the juice of my pomegranate
Song of Solomon 8:2 (KSV)
I would give you spiced wine to drink, the juice of my pomegranates.
Song of Solomon 8:2 (RSV)
I would give you a drink of spiced wine, the fresh juice of pomegranates.
Song of Solomon 8:2 (NWT)
It is nice to see near unanimity in the three versions of this rather sexy story in Song of Solomon. 
“Pomegranate” literally means “apple with grains,” the reference being to the many clear, rub-ycol-
ored seeds, covered with a thin skin and full of juice, found in each fruit. Jewish legends suggest 
that the pomegranate has about 613 seeds, the same number of laws God gave to Israel. I have come 
to believe, unlike other scholars, including Zohary, that this estrogenic fertilit-ysymbolizing fruit 
could well be the tree of knowledge. If you wish to read some of the sexiest passages in the Bible, 
look up the verses mentioning the pomegranate in the Song of Solomon. Zohary clearly thinks it 
important, if not the tree of knowledge. Commenting on some Solomon references, he says “the 
woman’s beauty is likened to its beautiful shape, its many seeds symbolize fertility,” (ZOH) the 
red juice is viewed as lover’s nectar, and the aromatic ofl wers stand for the beautiful awakening of 
spring. I have one plant of this “yin” species that is hardy on my south-facing “yang” slope here 
in the Green Farmacy Garden. Rinds are used for tanning Morocco leather, giving a yellow color. 
Flowers give a red dye. Plants make a good ornamental hedge, especially in dry climates. Cut ofl w-
ers are long lasting in arrangements. Pomegranate is the national ofl wer emblem of Spain. Wood, 
although scanty, is hard and can be used for small objects and for walking sticks. Flowers are used 
by some women to give a red color to the teeth, and rind is used in Polynesia to give shining black 
color to teeth. In some areas,  nonfading ink is made from the rind. Dried rind, called Malicorium, 
is sold in curved brittle fragments. In China, the pomegranate symbolizes fertility; women offer 
pomegranates to the Goddess of Mercy in the hope of being blessed with children. Boulos reports 
that the seed oil is estrogenic, perhaps providing a rationale for the Chinese beliefs (BIB). Other 
scientists report human-identical estrone, some at levels such that one fruit would provide a 2-day 
dosage of ERT (estrogen replacement therapy), but such quantities need to be veriefi d. Most impor -
tant is the specicfi ity of the root bark for tapeworm.
Commo N Names (pomegra Nate ):
Aboda (Ewe; KAB); Al Lufân (Arab.; Syria; HJP); An Shih Liu (China; EFS; KAB); An Thatch 
Luu (Ic.; KAB); Anangani (Sinjawi; KAB); Anar (Bhojpuri; Dec.; Hindi; Kas.; Kotra; Lepcha; 
Mooshar; Nepal; Nwp.; Tharu; KAB; MKK; NAD; NPM; SUW); Anar Dakum (Sin.; KAB); Anar 
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FIGURe . Pomegranate (Punica granatum).
ke per (Hindi; NAD); Anara (Bom.; KAB; NAD); Anarbedama (Quetta; KAB); Anardaru (Mun.; 
KAB); Anarthamitha (Urdu; KAB); Apencoya (Peru; EGG); Apinhoya (Andes; ROE); Apongab-e
andanitra (Hova; KAB); Armoun (Ber.; BOU); Aroumane (Ber.; BOU); Balaaustier (Fr.; KAB); 
Balustier (Fr.; EFS); Bijapura (Sanskrit; KAB); Carthagian Apple (Eng.; EFS); Cay Luu (Annam; 
KAB); Daariim (Nepal; POR); Dadam (Guj.; KAB; WOI); Dadima (Ayu.; Sanskrit; Tel.; AH2; JLH; 
NAD); Dadima Phalima (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Dadiman (Mal.; KAB); Dahrun (Sibi; KAB); Dalim 
(Assam; Beng.; Dec.; KAB; NAD); Dalima (Java; Jolo; Malaya; IHB; KAB); Dalimba (Bom..; Tel.; 
Kon.; Mah.; KAB); Dalimbay (Kan.; KAB); Dalimbu Hannu (Kan.; KAB); Dalimgachh (Beng.; 
KAB); Dallimbini (Kon.; KAB); Danimma (Tel.; WOI); Danoi (Jaunsar; KAB); Darakhtenar (Iran; 
KAB); Daraknar (Iran; KAB); Darim (Beng.; Danuwar; Dec.; Gurung; Magar; Nwp.; Sunwar; 
Swe.; Tamang; AVP; KAB; NPM); Darimba (Sanskrit; NAD); Daru (Pun.; KAB); Datema (Rus.; 
AVP); Delima (Bali; Malaya; Tag.; IHB; POR); Delumgaha (Sin.; NAD); Delungaha (Sin.; KAB); 
Dhale (Nepal; Newari; NPM);  Dhalim (Hindi; NAD); Dhaun (Kas.; NAD); Djolanar (Arab.; BOU); 
Drzewo Granatowe (Pol.; KAB); Dulim (Iran; IHB); Dulima (Iran; IHB); Gemeiner Granatbaum 
(Ger.; TAN); Gharnangoi (Pushtu; KAB); Graanatapfel (Ma.; Sur.; AVP; JFM); Granaatappel 
(Dutch; POR); Granaatboom (Dutch; AVP); Granada (Sp.; Peru; Pi.; Pr.; KAB; DAV; LWW; ROE); 
Granada Agria (Ma.; Sp.; JFM; ROE); Granada de China (Sp.; ROE); Granadero (Ma.; Pr.; JFM; 
LWW); Granado de China (Mex.; KAB); Granado Enano (Ma.; JFM); Granat (Den.; Rus.; EFS; 
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POR); Granatæle (Den.; POR); Granatappel (Dwi.; Ma.; JFM; LWW); Granatäpple (Swe.; POR); 
Granatbaum (Ger.; AVP; NAD; MAD); Granatboom (Dutch; KAB); Granate (Ger.; AVP); Gran-at
nik (Rus.; AVP); Granátovník (Cze.; POR); Granatowiec (Pol.; AVP); Granatrad (Swe.; KAB); 
Granattraee (Den.; KAB); Grenad (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Grenade (Fr.; Ma.; JFM; LWW); Gren-a
dier (Haiti; Ma.; AVP; JFM); Grenadier Comun (Fr.; TAN); Grenadier Cultive (Fr.; NAD); Gr-e
nadyé (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Gronuto (Potenza; KAB); Gulnar (Iran; EFS; KAB); Hanor (Kharan; 
KAB); Jaman (Pun.; KAB); Kanthakasi (Rai; NPM); Karakamu (Tel.; KAB); Kok Mak Phi La 
(Laos; POR); Komamanga (Swahili; POR); Kuchaphala (Sanskrit; EFS; KAB); Kudhumani (Sw-a
hili; POR); Lalimse (Limbu; NPM); Liépou Pi (China; AVP); Ma Ko (Thai; POR); Madala (Michi; 
KAB); Madalai (Tam.; KAB); Madalam (Tam.; KAB); Madalangkai (Tam.; KAB); Madhubiija 
(Sanskrit; POR); Madulai (Tam.; WOI); Madulam (Tam.; KAB); Magragnar (Verona; KAB); 
Magraner (Cat.; KAB); Mangano (Sp.; USN); Mangrano (Sp.; EFS); Matalam (Mal.; KAB; POR; 
WOI); Melagranato (It.; AVP; KAB); Melgarne (Romagna; KAB); Melograno (It.; EFS; KAB); 
Migraine (Fr.; KAB); Miouganier (Fr.; EFS); Nar (Tur.; AVP); Nara Aci (Tur.; EFS; KAB); Na-r
gosa (Shahrig; KAB); Nârumschk (Arab.; JLH); Naspal (Hindi; Mah.; KAB); Oschnoe Derewoe 
(Rus.; AVP); Pitligean (Rom.; KAB); Pomanzeira (Por.; EFS); Pomegranate (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; 
CR2; JFM; NPM); Pomeira (Por.; EFS); Pyé Grenad (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Rannua (Arab.; AVP); 
Rimani (Hausa; KAB); Rimaus (Heb.; KAB); Rimmon (Heb.; Isr.; ZOH); Roia (Greek; KAB); 
Roma (Brazil; Ma.; JFM; KAB; POR); Roman (Por.; AVP); Romanzeira (Ma.; Por.; AVP; JFM; 
KAB); Romãzeira (Mad.; JAD); Romeira (Ma.; Por.; AVP; JFM); Rommana (Tun.; AVP); Roum-
man (Arab.; AVP; BOU); Rum N (Arab.; GHA); Rummân (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Rummân Hamid 
(Arab.; Syria; HJP); Rummien (Malta; KAB); Sale Bin (Burma; KAB); Se-Bru (Tibet; NPM); Seok 
Ryu (Korea; POR); Shajratur Rumman (Arab.; EFS; KAB); Shak Liu (Malaya; KAB); Shih liu 
(China; AH2; POR; TAN); Shi Liu Hua (Pin.; AH2); Shi Liu Pi (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Shi Liu Ye (Pin.; 
AH2); Shi Liu Zi (Pin.; AH2); Shukadana (Sanskrit; NAD); Sor (Jhalawan; KAB); Tab Tin (Thai; 
IHB); Talibin (Burma; KAB); Tarmint (Ber.; BOU); Taroumant (Ber.; BOU); Thap Thim (Thai; 
POR); Yanuko (Ma.; JFM); Zakuro (Japan; TAN; USN).
a Ctivities (pomegra Nate ):
Abortifacient (f; PH2; WBB); ACE Inhibitor (2; X11500191); Alpha-amylase inhibitor (1; X11223231); 
Alpha-Glucosidase Inhibitor (1; X15894133); Amebicide (1; HH2; PH2); Anodyne (f; BIB); Anthe-l
mintic (1; HH2; KAP; PH2; SUW; VVG; WBB); Antiaging (1; X12570329); Antiatherogenic (12; 
X10799367; X12224378; X11500191); Antibiotic (1; VVG; WBB); Anticancer (1; X12002340); 
Antieicosanoid (1; X14585180); Antienteric (1; X15476301); Antifertility (1; MPI); Antiherpetic 
(1; X8679095; X15478204; JAF50:81); Antileukemic (1; X14585180); AntiMDR (1; X15882206); 
Antimutagenic (1; X12570329); Antimycobacterial (1; PR14:303); Antioxidant (1; X10799367); 
Antiprostaglandin (1; X14585180); Antiseptic (1; X10548758); Antispasmodic (f1; WOI); Antitu-
bercular (1; WOI); Antiulcer (1; PR14:581); Antiviral (1; VVG; WOI; X11788838); Apopotic (1; 
X14585180); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Astringent (2; BIB; NPM; PH2; SUW; WBB); Bactericide (1; 
BIB; VGG; WBB; X10548758); Bechic (f; BOU); Cardiotonic (f; BIB; SUW; VOD; WOI); Cat-a
lase-genic (1; X15752628); Chemopreventive (1; X12002340; X14585180); CNS Stimulant (1; PHR); 
Collyrium (f; GHA; VOD); Contraceptive (f; JAF50:81); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; X14585180); Cytotoxic 
(1; HH2); Diuretic (1; VVG); Fungicide (1; MPI; WOI); Emmenagogue (f; WBB); Estrogenic (1; 
FNF; VOD); Febrifuge (1; HH2; NPM; SUW; VVG); Fungicide (1; MPI; WOI); Glutathione-perox-
idase-genic (1; X15752628); Hemolytic (1; WOI); Hemostat (1; BIB; GHA); Hepatotoxic (1; VOD); 
Hypocholesterolemic (2; JNU); Hypoglycemic (1; HH2; VVG; X10837992; X15894133); Lipogenic 
(f; KAB); Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (1; X14585180); Molluscicide (1; X11050667); Nematicide (f; 
PH2); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Ornithine-Decarboxylase Inhibitor (1; X14585180); Paraoxonasigenic 
(1; JNU); Parastiticide (f; BIB); Pectoral (f; BOU); Phospholipas-eA2 Inhibitor (1; X14585180); 
Radioprotective (1; X12570329; X15493960); Refrigerant (f; BIB; EFS; NPM; SUW); SOD-genic 
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(1; X15752628); Stimulant (f; BIB); Stomachic (1; DEP; MPI; SUW; WOI); Taenicide (f1; BIB; 
HH2; KAP; NAD; PH2; SUW; VOD); Uterorelaxant (f; BOU); Uterotonic (1; HH2; MPI); Vermi-
fuge (f; BIB; NPM; SUW; VOD).
iNdi Catio Ns (pomegra Nate ):
Abortion (f; SOU); Acne (1; JAF50:81); Ameba (1; X2131771); Amygdalosis (f; BIB); Anorexia (f; 
KAB); Asthma (f; BIB; VOD); Atherosclerosis (12; JNU; X10799367; X12224378; X11500191); 
Bacillus (1; X10548758); Bacteria (1; VVG; X2636992); Biliousness (f; BIB; KAB; NAD; ROE); 
Bleeding (f1; BIB; DEP; FNF); Bronchosis (1; BIB; KAB; KAP; MPI; NPM; WOI); Burn (f; GHA; 
NPM); Cancer (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, anus (1; FNF; JLH); Ca-n
cer, breast (1; X12002340); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH; X16448212); Cancer, ear (1; FNF; JLH); Ca-n
cer, genital (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gum (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, prostate (1; X15744587); Cancer, skin (1; X14585180); Cancer, stomach (1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uvula (1; FNF; 
JLH); Candida (1; X12801361); Cardiopathy (f12; BIB; KAB; VOD; WOI; X11500191); Cerebr-o
sis (f; BIB; KAB); Childbirth (f; JFM); Cholera (1; MPI; X8018898); Colic (f; BIB; KAB); Colitis 
(1; KAB; WBB); Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f; BIB; IHB; KAP; MPI); Consumption (f; 
NAD); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; BIB; ROE); Cramp (f1; WOI); Dermatosis (f; GHA; IHB; ROE); 
Diabetes (1; VVG; X10837992; X15894133); Diarrhea (f1; BIB; EGG; HH2; KAP; NPM; PHR; 
PH2; SUW; VVG); Dysentery (f1; BIB; DEP; HH2; HJP; KAP; NPM; PHR; PH2; SUW; VVG); 
Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB); Dyspepsia (1; DEP; KAB; MPI; WOI); Earache (f; BIB); Endometriosis (f; 
MAD); Enterosis (f1; KAB; PH2; VOD; X15476301); Epistaxis (1; BIB; DEP; NAD; ROE); Esch-
erichia (1; X10548758); Fever (1; BIB; HH2; VVG); Folliculosis (1; JAF50:81); Fungus (1; KAP; 
MPI; X2801361); Gall (f; JLH); Gastrosis (f; JLH; MPI; PH2); Gingivosis (f; JLH; KAB; VOD); 
Gonorrhea (f; WBB); Heartburn (f; MPI); Hemophilia (f; DEP); Hematuria (f; KAP; MPI; NAD); 
Hemoptysis (f; MPI; NAD); Hemorrhoid (f1; BIB; JLH; KAP; NAD; NPM; PHR; VOD); Hepatosis 
(f; GHA; KAB); Herpes (1; JAF50:81); High Cholesterol (2; JNU); HIV (1; Herpes (1; X8679095); 
Impotence (f; ROE); Infection (f1; MPI; VOD; X12636992); Infertility (f; JNU); Inafl mmation (f; 
BIB; NPM; VOD; WBB); Jaundice (f; GHA); Keratosis (f; BIB); Leukemia (1; X14585180); Leuko-r
rhea (f; BIB; KAB; KAP; WBB); Malaria (f; BIB; KAB); Mastosis (f; BIB; JAF50:81); Melanoma 
(1; HH2); Menopause (1; FNF); Menorrhagia (1; BIB); Metrorrhagia (1; BIB); Mycosis (1; MPI; 
X12801361); Nausea (1; BIB); Nephrosis (f; KAB); Neurosis (f; MAD); Night sweats (f; BIB); Oph-
thalmia (f; BIB; KAB); Oxyuriasis (f; BIB); Pain (f; BIB; JFM); Paralysis (f; BIB); Pimple (f; BIB); 
Plague (f; BOU); Pneumonia (1; MPI); Proctosis (f; JLH; KAP); Prolapse (f; BIB; KAP); Pterygia 
(f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; JFM; KAB); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Ringworm (1; PH2); Salmonella (1; MPI; 
X15476301); Scabies (f; BIB; KAB); Shigella (1; MPI); Snakebite (f; BIB); Sore (f; GHA; JFM; 
WBB); Sore Throat (f1; BIB; DEP; PHR; PH2; VOD); Splenosis (f; BIB; KAB); Staphylococcus 
(1; X2636992; X15882206); Stomachache (1; KAB; WBB; VVG); Stomatosis (1; BIB; JFM; KAB; 
X12801361); Swelling (f; ROE); Tapeworm (1; BIB; PHR; VVG); Thirst (f; NPM); Throat (f; ROE); 
Tonsilosis (f; VOD); Tuberculosis (f1; NAD; WOI; PR14:303); Tympanosis (f; JAF50:81); Ulcer (f1; 
BOU; PR14:581); Urogenitosis (f; BIB); Uterosis (f; DEP; JLH; KAP); Uvulosis (f; JLH); Vagino-
sis (f; BOU; JAF50:81); Venereal Disease (1; JAF50:81); Vertigo (f; ROE); Virus (1; VVG; WOI; 
JAF50:81); Vomiting (f; KAB; PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Water Retention (1; VVG); Whitlow (f; JLH); 
Worm (f1; BIB; KAP; PH2; SUW; VOD); Wound (f; EGG); Yeast (1; X10548758).
d osages (pomegra Nate ):
FNFF = !!!
Fruits and cooked leaves food farmacy (FAC; JAD; TAN). The first sherbet may well have been a 
preparation of pomegranate juice mixed with snow. The acid pulp surrounding the seeds is the edible 
portion of the fruit, used as a salad or table fruit, or made into beverages or jellies. In Syria and Iran, 
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fruit is cut open, seeded, strewn with sugar, and sprinkled with rose water. Wine is made from fruits, 
and seeds are used in syrups, preserves, gelatin desserts, icings, puddings, and sauces. As fruits f-er
ment easily, they are used in Egypt to make a wine. Grenadine is a soft drink based on pomegranate, 
and grenadine syrup is used to afl vor drinks (BIB). 1–2 g day (HHB). 7 g fl/300 cc water for inafl med 
mouth and throat (JFM). 4–5 g powdered ofl wer (KAP). 1–3 g powdered root (KAP). 1–3 g powdered 
stem bark (KAP). 4–8 g powdered fruit (KAP). 1 part pericarp, root, or stem bark to 5 parts water 
(PH2). 250 parts powdered bark in 1500 parts water and boiled for 30 minutes (PH2).
• Asian Indians chew fruit rind with belleric for bronchosis and bronchorrhea (WOI).
• Ayurvedics use the fruit rind, appropriately enough, for diarrhea, dysentery, and worms; 
the root for worms; the ofl wers for epistaxis; the bark and seeds for bronchitis; and the 
ripe fruit, considered astringent, aphrodisiac and tonic, for biliousness, burning sens-a
tions, fever, heart disease, sore throat, and stomatitis (KAB).
• Cubans apply grated fruit rind to ulcers (JFM).
• Germans take 5–20 g bark as taenifuge (MAD).
• Haitians take the ofl wer tea for asthma, the root and stem decoction for intestinal worms, 
and the rind infusion for diarrhea and dysentery (VOD).
• Iranians use powdered ofl wers with Nummulites sp. and Rhus coriaria for painful gums 
(BIB).
• Latinos take 5–12 g bark (RB or SB) in 240 cc water boiled until 1/3 gone; in 3 hourly 
doses on empty stomach 2 hours after taking 40 cc castor oil for tapeworms (JFM).
• Nepalese take 5 tsp rind juice 2 ×/day for diarrhea and dysentery (NPM).
• Peruvians take the bark tea as a genital tonic (EGG), using the fruit and bark for cancer 
and nasal polyps (JLH).
• Filipinos gargle with the leaf decoction for mouth problems (BIB).
• Puerto Ricans take juice sacs with mashed seeds to expel worms (JFM).
• North Africans (Cairo; Rabat) use fruit rind for bleeding, dentifrice, diarrhea, ulcers, 
with the decoction a specic vfi aginal plug for treating leukorrhea (BOU).
• Unani use the astringent bark for anal prolapse, colic, and piles; the ofl wers for bilious-
ness, hydrocele, nausea, sore eyes, and sore throat; the green fruit for inafl mmation and 
keratitis; the ripe fruit for brain disorders, bronchitis, chest ailments, earache, scabies, 
sore eyes, sore throat, splenitis, and thirst; the seeds for biliousness, bowel ailments, 
hepatitis, liver ailments, nausea, scabies, and sore eyes (KAB).
d ow Nsides (pomegra Nate ):
Bark Class 3. Pericarp Class 2d. Contraindicated with diarrhea; not to be taken with fats or oils 
when taken to kill parasites (AHP). Health hazards not known with proper administration of des-ig
nated therapeutic dosages (PH2). Strong doses emetic, nauseant, and vertigogenic (JFM). Stronger 
doses (>80 g) may cause chills, collapse, dizziness, hematemesis, and visual disturbances, possibly 
even amaurosis and death (MAD; PH2). Even Mauritians believe the bark should be contrain-di
cated in geriatrics, pediatrics, and pregnancy.
extra Cts (pomegra Nate ):
Bark extract (with casuarinin, ellagitannin, and punicortein C cytotoxic to melanoma (ED50 = 
2-– µg/ml, cf. <0.01 µg/ml for actinomycin) HH2. Extracts of abortive male ofl wers are hypoglyce -
mic in diabetic rats (X10837992). Pomegranate juice has antiatherogenic effects in mice that may 
be attributable to its antioxidative properties (X10799367). Antiaging ellagitannin mixtures slowed 
aging-type mutations (X12570329). Huang et al. (2005) demonstrated that pomegranate ofl wer 
extracts improve cardiac lipid metabolism in diabetic rat models (X15880139). Voravuthikunchai 
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and Kitpipit (2005) (X15882206) found that ethanolic extracts inhibited all of 35 hospital isolates of 
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. MIC = 200–400 mg/ml (X15882206). Sudheesh and 
Vijayalakshmi (2005) demonstrated that afl vanoid-rich fruit fractions (10 mg/kg/day orl rat) had 
antiperoxidative potential, decreasing liver levels of malondialdehyde, hydroperoxides, and c-on
jugated dienes, increasing activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione pero-xi
dase, and glutathione reductase. Tissue concentrations of glutathione also increased (X15752628). 
Azadzoi et al. (2005), studying oxidative stress in arteriogenic erectile dysfunction (ED), found 
pomegranate was the better free radical scavenger. The rabbit model of arteriogenic ED demo-n
strated decreased intracavernous blood ofl w, erectile dysfunction, loss of smooth muscle relaxation, 
decreased endothelial NOS and neuronal NOS, increased inducible NOS expression, and diffused 
cavernous bfi rosis. Long-term pomegranate juice intake increased intracavernous blood ofl w, and 
improved erectile response and smooth muscle relaxation. Antioxidant therapy could help prevent 
smooth muscle dysfunction and fibrosis in ED, Erectile Dysfunction (X15947695).
t ABo R o AK (q uercus ith Aburensis DeCNe) ++ FAGACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Quercus aegilops var. ithaburensis Decne
Notes (t abor o ak ):
They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and 
poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit 
whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (KJV)
They sacrifice on the tops of the mountains, and make offerings upon the hills, under oak, poplar, 
and terebinth, because their shade is good. Therefore your daughters play the harlot, and your 
brides commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (RSV)
On the tops of the mountain they sacrifice and on the hills they make sacrificial smoke, under 
massive tree and storax tree and big tree because its shade is good. That is why your daughters 
commit fornication and your own daughters in law commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (NWT)
Going with the ofl w in my first crack at Medicinal Plants of the Bible, I selected the three oak spe-
cies that other non-Israeli writers had selected as probably representing the oak of the Bible. Now 
armed with Zohary’s Flora of Palestine (FP1, 1966) and Zohary’s Plants of the Bible (ZOH, 1992), 
I will go with the Israeli ofl w. Zohary notes that of some 500 oak species worldwide, there are only 
three species that occur in Israel. They can be keyed as follows:
• Leaves evergreen, 2–4 cm long, sometimes prickly: Q. calliprinos
• Leaves deciduous, 4–10 cm long, margin not prickly, although dentate:
• — Adult leaves glabrous on both sides; cupule circa 1 cm diameter: Q. boissieri
• — Adult leaves tomentose below; cupules broader than 1 cm diameter:Q . ithaburensis
Zohary favors the deciduous Tabor Oak Q(. ithaburensis) and the evergreen oak (Q. calliprinos) 
as the rendition of the Hebrew allon and elon. The evergreen oak was discussed in my Medicinal 
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Plants of the Bible, under the name Quercus coccifera. Under good environmental conditions, both 
can grow to huge trees, symbolic of longevity, power, pride, and splendor. They were often involved 
in burials, offerings, and religious, reverent, and ritual customs and worship. And the wood had 
many uses. Zohary notes that “many translators and exegetes, unacquainted with the ofl ra of the 
Holy Land, and embarrassed by the frequent occurrence in the Bible oef lah, elon, el, alah, and 
allon, have seriously misapplied these names…. There are too many variations in the translations 
of different authors, and (as in the RSV) much inconsistency even within any given translation.” 
(ZOH) Zohary concludes that in general allon and elon should be rendered as oak, and elah and 
alah should be rendered as terebinth.
Commo N Names (t abor o ak ):
Allon (Heb.; ZOH); Elon (Heb.; ZOH); Tabor Oak (Eng.; ZOH).
a Ctivities (o t Her o aks ):
Anthelmintic (1; PH2); Antiinafl mmatory (2; KOM; SHT); Antiperspirant (1; APA; MAD); Anti -
septic (1; APA; PNC); Antitumor (1; FAD); Antiviral (1; SHT); Astringent (f1; APA; MAD; SHT; 
VAD); Bactericide (1; BGB); Carcinogenic (1; FAD); Cicatrizant (f1; VAD); Diuretic (f1; VAD); 
Emetic (f; PED); Expectorant (1; BGB); Hemostatic (f1; APA; PNC; VAD); Immunostimulant (1; 
PHR); Litholytic (1; BGB); Vasoconstrictor (f1; VAD); Vulnerary (1; APA).
iNdi Catio Ns (o t Her o aks ):
Adenopathy (f; JLH); Albuminuria (f; MAD); Anemia (f; MAD); Angina (f; MAD); Apoplexy (f; 
MAD); Asthma (f; MAD); Bacteria (1; VAD); Bleeding (f1; PH2; MAD; VAD); Blennorrhagia (f; 
MAD); Blepharosis (f; VAD); Bronchosis (2; MAD; PHR; PH2); Bruise (1; APA); Burns (f; FAD; 
HJP); Cacoethes (f; JLH); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f; FAD; JLH); Cancer, anus (f; JLH); Cancer, 
brain (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, ear (f; JLH); Cancer, gum 
(f; JLH); Cancer, intestine (f; JLH); Cancer, lip (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; 
JLH); Cancer, neck (f; JLH); Cancer, nose (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, tonsil (f; 
JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cancer, uvula (f; JLH); Carbuncle (f; MAD); Chilblain (f; VAD); 
Chilblains (1; APA); Chlorosis (f; MAD); Cirrhosis (f; MAD); Cold (2; PHR); Colitis (f; VAD);  
Consyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (1; APA; PH2; VAD); Cough (2; PHR; PH2); Cystosis (f; VAD); 
Debility (f; MAD); Dermatosis (f12; BGB; KOM; PH2; SHT); Diarrhea (f12; APA; KOM; MAD; 
PED; PH2; SHT; VAD); Dysentery (1; BBG; BIS; FAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; VAD); Dysuria (f; VAD); 
Eczema (1; APA; MAD; PH2; VAD); Encephalosis (f; JLH); Enterocolitis (1; APA; BIS); Entero-
sis (1; APA; MAD; VAD); Enuresis (f; MAD); Epistaxis (f; VAD); Fever (f12; HJP; PHR; VAD); 
Fibroma (f; JLH; MAD); Gastroenterosis (1; BIS); Gastrosis (f1; MAD; VAD); Genitalitis (2; APA; 
KOM); Gingivosis (f1; APA; JLH); Gout (f; MAD); Hematuria (1; MAD); Hemoptysis (1; MAD); 
Hemorrhage (1; BGB); Hemorrhoid (f1; APA; PED; PH2; PNC; VAD); Hepatosis (f; JLH; MAD); 
Hyperhidrosis (f; PH2); Incontinence (f; VAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (12; APA; PHR); 
Inafl mmation (12; BGB; VAD); Intertrigo (f; MAD; PH2); Itch (1; APA); Kidney stone (f; BGB); 
Leukorrhea (1; BGB; MAD); Malaria (f; BGB); Marasmus (f; MAD); Mastosis (f; GAZ); Metro-r
rhagia (f; VAD); Mucososis (1; APA); Mumps (f; VAD); Nephrosis (f; MAD); Nipple (f; GAZ); Pain 
(f; BGB; JLH); Periodontosis (f1; VAD); Pharyngosis (f12; KOM; PH2; VAD); Phthisis (f; MAD); 
Poison Ivy (f; FAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Prolapse (f; MAD); Proctitis (f12; APA; JLH; KOM; MAD; 
PH2); Psoriasis (f; MAD); Rheumatism (f; MAD); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Scrofula (f; MAD); Sore (f1; 
APA; HJP); Sore Throat (f1; APA; BGB; PNC; VAD); Splenosis (f; MAD); Stomatosis (f12; APA; 
KOM; MAD; PH2; VAD); Stone (f; VAD); Swelling (f; JLH); Tonsilosis (f; JLH; MAD); Ulcer (f; 
MAD); Urethrosis (f; VAD); Uterorrhagia (1; PH2); Uterosis (f; MAD; PH2); Uvulosis (f; JLH); 
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Vaginosis (1; BGB; VAD); Varicosities (1; APA; PH2); Virus (1; PH2); Wart (f; JLH); Whitlow (f; 
JLH); Worm (f; PH2); Wound (f1; HJP).
d osages (o t Her o aks ):
FNFF = !
Most people disdain acorns as food although they have been mainstays in some cultures. Acorn-fed 
pork from Spain is world renowned. 1 tsp (circa 3 g) bark /cup water/day (APA); gargle with 2 tsp 
bark/pt water (APA); 3 g dry bark (KOM); 1–1.5 tsp (˜4-6 g) bark/day in hot or cold tea (MAD). 5 g 
bark/l water for baths; 20 g bark/l water for compresses; 2–4 Tbsp fresh bark (PED); 3–6 g dry bark 
(PED); 4.5 g dry bark:22 ml alcohol in 23 ml water (PED); 0.5–5 ml liquid bark extract (PNC).
d ow Nsides (o t Her o aks ):
Class 2d. Contraindicated even for external use when skin is extensively damaged, especially with 
weeping eczema, febrile and infectious disorders, and cardiac insufcfi iency states III and IV; hype-r
tonia stage IV (AHP, 1997). Uterosis (f; PH2); Commisson E reports for bark, interactions: reduced 
absorption of alkaloids, and other basic substances (AEH). Should not be taken for more than 3 or 
4 days (SHT).
Natural History (o t Her o aks ):
The oak from which the “scarlet” of the Old Testament derived was probably the evergreen shrub, 
now known as Quercus calliprinos, or Kermes oak, attaining 10 to 20 feet. Its young shoots are 
covered with white, soft down, the breeding grounds of the kermes insect, Chermes ilicis (Coccus 
ilicis). These creatures yield a beautiful, rich, long-lasting dye. I would bet, but do not know, that 
galls would contain more tannins and medicinally active anthocyanins. The scarlet was known 
commercially as “grain” and “scarlet grain.” When the bark is steeped in boiling water, it can yield 
a black dye, once used to dye hair. The Dyers Company of England selected three sprigs of this plant 
for their heraldic crest, granted by charter in 1420 and perhaps still used by the company (BIB).
AsIAN BUtte RCUp (rA nunculus A si Aticus L.) + RANUNCULACeAe
Notes (a sia N butter Cup):
But go into a field of flowers, where no house is builded, and eat only the flowers of the field ; taste 
no flesh, drink no wine, but eat flowers only.
2 Esdras 9:24 (KJV)
This is one of 18 species covered in the Flora of Palestine. Zohary says this is the most showy 
crowfoot in all of Israel, and the one most likely to penetrate into arid areas. It is one of few with 
crimson ofl wers, most being yellow, a few being white with yellow. He says it can be regarded as one 
of the “ofl wers of the efi ld.” Although I have seen reference to eating some ofl wers in this family, I 
consider that somewhat risky because of the almost universal presence of caustic or vesicant anem-o
nin or protoanemonin. I will not go with the edict in Esdras. Still, Tanaka mentions several “edible 
species” in the genus Ranunculus, nowhere specifying ofl wers. Facciola mentions four species, 
adding that ofl wers of Ranunculus bulbosus are pickled; ofl wer buds of Ranunculus ficaria (also in 
Israel) make a good substitute for capers. I think of this more as an ornamental than a medicine, and 
certainly not a food plant, even if the Bible recommends eating the “ofl wers of the efi ld.” There are 
many other safer ofl wers in my efi lds. Finding no medicinal reports regarding this lovely species, I 
append some generic information, derived from other species of the same genus, Ranunculus, after 
the few common names I find reported for the Asian buttercup.
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Commo N Names (a sia N butter Cup):
Asian buttercup (Eng.; USN); Persian Buttercup (Eng.; USN); Persian Crowfoot (Eng.; USN).
a Ctivities (o t Her butter Cups ):
Allergenic (1; FNF); Anodyne (f; WOI); Anticancer (f; DAA); Antiscorbutic (f1; EFS; FNF); Ant-i
septic (f1; PNC; WOI); Antispasmodic (f; WOI); Antiviral (1; WOI); Astringent (f; EFS; PNC); 
Bactericide (1; WOI); Candidicide (1; WOI); Cyanogenic (f; EB30:403); Diuretic (f; WOI); Emme-n
agogue (f; EFS; SKJ); Fungicide (f1; PNC; WOI); Herbicide (f; GMH); Irritant (1; FNF); Lachrym-a
tory (1; WOI); Lactafuge (1; WOI); Lactagogue (f; EFS; SKJ); Poison (1; DEP; WOI); Rubefacient 
(1; WOI); Sialogogue (1; PH2); Stimulant (f; DAW); Stomachic (f; WOI); Tonic (f; KAB; WOI); 
Toxic (f; EFS); Trypanocide (1; FT73:569); Vasoconstrictor (1; WOI); Vermifuge (1; WOI); Vesicant 
(1; WOI); Viricide (1; WOI).
iNdi Catio Ns (o t Her butter Cups ):
Abscess (f; DEM; GMH); Arthrosis (f; FAD; PH2); Asthma (f; WOI); Bacillus (1; DAA); Bacteria (1; 
WOI); Bleeding (f; PH2); Blister (f; PH2); Boil (f; DEM; FAD); Bronchosis (f; HHB; PH2); Cancer (f; 
JLH; MIC); Cancer, breast (f; AAH; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Candida 
(1; WOI); Cold (f; DAA; DEM); Condyloma (f; DAW); Conjunctivitis (f; AAH; HHB; NPM); Con-
sumption (f; GMH); Corn (f; AAH; JLH); Cramp (f; WOI); CVI (f; BRU); Debility (f; DAA); Derma -
tosis (f; PH2); Diptheria (1; WOI); Dropsy (f; MAD); Dysuria (f; WOI); Escherichia (1; WOI); Flu (f; 
WOI); Grippe (f; WOI); Fungus (f1; PNC; WOI); Gastrosis (f; NPM); Glossosis (f; MAD); Gingivosis 
(f; PH2); Gonorrhea (f; HHB); Gout (f; HHB; MAD); Halitosis (f; WOI); Headache (f; MIC); Hemo-r
rhoid (f; AAH; BRU; HAD; MAD; PNC); Hemiplegia (f; MAD); Hepatosis (f; MAD); Induration (f; 
JLH); Infection (f1; PNC; WOI); Insomnia (1; WOI); Leukoderma (f; HHB; PH2); Mange (f; MAD); 
Mastosis (f; JLH); Measles (f; AAH); Mucososis (f; HHB); Mycosis (f1; PNC; WOI); Myosis (f; HHB; 
PH2); Nephrosis (f; KAB; MAD; WOI); Neuralgia (f; FAD; HHB; PH2); Ophthalmia (f; AAH); Pain 
(f; WOI); Pancreatosis (f; MAD); Phobia (f; MIC); Pleurisy (f; KAB); Pleuritis (f; HHB); Pneumonia (f; 
WOI); Rheumatism (f; FAD; HHB; PH2); Scabies (f; HHB; PH2); Sciatica (f; WOI); Scurvy (f1; FNF; 
PH2); Snifefl s (f; MAD); Sore (f; JLH); Sore Throat (f; GMH); Spasm (f; WOI); Spermatorrhea (f; 
DAA); Staphylococcus (1; WOI); Stitch (f; KAB); Stomatosis (f; JLH; MAD); Streptococcus (1; DAA); 
Swelling (f; PH2); Thrush (f1; DEM; WOI); Tumor (1; DAA); Venereal Disease (f; HHB); Virus (1; 
WOI); Wart (f; AAH; JLH); Wen (f; JLH); Worm (1; WOI); Wound (f; PH2); Yeast (1; WOI).
d osages (o t Her butter Cups ):
FNFF = ?!
Swedes sometimes ate the leaves as a boiled potherb (GMH). Young leaves of some are eaten raw in 
salads and sandwiches or cooked as a potherb. Bleached stems are cooked and eaten. Bulbils, which 
form in the leaf axils and roots, can be cooked. Flower buds even said to substitute for capers. I do not 
recommend any member of the buttercup family for food, although others may do so. 2–5 g herb, or 
in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 2–5 ml liquid herbal extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3× /day (CAN); 3% topical 
ointment (CAN); 30% fresh pilewort in benzoinated lard (CAN). 2.5–5 ml liquid extract (PNC).
• British apply root decoction as hot compress or mild ointment to hemorrhoids (AAH).
• British from Kent use the leaves for cleaning teeth (AAH).
• British from Norfolk use the floral tea to treat sore eyes and measles (AAH).
• British Highlanders put the roots under the arms to treat breast cancer or nodules (AAH).
• British make oil, ointment, or salve of leaf or root decoction for hard wens or tumors (JLH).
• Europeans use the root for cancers of the mouth (JLH).
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d ow Nsides (o t Her butter Cups ):
In view of the data, excessive use, especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Not 
recommended for internal consumption (CAN). Very acrid, causing burning of mouth and mucous 
membranes; blistering skin. Avoid (FAD).
Natural History (o t Her butter Cups ):
Bright burnished petals have honey sacs at their base, but ofl wers may come out earlier in spring 
than most bees; hence, few ofl wers get pollinated, at least in Britain. Where upper leaves (of R. bul-
bosus) meet the stem, one may find minute bulbular propagules the size of a grain of wheat, which 
may ofl at away with rains (GMH). Some 250 years ago, Linnaeus advised farmers to eradicate the 
weed because it was unattractive to cattle and because of its herbicidal activities. (Treating with 
coal-ash or wood ash was said to destroy the plant.) Underground parts reportedly work against the 
fungus Venturia inaequalis. A fungal plant pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum occurs at least in 
Norwegian populations (X11742545).
extra Cts (o t Her butter Cups ):
Protoanemonin antibacterial (against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, Candida, dip-the
ria toxin, Escherichia, Staphylococcus), antiviral, cytopathogenic, vesicant, and vermicide (WOI). 
Closely related R. sceleratus contains the vasoconstrictor serotonin, with six other tryptamine 
derivatives and “two unidentiefi d anti-5-hydroxytryptamine derivatives.” (ZOH)
Wh Ite BR oo M (r et AmA r Aet Am Fo RssK .) WeBB & BeRthe L.) + FABACeAe
Notes (w Hite broom ):
But he himself went a day’s journey into the wilderness, and came and sat down under a juniper 
tree: and he requested for himself that he might die; and said, It is enough; now, O LORD, take 
away my life; for I am not better than my fathers.
I Kings 19:4 (KJV)
But he himself went a day’s journey into the wilderness, and came and sat down under a broom 
tree; and he asked that he might die, saying, “It is enough; now, O LORD, take away my life; for 
I am no better than my fathers.”
I Kings 19:4 (KJV)
And he himself went into the wilderness a day’s journey into the wilderness, and at length came 
and sat down under a certain broom tree. And he began to ask that his soul might die, and to say, 
“It is enough; now, O Jehovah, take my soul away; for I am no better than my fore fathers.”
I Kings 19:4 (NWT)
It is called juniper in the KJV, broom in the RSV, a certain broom in the NWT, and white broom by 
Zohary, who adds that it is a common tall shrub in the Arabian, Israeli, and Saharan deserts. Bedouins 
indicate their respect for plants “by the life of the plant and our worshiped Lord.” Small wonder they 
prohibit the felling of desert shrubs like Acacia, Pistacia, and Retama. In some places, Retama is the 
only shade-casting tree on the desert. And it makes the nfi est charcoal, which burns with intense heat. 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Arabs claim it holds its heat for a year. In the Cairo market, it fetches a much higher price than any 
other fuel species. The expressions “coals of Juniper” used in Psalms 120, “burning coals,” “live brown 
coals,” “coals of broom,” and “coals that lay waste” in biblical books indicate the popularity of the wood 
for charcoal. One legend suggests that when Jesus was praying in Gethsemane, he was disturbed by the 
cracking of the broom in the breeze. When nfi ally led off by the soldiers, he said to the broom: “May 
you always burn with as much noise as you are making now.” Another legend has it that the crackling 
of broom plants among which they hid almost revealed Mary and baby Jesus to Herod’s soldiers. The 
branches are used in desert homes as coarse cords. At weddings and other ceremonies, Bedouins fasten 
sprigs of green plants like white broom to the tent entrance. Green, the color of live plants, is a symbol 
of life and vitality. The roots are used to insulate the handles of Bedouin coffee pots. Bedouins use the 
plant to make pins that fasten their curtains and as pins for their camel saddles (BIB).
Commo N Names (w Hite broom ):
Aligo (Ber.; BOU); Alouga (Ber.; BOU); Besliga (Arab.; BOU); Retem (Arab.; BOU); Retem Behan 
(Arab.; BOU); Rothem (Heb.; ZOH); Telit (Ber.; BOU); Tselgoust (Ber.; BOU); White Broom 
(Eng.; ZOH).
a Ctivities (w Hite broom ):
Abortifacient (f; UPH); Anticarcinomic (1; X15305322); Antidiabetic (1; X15852497); Antioxidant 
(1; X15305322); Cytotoxic (1; X15305322); Diuretic (1; X15848016); Ecbolic (f; BIB); Hypoglyce-
mic (1; X15852497); Lipolytic (1; X15013197); Poison (f; BIB); Purgative (f; BIB; UPH); Toxic (f; 
BOU); Vermifuge (f; BIB; UPH); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite broom ):
Amenorrhea (f; BIB; UPH); Carcinoma (1; X15305322); Constipation (f; BIB); Diabetes (1; 
X15852497); Diarrhea (f; BOU); Obesity (1; X15013197); Ophthalmia (f; BOU); Worm (f; BOU); 
Wound (f; BOU).
d osages (w Hite broom ):
FNFF = ?
• Bedouins grind and heat branches and green leaves over live coals until hot, place them 
in a thin cloth, and apply to arthritic pain (BIB).
• Bedouins grind, powder, and apply the plant to wounds (BIB).
• North Africans use the root against diarrhea, the branches for fever and wounds (BOU).
• Palestinians make a collyrium from the branches to wash their eyes (BIB).
Natural History (w Hite broom ):
The pea-like ofl wers are pollinated by bees (ZOH). The exceedingly long roots enable the plant to 
tap deep water sources, so it thrives in the dry season; the twigs are photosynthetic (ZOH).
extra Cts (w Hite broom ):
Moroccan scientists (Maghrani et al., 2005) demonstrated an acute diuretic effect of the aqueous 
extract in rats. (5mg/kg/h ivn rat) Furosemide at 0.1mg/kg/h had similar effects (X15848016). Aqueous 
extracts showed lipid-and body-weight-lowering activities in rats after repeated oral administration 
at 20 mg/kg (X15013197).
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
pALest INe BUCKtho RN (r h Amnus p Al Aestin A Bo Iss) + R h AMNACeAe
Notes (palesti Ne bu Ckt Hor N):
He that diggeth a pit shall fall into it; and whoso breaketh an hedge, a serpent shall bite him.
Ecclesiastes 10:8 (KJV)
He who digs a pit will fall into it; and a serpent will bite him who breaks through a wall.
Ecclesiastes 10:8 (RSV)
He that is digging a pit will himself fall right into it; and he that is breaking through a stone wall, 
a serpent will bite him.
Ecclesiastes 10:8 (NWT)
There is no plant mentioned as such in the RSV and NWT, but that “hedge” mentioned in the KJV 
version has been hinted to represent Rhamnus palaestina, a little-known shrub akin to the well-
known buckthorns and cascara sagradas, and probably sharing many of their chemicals and a-ctivi
ties. That has prompted me to do another generic compilation showing the activities and indications 
attributed to other species of the genus Rhamnus. Like many other thorny shrubs of the Bible, this 
one has been used as a fence to exclude grazing animals from gardens and orchards (BIB).
Commo N Names (palesti Ne bu Ckt Hor N):
Palestine Buckthorn (Eng.; BIB); Hedge (Eng.; BIB). Ncsn.
a Ctivities (o t Her r Ham Nus ):
Antiherpetic (1; APA; HH2); Antileukemic (1; APA); Antiseptic (1; APA; DEM); Antispasmodic (f; 
PED); Antitumor (1; FNF; HOX; PNC); Antiviral (1; APA; HH2); Bactericide (1; HH2); Bitter (1; 
PED); Cathartic (f12; APA; DEM; KOM; PED); Collyrium (f; DEM); Depurative (f; DEM; HHB; 
MAD; PHR; PH2); Diuretic (f; EFS; HHB; MAD; PHR; PH2); Emetic (f1; APA; DEM; EFS); 
Fungicide (1; FNF); Hepatotonic (f; PED); Hydrogogue (1; PH2); Laxative (12; APA; EFS; HH2; 
KOM; PNC; PH2; SKY); Peristaltic (f12; PHR; PNC); Poison (f; DEM); Prostaglandigenic (1; PH2); 
Purgative (2; FNF); Sunscreen (f; APA); Tonic (f; DEM; PNC).
iNdi Catio Ns (o t Her r Ham Nus ):
Anemia (f; MAD); Appendicitis (f; MAD); Arthritis (f; DEM); Asthma (f; MAD); Bacteria (1; 
HH2); Biliousness (f; DEM; FEL); Cachexia (f; MAD); Cancer (f1; APA; FNF; HOX; JLH; PNC); 
Catarrh (f; FEL); Chickenpox (1; APA); Chlorosis (f; MAD); Colic (f; MAD); Constipation (2; 
FEL; KOM; PHR; SKY); Diarrhea (f; MAD); Dropsy (f; MAD); Duodenosis (f; FEL); Dysentery 
(f; DEM); Dyspepsia (1; FEL; PNC); Exanthema (f; MAD); Flu (1; APA); Gas (f; PED); Gastrosis 
(f; DEM; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; DEM); Gout (f; MAD); Headache (f; FEL); Hemorrhoids (12; KOM; 
PHR; PH2; PNC); Hepatosis (f; DEM); Herpes (f1; APA; HH2; MAD); Infection (f; DEM); Itch (f; 
DEM); Jaundice (f; FEL); Nausea (f; MAD); Obesity (f; MAD); Ophthalmia (f; DEM); Proctosis 
(f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; DEM; MAD); Ringworm (1; FNF); Sciatica (f; DEM); Shingles (1; APA); 
Sore (f; DEM; MAD); Stomatosis (f; MAD); Swelling (f; DEM); Uremia (f; MAD); Venereal Dis-
ease (f; DEM); Virus (1; HH2); Water Retention (f; HH2); Worm (f; DEM); Wound (f; DEM).
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d osages (o t Her r Ham Nus ):
FNFF = ?
One-half tsp powdered bark/cup water, morning and/or night, for short periods (APA); 1/2 tsp tinc-
ture (APA); 2–6 ml ufl id extract (APA); 2–5 ml liquid bark extract (CAN, PNC); 1 g bark (HHB). 
Two 450-mg capsules at bedtime (NH); 1–3 g dry bark (PED); 2 g dry bark:10 mg alcohol/10 mg 
water (PED); 1–2.5 g powdered bark (PNC); 100–300 mg dry bark extract (PNC); 1 ml (circa 10 
drops) StX (ufl id); 1–5 ml tincture (SKY).
d ow Nsides (o t Her r Ham Nus ):
Class 2b, 2c, 2d. Contraindicated in hemorrohoids and nephropathy (CAN), intestinal obstruction, 
abdominal pain of unknown causes, any enteritis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, irritable 
bowel syndrome), nephropathy, and menstruation (AHP, 1997). Not for children under 12 years 
old. Do not use bark that has not been heat-treated or aged 1 year (AHP, 1997). Do not use if you 
have abdominal pain or diarrhea. Consult a health care provider prior to use if pregnant or nu-rs
ing. Discontinue use in the event of diarrhea or watery stools. Do not exceed recommended dose. 
Not for long-term use (AHP). While widely used, anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit-
forming; some contain compounds suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even 
tumorigenic; epidemiological studies in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have 3 
times higher rate of colon carcinoma (AEH, 115). Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson (1996) caution 
that anthraquinones are purgative and an irritant to the GI tract. Because of the anthraquinones, 
nonstandardized preparations should be avoided in pregnancy and lactation (CAN). “Some herbal 
laxative preparations such as cascara and senna, for example, can cause an increase in the potency 
of digoxin” (D’epiro, 1997). Chronic use may lead to hypokalemia, increasing efcafi cy, perhaps 
dangerously, of cardiac glycosides, perhaps antiarrhythmics. Hypokalemia can be increased with 
corticosteroids, diuretics, and licorice roots (KOM).
extra Cts (o t Her r Ham Nus ):
Cathartic cascarosides induce the large intestine to increased peristalsis, inducing bowel movement. 
Clinical comparison of patients preparing for colonoscopy showed that GoLytely alone and Senna 
alone with enema did better than a mix of GoLytely with Cascara. Cascara was the last choice as far 
as cleanliness and quality of the exam (PH2.)
CAsto R (r icinus communis L.) + eUpho RBIACeAe
Notes (Castor ):
And the LORD God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that it might be a 
shadow over his head, to deliver him from his grief. So Jonah was exceeding glad of the gourd.
Jonah 4:6 (KJV)
And the LORD God appointed a plant, and made it come up over Jonah, that it might be a shade over 
his head, to save him from his discomfort. So Jonah was exceedingly glad because of the plant.
Jonah 4:6 (RSV)
Accordingly Jehovah God appointed a bottle- gourd plant, that it should come up over Jonah, in 
order to become a shade over his head, to deliver him from his calamitous state. And Jonah began 
to rejoice greatly over the bottle gourd plant.
Jonah 4:6 (NWT)
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FIGURe . Castor (Ricinus communis).
 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
We may never know which version of Jonah 4:6 is botanically more accurate. Castor can become a big 
shade tree; bottle gourds trained on a trellis can cast shade. Zohary thinks that castor is most likely. 
The huge leaves of this plant are excellently adapted for producing ample shade when growing alon-g
side a bower, booth, or hut or overhanging a bench. Castor bean is cultivated for the seeds, which yield 
a fast-drying, non-yellowing oil, used mainly in industry and medicines. Consistent with the classical 
writers, including Strabo, Pliny, and Theophrastrus, Copley et al. (2005) found castor oil among the 
lighting oils used in archaeological lamps from Egypt, along with animal, afl xseed, radish (or some 
crucifer), and sesame oils (X15912234). The oil was extensively used also by Hebrews, as one of the 
vfi e oils sanctioned by rabbinical tradition. Oil used in coating fabrics and other protective coverings, 
in the manufacture of high-grade lubricants, transparent typewriter and printing inks, in textile dying 
(when converted into sulfonated Castor Oil or TurRed Oil, for dying cotton fabrics with alizarine), in 
leather preservation, and in the production of Rilson, a polyamide nylo-ntype befi r. Dehydrated oil is 
an excellent drying agent that compares favorably with tung oil and is used in paints and varnishes. 
Hydrogenated oil is utilized in the manufacture of waxes, polishes, carbon paper, candles, and cr-ay
ons. Blown oil is used for grinding lacquer paste colors; and when hydrogenated and sulfonated, it is 
used for the preparation of ointments. South Africans mix castor oil with kerosene as a culicide; the 
oil prevents tabanid flies from attacking camels. Castor oil pomace, the residue after crushing, is used 
as a high-nitrogen fertilizer. The pomace is said to induce asthma among individuals who inhale it. 
Although it is highly toxic due to the ricin, a method of detoxicating the meal has now been found, so 
that it can safely be fed to livestock. Stems are made into paper and wallboard. Moldenke and M-old
enke remarked that neither the ancient Hebrews nor modern inhabitants of Palestine and Syria use it 
for medicine (BIB). Egyptians speak of kaka as the plant source of the kiki oil, mentioned by Herodo-
tus as used for lighting. Castor has been found in 6000-year old Egyptian tombs. Zohary states that 
“The Talmud sometimes refers to kikayon as a plant yielding the castor oil long known in medicine” 
(ZOH). It has even worked its way into Vodou, associated with the deities Yemanjá and Omolu (Ab-al
uaiê) in the Afro-Brazilian Candomblé religion, wherein the seed oil is used as a purgative (VOD). 
Wish my mother had read the warning — “not to be administered to children under 12 years” — and I 
might still like orange juice; too early in life, my mother assumed that castor oil, cut with orange juice, 
was a panacea. So to this day, I often imagine the taste of castor oil with my orange juice. Judi duC- el
lier, my secretary for three decades, once took some castor bean seeds home to poison some moles. 
Judi’s grandson chewed on one of those seeds, but was given ipecac immediately after Judi called me 
for advice that frightening Sunday morning.
Commo N Names (Castor ):
Aa Ma (Newari; NPM); Aaril (Nepal; NPM); Akhilwane (Ber.; BOU); Alama (Nepal; SUW); 
Amanakkam-chedi (Tam.; NAD); Amanakku (Tam.; NAD; WOI); Amidamu (Tel.; NAD); Amudam 
(Tel.; NAD); Amudamuchettu (Tel.; WOI); Ander (Nepal; SUW); Andela (Nepal; SUW); Andi (Dan-u
war; Mooshar; NPM); Arand (Pun.; NAD); Aranda (Beng.; NAD); Arash (Arab.; GHA); Arend (Nepal; 
NPM); Arer (Nepal; NPM); Areth (Chepang; NPM); Ater (Chepang; NPM); Audla (Kan.; NAD); Av-a
nakku (Mal.; WOI); Avend (Nepal; SUW); Awrioun (Arab.; BOU); Ayrunkukri (Sin.; NAD); Bazanjir 
(Afg; KAB); Bedanjir (Iran; NAD); Bheranda (Beng.; WOI); Bherenda (Beng.; NAD); Bi Ma (Pin.; 
AH2); Bi Ma Gen (Pin.; AH2); Bi Ma Ye (Pin.; AH2); Bi Ma You (Pin.; AH2); Bi Ma Zi (Pin.; AH2; 
DAA); Bois de Carapat (Fwi.; AVP); Buzanjir (Afg; KAB); Carapate (Guad.; AVP; TRA); Carrapa 
(Sp.; AVP); Carrapateira (Mad.; Por.; AVP); Castor (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; AVP; VOD); Castor Bean (Eng.; 
CR2; VOD); Castor Oil Plant (Eng.; AVP); Catapuzia Maggiore (It.; AVP); Causirro (Bol.; Chi-ri
guano; DLZ); Cawapat (Dom.; TRA); Chittamanakku (Tam.; NAD); Chittmani (Tam.; NAD); Coch 
(Ma.; JFM); Daldo (Rai; NPM); Dandarobi (Tamang; NPM); Dan-khra (Tibet; NPM); Dar-ta (Tibet; 
NPM); Diveli (Bom.; Guj.; NAD); Diveligo (Guj.; WOI); Djarak Malkarone; (Arab.; AVP); Endaru 
(Sin.; NAD); Endi (Hindi; NAD); E-ra (Tibet; NPM); Eramudapu (Tel.; NAD); Eranda (Ayu.; Sanskrit; 
AH2; NAD); Erandi (Hindi; Mar.; WOI); Erandthailam (Tel.; NAD); Erendi (Guj.; Mah.; NAD); Eri 
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(Assam; NAD); Feni (Ber.; BOU); Feuille Grain (Haiti; AVP); Feuille Mascriti (Haiti; AVP); Figo do 
Inferno (Por.; AVP); Gab (Uriya; NAD); Gandharva Hastah (Sanskrit; NAD); Girgilla (Peru; SOU); 
Gourd (Eng.; BIB); Haralu (Kan.; WOI); Hedera (Heb.; ZOH); Herani (Sin.; NAD); Higuera del Diablo 
(Ma.; Sp.; JFM); Higuera Infernal (Mex.; Pan.; AVP; MPG); Higuerilla (Sp.; AVP; EGG); Higuerilla 
de la Tierra (Ma.; JFM); Higuerilla Mexicana (Ma.; JFM); Higuerillo (Ecu.; Sp.; AVP; BEJ); Higu-e
rita (Sp.; AVP); Higuero (Sal.; AVP); Huile Mascriti (Haiti; AVP); Huiso Mero (Peru; Shipibo/Conibo; 
EGG); Iguerilla (Ma.; JFM); Indeyo (Raute; NPM); Jambalin (Nic.; IED); Kaka (Arab.; Egypt; ZOH); 
Kesusi (Burma; NAD); Kharvah (Tur.; AVP); Kharwah (Arab.; GHA); Kherwa’ (Arab.; BOU); Khirva 
(Arab.; NAD); Khirwah (Arab.; GHA); Khurwa’a (Arab.; GHA); Kikayon (Heb.; ZOH); Koch (Ma.; 
JFM); Kolukanti (Heb.; ZOH); Kottai Muthu (Tam.; WOI); Krank (Ber.; BOU); Krapata (Ma.; JFM); 
Kukat (Chepang; NPM); Lidis (Chepang; NPM); Lirraiq (Ber.; BOU); Macoroco (Bol.; DLZ); Ma-d
hishe Aril (Majhi; NPM); Mamona (Por.; AVP; RAR); Mamoneira (Por.; AVP); Mascriti (Haiti; AVP); 
Maskèti (Haiti; TRA); Maskriti (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Masquiti (Ma.; JFM); Mbaicibo (Chiriguano; 
DLZ); Miniakjarah (Mal.; NAD); Oil Nut Tree (Jam.; AVP); Ourioura (Ber.; BOU); Palma Christi 
(Col.; Eng.; Fr.; Haiti; Mart.; Ocn.; AH2; AVP; BOU; MPG; TRA); Panchangulam (Sanskrit; NAD); 
Piojo del Diablo (Peru; EGG); Purgeer-Konr (Den.; AVP); Racznik (Pol.; AVP); Relajar (Col.; IED; 
MPG); Reyar (Tharu; NPM); Ricin (Fr.; AVP; BOU); Ricino (It.; Pan.; Por.; Sp.; AVP; EGG; MPG); 
Risen (Creole; Haiti; VOD); Ri’zinus (Ger.; AVP); Sabadillo (Sal.; AVP); Sadabherenda (Beng.; NAD); 
Shemouga (Arab.; BOU); Soubagabanan (Sudan; AVP); Ta-Ma-Tze (China; AVP); Tapaniquich (C-hiq
uitano; DLZ); Tartago (Ven. AVP); Tartaku (Aym.; Bol.; DLZ); Thaturi (Tamang; NPM); Udu Kaju 
(Akha; EB40:38); Unapalan (Ulwa; ULW); Undertroed (Swe.; AVP); Vatari (Sanskrit; NAD); Verenda 
(Beng.; NAD); Wanderbaum (Dutch; AVP); Wunderbaum (Ger.; AVP); Yanyan (Gurung; NPM); Zait 
(Arab.; GHA); Zourma (Sudan; AVP).
a Ctivities (Castor ):
Allergenic (1; BOU); Analgesic (f; BOU); Anodyne (f1; APA; BOU; CRC); Antiabsorptive (f; PH2); 
Antiamebic (f; MPG); Anticholestatic (1; HH2); Anticoagulant (1; RCP7(3)); Anticonvulsant (f; 
MPG); Antidiabetic (1; HH2); Antidote (f; CRC); Antiedemic (f; BOU); Antifertility (1; X12748988); 
Antifilarial (1; MPG); AntiHIV (f; APA); Antiinafl mmaory (f; BOU); Antilactagogue (f; DEP); Anti -
leukemic (1; APA); Antiseptic (1; HH2; PH2; TRA); Antispermagenic (1; X12748988); Antitumor (1; 
TRA); Antitussive (f; DAA); Antiviral (1; AAB; PHR); Aperient (f; CRC); Atticide (1; X15382509); 
Bactericide (1; CRC; HH2; TRA); Candidicide (1; HH2); Cathartic (f1; APA; CRC); Collyrium (f; 
GHA); Contraceptive (1; HH2; PH2); Culicide (f; BIB); Cyanogenic (f; CRC); Diaphoretic (f; JFM); 
Discutient (f; CRC; DAA); Diuretic (f; TRA); Embryotoxic (1; MPG); Emetic (f1; BOU; CRC; FAD); 
Emmenagogue (f; BOU; KAB; KAP); Emollient (f1; AAB; APA; BOU; PNC); Expectorant (f; CRC; 
DAA); Febrifuge (f; ULW); Fungicide (1; HH2; X15382509); Hepatoprotective (1; HH2); Hypoglyce-
mic (f; MPG); Hypotensive (1; HH2); Immunostimulant (f; HH2); Insecticide (1; CRC; X14667057); 
Lactagogue (f12; AAB; BIB; CRC; FAD; NMH; NPM); Larvicide (f; CRC); Laxative (f12; CRC; 
FAD; PH2); Lipolytic (1; X11535138); Lymphocytogenic (f; HH2); Ovicide (1; X14667057); Parturi-
ent (f; FAD); Peristaltic (1; VVG); Piscicide (f; SUW); Poison (1; CRC); Purgative (f12; BOU; CRC; 
EGG; FAD; SUW; VVG); Pyrogenic (1; HH2); Ribosome Inactivator (1; X12447536); Secretagogue 
(1; PH2); Secretomotor (1; TRA); Spermicide (f; TRA); Tonic (f; CRC; JFM); Vermifuge (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Castor ):
Abscess (f; APA; BOU; CRC; PHR; PH2); Adenopathy (f; DAA; JLH); Amenorrhea (f; BOU; DEP; 
KAP); Anasarca (f; BIB; CRC); Arthrosis (f; BOU; CRC; HH2; JFM; PH2); Asthma (f; AHL; BOU; 
CRC; TRA); Bacteria (1; HH2); Bite (f; CRC); Bleeding (f; DAA; HH2); Blenorrhea (f; EGG); Bli-s
ter (f; GHA); Boil (f; BOU; JFM; PHR; SUW; VVG); Bruise (f; DLZ; EGG); Bunion (f; BIB); Burn 
(f; CRC; NPM); Cancer (f1; BOU; DAD; HH2; MPG); Cancer, breast (f; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; 
JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Candida (1; HH2); Carbuncle (f; CRC; PH2); Caries (f; NPM; WOI); 
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Catarrh (f; AHL; BIB; CRC); Chancre (f; BIB; CRC); Childbirth (f; AAB; CRC; DAA; JFM; VOD); 
Cholera (f; CRC); Cold (f; CRC; JFM); Colic (f; BOU; CRC; JFM; NAD; VOD); Congestion (f; AAB); 
Conjunctivosis (f; GHA; NAD); Constipation (f1; APA; PH2; ULW); Convulsion (f; CRC); Corn (f; 
CRC); Cramps (f; JFM); Craw-craw (f; CRC); Cyst (f; APA); Cystosis (f; BOU); Dandruff (f; FAD); 
Deafness (f; CRC; DAA); Delirium (f; BIB; CRC); Dermatosis (f; BOU; CRC; EGG; FAD; JFM; PH2; 
VOD; EB40:38); Diabetes (f; HH2); Diarrhea (f; BIB); Dislocation (f; VOD); Dropsy (f; CRC); Dysla-c
tea (f; BIB; EGG); Dyspepsia (f; PH2); Dystonia (1; DAD); Dysuria (f; EGG; NAD); Eczema (f; MPG); 
Edema (f; JFM); Elephantiasis (f; BIB); Enterosis (f; BOU; CRC; HH2; JFM; PH2); Epilepsy (f; BIB; 
BOU; CRC; UPW); Erysipelas (f; BIB; CRC; JFM); Escherichia (1; HH2); Fever (f; AAB; CRC; 
DAV; EGG; HH2; NPM; ULW); Flu (f; CRC); Fracture (f; BEJ); Fungus (1; HH2); Furuncle (f; PH2); 
Ganglion (f; TRA) Gastrosis (f; BOU); Gingivosis (f; JFM); Gonorrhea (f; HH2; VOD); Gout (f; CRC; 
DAA; NPM); Guinea worm (f; CRC); Halitosis (f; GHA); Headache (f; BOU; CRC; EGG; JFM; PH2; 
SUW; VOD); Hematoma (f; VOD); Hemorrhoid (f; EGG; FAD; JFM); Hepatosis (f; NPM); Hernia (f; 
DLZ); HIV (1; DAD); Hypothermia (f; BOU); Induration (f; CRC); Infection (1; TRA); Inafl mmation 
(f; BOU; CRC; EGG; PH2); Ischia (f; HH2); Itch (f; AAB; FAD; VOD); Jaundice (f; BOU; NPM); 
Leprosy (f; BIB; BOU; IED); Leukemia (1; MPG); Lichen (f; MAD); Lumbago (f; BOU; HH2; KAP); 
Mastosis (f; BOU); Measles (f; AAB); Migraine (f; PHR); Mole (f; CRC); Myalgia (f; CRC; DAV); 
Mycosis (1; HH2); Nephrosis (f; BOU); Neuralgia (f; EGG); Neurosis (f; BIB; BOU; CRC; NPM); 
Ophthalmia (f; BOU; PNC); Osteomyelitis (f; BIB; CRC); Otitis (f; HH2; PHR; PH2); Pain (f; GHA; 
JFM; NPM; PH2; VOD); Palsy (f; CRC; DAA); Paralysis (f; PH2); Parasite (f; BOU; EGG); Parotitis (f; 
MPG); Peritonitis (f; DLZ); Pharyngosis (f; BOU); Pleurodynia (f; DEP; NAD); Pneumonia (f; SKJ); 
Proctosis (f; DAA); Prolapse (f; CRC; DAA); Prostatosis (f; JFM); Rash (f; BIB; CRC); Rheumatism 
(f; BIB; CRC; JFM; KAP; NPM; VOD); Ringworm (f; BIB; FAD; NPM); Salmonella (1; TRA); Sca-
bies (f; NPM); Scald (f; CRC); Sciatica (f; BOU; DEP; NAD); Scrofula (f; CRC); Seborrhea (f; BIB; 
CRC); Schistosomiasis (f; UPW); Sciatica (f; KAP); Shigella (1; TRA); Sinusitis (f; AAB); Sore (f; 
APA; FAD; VVG); Sore Throat (f; PH2); Splenosis (f; EGG; VOD); Sprain (f; BEJ); Staphylococcus 
(1; HH2; TRA); Sting (f; CRC; SUW); Stomachache (f; CRC; IED; VVG); Stomatosis (f;? Strabismus 
(f; CRC; DAA); Sunstroke (f; KAB); Swelling (f; BIB; BOU; CRC; DAA; JFM; KAP; VOD); Tape-
worm (1; JFM); Thrombosis (1; RCP7(3)); Toothache (f; CRC; DAA; JFM; KAP); Tuberculosis (f; 
BIB; CRC); Tumor (f; CRC; JFM); Tympanitis (f; DEP); Typhus (f; MAD); Ulcer (f; BIB); Urethrosis 
(f; CRC; DAA; NAD); Uterosis (f; CRC; DAA); Vaginosis (f; AAB); Venereal Disease (f; BOU; CRC; 
DAA; JFM; VOD); Vertigo (f; BOU); Virus (1; MPG); Wart (f; APA; CRC); Whitlow (f; CRC); Worm 
(f1; BOU; CRC; PH2; TRA; VOD); Wound (f; BOU; CRC; DAA; NPM; VVG); Yeast (1; HH2).
d osages (Castor ):
FNFF = X
15–60 ml oil (APA); 5–28 ml castor oil (KAP). 9–15 g leaf paste (KAP). 3–6 g root paste (KAP). 
Five 2-g or ten 1-g capsules (PHR); 5–20 ml oil (PNC).
• Algerians use castor oil with rabbit blood as a contraceptive (BIB).
• Ayurvedics use the root for ascites, asthma, bronchitis, eructation, fever, inafl mmation, 
leprosy, and diseases of the head, glands, and rectum; the leaves for burns, dyslactea, e-ar
ache, nightblindness, strangury, and worms; ofl wers for anal troubles, glandular tumors, 
and vaginalgia; fruit for hepatosis, pain, splenosis, and tumors; seed and/or oil for 
amenorrhea, asthma, ascites, backache, boils, convulsions, dropsy, elephantiasis, fever, 
hepatosis, inafl mmation, leprosy, lumbago, pain, paralysis, piles, rheumatism, ringworm, 
tumors, and typhoid; the root bark for skin ailments (KAB).
• Bahamans crush and boil the seed to get the oil, which is taken for colds and as a child’s 
and new mother’s tonic (JFM).
• Brazilians bathe hemorrhoids with the leaf decoction (JFM).
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• Caribbeans use castor oil in a purgative tea after childbirth (VOD).
• Cubans suggest the root decoction as diuretic in prostatitis (JFM).
• Dominicans apply crushed seed to dislocation and hematomas (VOD).
• Dominicans use heated leaves for massaging the spleen, and for internal pain (VOD).
• Egyptian farmers poultice fresh leaves onto boils (BIB).
• Ghanans grind a cleaned root into a paste inserted in the nose for headache (UPW).
• Gurungs sometimes apply leaf juice to burns, taking it for diarrhea and dysentery (NPM).
• Haitians apply boiled leaves to swellings and wounds (VOD).
• Haitians use the seed oil as hair tonic, purgative and vermifuge, rubbing on burns, de-r
matosis, itch, and rheumatism, taking orally for respiratory ailments (VOD).
• Hausa in Africa use the root extract as a mouthwash for toothache (UPW).
• Lebanese use leaves and crushed beans as a topical dressing, not internally as a purgative 
(HJP).
• Mexicans place scalded leaves on the breasts of nursing mothers to increase milk (JFM).
• Nepalese smash cotyledons and paste onto gout and scabies (NPM).
• Nigerians burn the stem with Calotropis for chancre (BIB).
• Peruvians suggest the crushed leaves on the face or forehead for neuralgia (EGG).
• Peruvians use leaves heated in olive oil to relieve hemorrhoids (SOU).
• South Africans use the root for toothache (BIB).
• Terai of Nepal take one cotyledon a day following menstruation for birth control (NPM).
• TRAMIL (Traditional Medicine in the Islands) Caribbeans use the oil (topically or orally) 
for asthma, bronchoses, burns, earache, gangliosis, rheumatism, toothache, etc. (TRA).
• Zulus administer the leaves for stomachache, orally or rectally (BIB).
• In Guiana, the leaves are applied to the breast to augment the secretion of milk (BIB).
d ow Nsides (Castor ):
Class 2b, 2d. Contraindicated in intestinal obstruction and abdominal pain of unknown origin, 
appendicitis, inafl mmatory bowel disease; do not use for more than 8 to 10 days (AHP, PHR). 
No health hazards or side effects are known with proper administration of designated therapeutic 
dosages of castor oil (PH2). Overdoses can cause colic, drastic diarrhea, gastralgia and gastrosis, 
queasiness, and vomiting (PHR). The seeds contain 2.8 to 3% toxic substances, requiring 2.5 to 20 
seeds to kill a man (chewing a single seed may be fatal to a child), 4 to kill a rabbit, 5 a sheep, 6 an 
ox, 6 a horse, 7 a pig, 11 a dog, but 80 for a cock or duck. The principal toxin is the albumin, ricin 
(DAD). Although some recommend in pregnancy, others say no. Midwives sometimes use the oil to 
induce labor (AHP, 1997). Refined oil contraindications: intestinal obstruction, unexplained stom-
achache; adverse effects include the following: frequent use produces electrolyte losses (interaction 
with cardiac glycosides), also gastric irritation, and allergic skin reactions. Should not be used for 
prolonged periods of time (AEH). Not for children under 12 years old (PHR). May induce derma-
tosis as well as cure it (FAD).
Natural History (Castor ):
Castor bean is both self- and cross-pollinated by wind, varying from 5 to 36%, depending on the 
weather conditions. Pollen sheds readily between 26 and 29°C, with a relative humidity of 60%. 
For single cross-hybrid seed production, strains giving a 1:1 ratio or pistillate and heterozygous 
monoecious plants are used, the latter being rogued 1 to 5 days before ofl wering begins. Three-way 
cross-hybrids can also be used. For open pollinated types, roguing of all off-types is done after 
the last cultivation, and for pure seed production isolation necessity depends on the wind velo-c
ity. For hybrid and open pollinated types in the United States, stands are isolated 300 to 720 m; 
but in areas of less wind velocity, less distance may be sufcfi ient. Fungi known to attack Castor 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
bean plants include Alternaria compacta, A. ricini, A. tenuis, A. tenuissima, Aspergillus itaconi-
cus, A. niger, A. quercinus, Botrydiplodia manilensis, B. ricinicola, B. theobromae, Botryotinia 
ricini, Botrysphaeria ribis, Botrytis cinerea (Gary mold), Cephalosporium curtipes, Cercospora 
canescens, C. coffeae, C. ricinella, Cercosporella ricinella (Leaf spot), Cladosporium herbarum, 
Clitocybe tabescens, Colletotrichum bakeri, C. erumpens, C. ricini, Corticium solani, Didymella 
ricini, Diplodia natalensis, D. organicola, D. ricinella, D. ricini, Discosporella phaeochlorina, 
Epicoccum nigrum, Erysiphe cichoracearum, Fusarium moniliforme, F. orthoceras, F. oxyspo-
rum, F. sambucinum, F. semitectum, Gibberella pulicarus, Glomerella cingulata, G. ricini, Hap-
losporella manilensis, Lecanidion atratum, Leveillula lanata, L. taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, 
Macrophoma phaseoli, Ph. ricini, Macrosporium cavarae, M. ricini, Melampsora euphorbiae, M. 
ricini, Melampsorella ricini, Mecrostroma minimum, Mucor fragilis, Mycosporella ricinicola, M. 
tulasnei, Myrothecium roridum, Oidiopsis taurica, Peniophora cinerea, Phoma macropyrena, Ph. 
ricini, Phomopsis ricini, Ph. ricinella, Phyllosticta bosensis, Ph. ricini, Phymatotrichum omnivo-
rum (Root rot), Physalospora abdita, Ph. propinqua, Ph. rhodina, Ph. ricini, Ph. obtusa, Phytoph-
thora cactorum, Ph. cinnamomi, Ph. palmivora, Ph. parasitica, Pleospora herbarum, Pythium 
aphanidermatum, P. debaryanum, P. gracile, P. intermedium, P. proliferum, P. ultimum, P. vexans, 
Rhabdospora ricini, Rhizoctonia solani, Schiffnerula ricini, Schizophyllum commune, Sclerotinia 
fuckeliana, S. minor, S. ricini, S. sclerotiorum, Scierotium rolfsii, and sphaceloma ricini. The fol-
lowing bacteria also cause disease sA:grobacterium tumefaciens, Bacterium lathyri, B. ricini, Pseu-
domonas solanacearum, Xanthomonas ricini, and X. ricinicola. Striga lutea parasitizes the plants. 
Nematodes isolated from Castor bean includ eAphelenchoides asterocaudatus, A. bicaudatus, A. 
subtenuis, Helicotylenchus cavenssi, H. pseudorobustus, H. schachtii, Meloidogyne arenaria and 
var. thamesi, M. hapla, M. incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. javanica, M. thamesi, Merlinius 
brevidens, Pratylenchus brachyurus, P. neglectus, P. pratensis, P. scribner, P. vulnus, P. zeae, 
Radopholus similes, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, Tricephalobus longicaudatus, and Tylencho-
rhychus mashhoodi (Golden, 1984). Several insects are pests. In India, the Capsule borer D( ichocr-
ocis punctiferalis) bores into young and ripening capsules; and Castor semiloopers A( choea janata) 
are the worst pests. In Tanganyika damage by capsid and myrid bugs are a limiting factor causing 
immature fruit to drop. Green stinkbugs, leaf-hoppers, leaf-miners, and grasshoppers are pests that 
feed on the leaves. Most insects can be controlled by insecticides. Because some of the varieties are 
quite tall, wind storms are a potential hazard to a crop (HOE).
extra Cts (Castor ):
Ricin, the deadly poison, can be attached to monoclonal antibodies that only attack cancer cells, a 
technique reportedly tried in 1000 cancer patients (DAD). The AIDS virus can infect an immune 
cell by locking onto its cell receptor protein CD4. By genetically attaching the ricin to gene-ti
cally engineered CD4 proteins, one obtains CD4-ricin, which will lock onto the external viruses 
of infected cells, 1000 times more often than onto healthy cells, possibly killing enough infected 
cells to prevent the spread of the disease symptoms. Like the botulism toxin, ricin can be used to 
kill overstimulated nerve endings in patients with dystonias (DAD). Ricinoleic acid has served in 
contraceptive jellies (DAD). Bigi et al. (2004) reported activity of extracts (their fatty acids in p-ar
ticular) and ricinine against the leaf-cutting anAt tta sexdens rubropilosa and the symbiotic fungus 
Leucoagaricus gongylophorus (X15382509).
Do G Rose ( r os A c Anin A L.) +++ Ros ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Rosa armata Stev. ex Besser; Rosa caucasica Pall.; Rosa frondosa Stev. ex Spreng; Rosa glauca 
Schot. ex Besser; Rosa lutetiana Lem.; Rosa taurica M. Bieb. fide HH3
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FIGURe .0 Dog Rose (Rosa canina).
Notes (d og r ose ):
And as many fountains flowing with milk and honey, and seven mighty mountains, whereupon 
there grow roses and lilies, whereby I will fill thy children with joy.
11 Esdras 2:19 (KJV)
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And the same number of springs flowing with milk and honey, and seven mighty mountains on 
which roses and lilies grow; by these I will fill your children with joy.
11 Esdras 2:19 (RSV)
A search of just the KJV turned up 42 sources, in which roses were cited (some as the past tense of 
rise). Most were in Genesis (21 matches), Judges (16), 1 Maccabees (Apocrypha) (10), Exodus (10), 
and Acts (9). However, there are almost as many interpretations of the word “rose.” In my earlier 
Bible book (BIB), I cited Moldenke and Moldenke noting that crowning oneself with rosebud at 
a feast is a purely Greek custom borrowed by the Romans. But clearly, rose gardens were and are 
important in Israeli culture. A century or so later, Egyptians were growing roses under glass to send 
to Rome for banquets. Zohary suggests that there were cultivated roses already in biblical times in 
the Holy Land. But the Hebrew word vered is mentioned only in postbiblical times — for example, 
several times in the Talmud. “No gardens and orchards should be established in Jerusalem, with the 
exception of rose gardens that have existed there since the Early Prophets” While rose in the Bible 
may mean many species (e.g., Cistus, Hibiscus, Nerium, Rosa), it is concluded that they meantR osa 
in several biblical quotations. It is nice that our national capital has its “rose garden.” Would that 
powerful faith-based individuals insist on a second garden, even closer to the White House, of our 
wholesome biblical medicinal plants, often competitive with the unwholesome pharmaceuticals that 
fewer and fewer of us can afford. Zohary lists only two species ofR osa in the Flora of Palestine 
(FP2), but later mentions that four species are native to Israel (ZOH).
• — Inofl rescences few-ofl wered; styles free; ofl wers mostly pink; fruit 1 to 2 cm long, 
scarlet, finally turning blackish crimson — Rosa canina
• — Inofl rescences many-ofl wered; styles united into a column; ofl wers white; fruit circa 
1cm long, brick red — Rosa phoenicia
Zohary seems to favor Rosa phoenicia (Phoenician Rose (Eng.; ZOH); Vered (Hebrew; ZOH)) as 
most likely in 1982 (ZOH). So did I in 1983 (BIB). But, in the intervening years, I encountered no 
new information on that species, so I will discuss the much better Rosa canina as a very similar spe-
cies also present in the Holy Land and with a much bigger medicinal repertoire. Much of the German 
literature refers to cynosbati, alluding to the fruits and seeds ofR osa canina, or a fungus thereon 
(see EFS). While AH2 selected dog rose as the standardized common name, they also boldfacreo se 
hips, saying it is an acceptable, and even preferable, Standardized Common Name (AH2).
Commo N Names (d og r ose ):
Achdirt (Ber.; BOU); Agabanzo (Sp.; EFS); Azenzou (Ber.; BOU); Bédégar (Fr.; EFS); Bou Soufa 
(Arab.; BOU); Brier Rose (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Canker Flower (Eng.; BOU); Csipkebogyó Cynor-
rhodon (Fr.; EFS); Dog Brier (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Dog Rose (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Eglantier 
(Fr.; BOU); Eglantine (Fr.; BOU); Escaramujo (Sp.; Chile; EFS); Galabardera (Sp.; EFS); Hag-
dorn (Ger.; HH3); Hagebuttenstrauch (Ger.; EFS); Hagrose (Ger.; HH3); Hekenrose (Ger.; EFS); 
Heprose (Eng.; BOU); Hip Rose (Eng.; EFS); Hondsros (Dutch; EFS); Hundrose (Ger.; MAD); 
Hybener (Den.; EFS); Kusbumu (Tur.; EFS); Monholinos (Sp.; EFS); Nab el Kalb (Arab.; BOU); 
Nesri (Arab.; BOU); Nisrin (Arab.; BOU); Pepins de Rosier Sauvage (Fr.; HH3); Rosa Brava (Por.; 
GEP); Rosa Canina (It.; HH3); Rosa de Cão (Por.; EFS); Rosa di Macchia (It.; EFS); Rosa Selvatica 
(It.; EFS; HH3); Rosa Silvestre (Sp.; EFS); Rosal Silvestre (Spain; VAD); Rose des Haies (Fr.; HH3); 
Rose Hips (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; CR2); Rose Sauvage (Fr.; BOU); Rosenschwamm (Ger.; EFS); Rozen-
bottelstruik (Dutch; EFS); Rosier des Chiens (Fr.; BOU); Rosier Sauvage (Fr.; BOU); Schlafapfel 
(Ger.; EFS); Semance de Cynorrhodon (Fr.; HH3); Silva Macha (Por.; EFS); Tafrha (Ber.; BOU); 
Tigourma (Ber.; BOU); Ward Barri (Arab.; Syria; BOU; HJP); Ward es Seni (Arab.; BOU; HJP); 
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Ward es Siyag (Arab.; BOU; HJP); Ward ez Zeroub (Arab.; BOU); Wild Brier (Eng.; EFS); Wildrose 
(Ger.; HH3); Zarza Rosa (Sp.; EFS); Zaunrose (Ger.; HH3).
a Ctivities (d og r ose ):
Analgesic (12; X15330493); Antiarthritic (12; X15330493); Antidiarrheic (f; PNC); Antiinafl mma-
tory (12; X12880322; X15330493); Anti-MDR (1; X14734860); Antimycobacterial (1; PR14:303); 
Antioxidant (1; HH3); Antiradicular (1; HH3); Antiscorbutic (f1; BOU); Antiseptic (f; PED); An-ti
spasmodic (f; PED); Antitubercular (1; PR14:303); Antiulcer (f1; X12902057); Astringent (f12; 
APA; BOU; KOM; WAM); Bactericide (1; PR14:303); Beta-Lactamase Inhibitor (1; X14734860); 
Cicatrizant (f1; VAD); Demulcent (f1; WAM); Diuretic (f1; APA; BOU; HH3; PED; PHR; PH2); 
Gastroprotective (f1; X12902057); Hypoglycemic (1; HH3); Laxative (f1; APA; PHR; PH2); Lipox-
ygenase Inhibitor (1; HH3); Nervine (f1; WAM); Tonic (f; VAD); Vermifuge (f; HH3; MAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (d og r ose ):
Albuminuria (f; MAD); Arteriopathy (f; VAD); Arthrosis (f12; PHR; X15330493); Asthenia (f; 
VAD); Bacteria (1; PR14:303; X14734860); Bleeding (f; HH3; PH2); Blepharosis (f; VAD); Burn 
(f; MAD); Cancer (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, genital (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, mouth (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); 
Capillary Fragility (f1; PED; VAD); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Catarrh (f; HJP; MAD); Chills (f; PHR); 
Cold (f; APA; PHR; PH2; VAD; JMF5:137); Conjunctivosis (f; VAD); Consumption (f; JEB79:57); 
Cough (f1; HJP; WAM); Cystosis (f; VAD); Dermatosis (f; VAD); Diarrhea (f1; BOU; PED; WAM); 
Dropsy (f; PHR); Dyspepsia (f; PH2; VAD); Dysuria (f; EFS; MAD; PHR; VAD); Edema (f; PH2; 
VAD); Enterosis (f; MAD; PH2); Exanthema (f; MAD); Flu (f; APA; PHR; PH2; VAD); Gallstone 
(f; MAD; PH2); Gastrosis (f; PED); Gonorrhea (f; MAD); Gout (f; PHR; PH2; VAD); Headache (f; 
APA; MAD); Hematoptysis (f; JEB79:57); Hemorrhoid (f; VAD); Hepatosis (f; JLH); High Blood 
Pressure (f; VAD); Hyperacidity (f; PH2); Hyperuricemia (f; VAD); Induration (f; JLH); Infection 
(1; PED; PHR; PH2; PR14:303; X14734860); Inafl mmation (f12; JLH; X15330493); Ischia (f; HH3); 
Kidney stone (f; MAD; PH2); Leukorrhea (f; PH2); Nausea (f1; WAM); Nephrosis (f; HJP; JLH; 
PH2); Nervousness (1; WAM); Obesity (f; VAD); Oliguria (f; VAD); Ophthalmia (f; JLH; VAD); 
Osteoarthrosis (12; X15330493); Pain (12; X15330493); Periodontosis (f; VAD); Rheumatism (f12; 
HH3; PHR; PH2; X15330493); Scar (1; HH3); Sciatica (f; PHR); Sore (f; APA; VAD); Sore Throat 
(f1; APA; WAM); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; X14734860); Stomatosis (f; APA; JLH); 
Stone (f1; PH2; VAD); Stress (f; PED); Swelling (f; VAD); Thirst (f; APA); Tuberculosis (1; JEB79:57; 
PR14:303); Tumor (f; JLH); Ulcer (f1; X12902057); Urethrosis (f; PH2; VAD); Uterosis (f; JLH); 
Varicosity (f; VAD); Wart (f; JLH); Worm (1; HH3); Wrinkle (1; HH3); Wound (f; VAD).
d osages (d og r ose ):
FNFF = !!
Fruits are edible and vitamin rich. Seeds roasted as coffee substitute. Leaves used as tea substitute. 
Petals used to make candies, sandwiches, teas, added to honey, liqueurs, vinegars (EFS; FAC). 
0.75–3 tsp chopped fruit/cup water/1–3 ×/day (APA, JAD, WIC); 2–5 g in infusion (HH3). 1–2 g 
dry fruit/cup water (PHR); 1/4–1/2 cup fresh fruit (PED); 6–12 g dry fruit (PED); 9 g dry fruit/cup 
boiling water (PED). 2 g (PH2). 1 tsp leaf or flower per cup water; 3–4 cups/day (VAD).
• Chileans use the plant for kidney cancers (JLH).
• Lebanese Gypsies use fruits for catarrh, nephritis, and reproductive organs (HJP).
• Lebanese use young leaves in healthful teas (HJP).
• Turks use the fruits for ulcers, and they proved out in rats (X12902057).
• Ukranians use floral/foliar tea for cough (HJP).
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d ow Nsides (d og r ose ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or contraindications reported with proper administration of 
suggested therapeutic dosages (PH2). None known for the fruits (PHR; WAM).
extra Cts (d og r ose ):
Danish scientists (Rein et al., 2004) showed that powdered fruits (Hyben Vital) reduced joint pain 
and improved well-being in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial with osteoarth-ri
tis. No major side effects occurred. Hyben Vital reduces symptoms of osteoarthritis (X15330493). 
Shiota et al. (2004) showed that tellimagrandin potentiated the activity of beta-lactams against 
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (X14734860). Gurbuz et al. (2003) found 100% anti-
ulcerogenic activity for the fruits in rats, comparable to misoprostol at 0.4 mg/kg (X12902057).
MADDeR (r ubi A tinctorium L.) x RUBIACeAe
Notes (madder ):
And after Abimelech there arose to defend Israel Tola the son of Puah, the son of Dodo, a man of 
Issachar; and he dwelt in Shamir in mount Ephraim.
Judges 10:1 (KJV)
Strange that if madder was important in the Holy Land in biblical times that it would not have gotten 
honorable mention as a plant in the Good Book. But it is mentioned only three times in the Bible, 
and then only as a proper name, as above. Zohary says it was important as a dye, and cultivated in 
all the Near East countries, in separate plots or intercropped with olive. Although early on, more 
used as a dye, it later assumed some medicinal and symbolic virtues as well, mentioned by such 
early greats as Pliny and Dioscorides (ZOH). Although important to early Greeks and Romans, it 
is not mentioned by the Sanskrit.
Commo N Names (madder ):
Alizari (Arab.; Ger.; BOU; KAB); Aroubian (Ber., BOU); Bacho (India; Pun.; DEP; EFS; KAB); 
Boyacikökü (Tur.; EFS); Dyer’s Madder (Eng.; BOU; CR2); Erythrodanon (Greek; DEP; KAB); 
European Madder (Eng.; WOI); Färberröte (Ger.; EFS); Farberwete (Ger.; KAB); Fauwa (Arab.; 
Yemen; GHA); Fowwa (Arab.; BOU); Fuah (Heb.; ZOH); Fuwwa (Arab.; ZOH); Fuwwah (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Fuwwah es Sabbaghin (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Fuwwat as Sabbaghin (Arab.; BOU); 
Garance (Fr.; BOU; EFS; KAB); Garance des Teinturiers (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Garence (Fr.; KAB); 
Granza (Cat.; Sp.; EFS; KAB); Grapp (Ger.; KAB); Jên Ku Tan (China; EFS); Krap (Rus.; KAB); 
Krapp (Dutch; Ger.; EFS; KAB); Krapprod (Den.; EFS); Madder (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; BOU; CR2); 
Manyounth (India; EFS); Manyunth (Bom.; Sind; DEP; KAB; NAD); Marena (Rus.; KAB); Ma-ri
ona (Rus.; DEP; KAB); Mee (Dutch; DEP); Meekrap (Dutch; EFS; KAB); Oroug Sabbaghin (Arab.; 
BOU); Ourouq Homor (Arab.; BOU); Parson (Syria?; JLH); Patachina (Rom.; KAB); Potha (Syria?; 
JLH); Puah (Heb.; ZOH); Puvah (Heb.; ZOH); Red Purgative (Eng.; Leb.; HJP); Robbia (It.; DEP; 
EFS); Rodan (Afg.; Iran; DEP; KAB); Rodang (Afg.; Iran; DEP; KAB); Rodea (Rom.; KAB); Roiba 
(Rom.; KAB); Rubia (It.; Sp.; EFS; KAB); Tarioubia (Ber., BOU); Taroubent (Ber., BOU); Taroubia 
(Ber., BOU); Tefthrion (Greek; KAB); Yin Khoot Tan (China; EFS).
a Ctivities (madder ):
Abortifacient (f; BOU; HJP); Antigenotoxic (1; JAF51:3334); Antimutagenic (1; JAF51:3334; 
X10792014); Antiseptic (1; X15752641); Antispasmodic (f; GAZ); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU); Astringent 
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(f; WOI); Carcinogenic (1; FNF; GAZ; X1370725); Chemopreventive (1; JAF51:3334); Contracep-
tive (f; HJP); Depurative (f; BOU); Digestive (f; WOI); Diuretic (f; BOU; EFS; GAZ; HHB; WOI); 
Emmenagogue (f; BOU; EFS; HJP; KAB); Expectorant (f; BOU); Fungicide (1; X15752641); Geno-
toxic (1; X1370725); Hydragogue (f; HJP); Hypotensive (f; BOU); Litholytic (f; GAZ; PH2; WOI); 
Mutagenic (1; GAZ; PH2; X11301857); Orexigenic (f; BOU); Poison (1; PH2); Purgative (f; HJP); 
Tonic (f; BOU; EFS; HHB); Vermifuge (f; BOU); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (madder ):
Amenorrhea (f; HHB; MAD); Anemia (f; BOU; HHB; MAD); Anorexia (f; BOU); Arthrosis (f; 
HHB; WOI); Bladderstone (f; HHB); Bruise (f; BOU; MAD); Calculus (f; WOI); Cancer (f; JLH); 
Cancer, bladder (f; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, skin (f; JLH); 
Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Childbirth (f; GHA); Chlorosis (f; MAD); Cho-
lecystosis (f; KAB; WOI); Constipation (f; HJP); Cystosis (f; HHB); Decubitis (f; WOI); Derma-
tosis (f; JLH); Diarrhea (f; BOU; HHB); Dropsy (f; JLH); Dysentery (f; MAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; 
GHA; KAB; MAD; PNC); Dysuria (f; PNC); Enterosis (f; MAD); Enuresis (f; MAD); Fungus (1; 
X15752641); Gastrosis (f; JLH; MAD); Gout (f; MAD); Gravel (f; HJP); Hepatosis (f; HHB; MAD; 
PNC); High Blood Pressure (f; BOU); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; X15752641); Jaundice (f; 
HJP; MAD; ZOH); Kidney stone (f; HJP; PH2); Lichen (f; MAD); Malaria (f; MAD); Mycosis (1; 
X15752641); Nephrosis (f; JLH; HHB); Neurosis (f; NAD); Puerperium (f; GHA); Pyelonephrosis 
(f; MAD); Scab (f; MAD); Sciatica (f; BOU); Scrofula (f; MAD); Sore (f; HHB); Splenosis (f; HHB; 
JLH; KAB; MAD); Stone (f; HHB; WOI); Synovia (f; MAD); Tuberculosis (f; HHB; MAD); Utero-
sis (f; JLH); Water Retention (f; WOI); Worm (f; BOU); Wound (f; BOU; HHB).
d osages (madder ):
FNFF = X
Do not take (JAD; PH2). 30 grains root, 3–4 ×/day (FEL). 1 g powdered root/3 ×/day (MAD).
• Algerians use as emmenagogue, hydragogue, litholytic, as a poultice, and as an abort-ifa
cient and contraceptive (HJP).
• Asian Indians report its use for cholecocystosis, hepatosis, jaundice, splenosis (KAB).
• Asian Indians say it works on the nervous and uterine systems (NAD; SKJ).
• Lebanese immigrants in New York refer to it as the red purgative (HJP).
• Russians consider this an important litholytic herb (WOI).
• Syrians use the plant for indurations of the liver and spleen (JLH).
• Yemeni women use crushed roots in a tonic tea after childbirth (GHA).
• Yemeni women use roots with berries of Morus and Salvadora for irregular menstruation 
(GHA).
d ow Nsides (madder ):
The court is still out on whether or not alizarin, lucidin, and purpurin from Rubia tinctorum exert 
a disintegrating effect on the surface of bladder and kidney stones containing calcium. Because 
extracts of the root are mutagenic and contain genotoxic and tumorigenic compounds, it is not to be 
recommended (De Smet, 1993). Drug should not be administered (PH2).
Natural History (madder ):
Plant, perhaps dangerously, used as fodder. Camels are said to be fond of it. Bones of animals 
ingesting the plant may turn red, as do claws and beaks of birds.
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BIBLICAL BRAMBLe (r ubus s Anctus sCh ReB.) +++ Ros ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Rubus sanguineus Friv.
Notes (bibli Cal bramble ):
For every tree is known by his own fruit. For of thorns men do not gather figs, nor of a bramble 
bush gather they grapes.
Luke 6:44 (KJV)
Finding almost nothing on Rubus sanctus or its synonym R. sanguineus, including common names, 
I, poetically licentious at times, have now denominated it the biblical bramble. Zohary called it the 
true bramble, but with lower case, perhaps to distinguish it from many other thorny plants, common 
in Israel, as in other arid areas. PubMed yielded one useful title on chemistry. Hussein, Ayoub, and 
Nawwar (2003) isolated two new natural caffeoyl esters (3,6-di-O-caffeoyl-(alpha/beta)-glucose 
and 1-O-caffeoyl-beta-xylose) and a new natural tannin (2,3-O-hexahydroxydiphenoyl-4,6-O-s-an
guisorboyl-(alpha/beta)-glucose) (X12895538). And there was one useful title on medicine. Tur-k
ish scientists (Erdemoglu, Kupeli, and Yesilada, 2003) demonstrated antinociceptive activities for 
aerial parts and roots (X14522443). With no more than that to offer, I instead aggregate my CRC 
(Edition 2) accounts of activities of other species of the Rubus genus, namely blackberries and rasp-
berries below (Other Rubus).
Commo N Names (bibli Cal bramble ):
Biblical Bramble (Eng.; JAD); Bramble (Eng.; ZOH); Bramble Bush (Eng.; KJV); Sina (Heb.; ZOH); 
Sinaia (Heb.; ZOH); Sinim (Heb.; ZOH); Thorn (Eng.; BIB); True Bramble (Eng.; ZOH); Tzinim 
(Heb.; ZOH); Tzininim (Heb.; ZOH).
a Ctivities (o t Her Rubus ):
Anticancer (1; JNU); Anticholinesterase (1; CAN); Antidote (f; DEM); Antiinafl mmatory (1; 
APA; FAD); Antioxidant (1; JNU; JAF50:2926); Antiproliferative (1; JAF50:2926); Antiradicular 
(1; X1332092); Antiseptic (f1; PED); Antispasmodic (1; APA; CAN; PED); Antitumor (f; APA); 
Antiviral (1; CAN); Apoptotic (f; JNU); Astringent (f1; CAN; CEB; FAD; PH2); Bactericide (1; 
MAD); Chemopreventive (1; FNF; X11799774; X11181460); Choleretic (f; KOM); Depurative (f; 
APA; KOM; PH2); Detoxicant (1; JNU); Diaphoretic (f; KOM; MAD); Diuretic (f; DEM; EFS; 
KOM); Febrifuge (f; EFS); Fungicide (f; MAD); Hemostat (1; APA); Hypocholesterolemic (1; JNU); 
Myostimulant (1; CAN); NO Inhibitor (1; JAF50:850); Postparturient (f; CAN); Purgative (f; PH2); 
Stimulant (f; DEM; PED); Tonic (f; APA; DEM; EFS); Uterorelaxant (1; APA; FAD; PNC); Utero-
tonic (1; APA; FAD); Xanthine-oxidase Inhibitor (1; X1332092).
iNdi Catio Ns (o t Her Rubus ):
Angina (f; MAD); Appendicitis (f; MAD); Bacteria (1; MAD); Biliousness (f; DEM); Bleeding 
(f1; APA; DEM; FEL; MAD); Boil (f; DEM); Bronchosis (f; CEB; MAD); Cancer (1; JLH; JNU; 
X11799774); Cancer, colon (1; JLH); Cancer, mouth (1; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; JLH); Cancer, 
throat (1; JLH); Canker (f; APA; MIC); Cardiopathy (f; PHR; PH2); Cataract (f; DEM); Catarrh (f; 
DEM); Childbirth (f; CEB; DEM; FEL; PH2); Cholera (f; CEB; FEL); Cold (f1; DEM; MAD; SKY); 
Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f1; APA; CAN; CEB; DEM; FNF); Constipation (f; DEM); 
Cough (f; APA; CEB; DEM; MAD); Cramps (1; FAD); Dementia (1; JNU); Dentition (f; DEM); 
Dermatosis (f; APA; KOM; MAD); Diabetes (f; KOM; MAD); Diarrhea (f12; APA; DEM; FAD; 
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MIC; PH2; SKY); Dropsy (f; APA; MAD; PH2); Dysentery (f1; DEM; FAD); Dysmenorrhea (f1; 
APA; CEB; DEM; FAD; MAD); Dysuria (f; DEM); Enterosis (1; APA; JLH; KOM; MAD; PH2); 
Exanthema (f; MAD); Fever (f; DEM; FEL; MAD); Fever (f; CEB; EFS; KOM); Fever Blister (f; 
APA); Flu (1; KOM; PED); Fungus (1; MAD); Gastrosis (f1; APA; DEM; JLH; KOM; PH2); Gleet 
(f; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; CEB; DEM); Gravel (f; CEB); Headache (f; DEM); Heartburn (f; DEM); 
Hematemesis (1; DEM; FNF); Hematuria (f; DEM); Hemoptysis (f; CEB); Hemorrhage (f1; APA; 
DEM; FNF); Hemorrhoid (1; APA); High Blood Pressure (f; DEM); High Cholesterol (1; JNU); 
Infection (f1; DEM; MAD); Inafl mmation (f1; APA; FAD; JLH); Lethargy (f; DEM); Leukorrhea (f; 
FEL; MAD); Low Blood Pressure (f; DEM); Maculitis (1; FNF); Measles (f; DEM); Metrorrhagia 
(f1; APA; MAD); Miscarriage (f; DEM); Morning Sickness (f; APA); Mycosis (1; MAD); Nausea 
(f; DEM; PED); Nephrosis (f; DEM; MAD); Ophthalmia (f 1; CEB; DEM; FNF; JNU); Parturition 
(1; FAD; PED); Pharyngosis (f12; APA; PHR; PH2); Phthisis (f; CEB); Pregnancy (f; APA; SKY); 
Proctosis (f; FEL); Prolapse (f; FEL); Prostatosis (f; APA); Pulmonosis (f; CEB; DEM; KOM); Res-
pirosis (f; PHR; PH2); Rheumatism (f; DEM); Scab (f; MAD); Scabies (f; MAD); Sore (f1; DEM); 
Sore Throat (f12; APA; CEB; KOM; MIC; PH2; SKY); Stomach (f; MIC); Stomachache (f; DEM); 
Stomatosis (f12; APA; JLH; MAD; PHR; PH2; KOM; MIC); Stone (f; MAD); Swelling (f; APA); 
Tonsilosis (f1; FAD; MAD); Toothache (f; DEM); Tuberculosis (1; DEM; FNF; MAD); Ulcers (f; 
APA); Uterosis (f; CEB; FEL); Venereal Disease (f; CEB; DEM); Vomiting (f; DEM; FEL); Wart (f; 
JLH); Water Retention (f; DEM); Wound (f1; APA).
d osages (o t Her Rubus ):
FNFF = !!!
Berries widely consumed and marketed. Leaves often used as tea substitute. 1–2 tsp crushed leaf/
cup water, to 6 ×/day (APA); one to three 384-mg capsules 3 ×/day (APA); two 4–8 g dry leaf, or in 
tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–8 ml liquid extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN; SKY); 1/4–1/2 cup 
fresh leaf (PED); 6–12 g dry leaf (PED); 9 g dry leaf:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 1.5 g finely 
cut leaf (PHR); 2–10 ml liquid leaf extract (PNC); 1–2 tsp crushed leaf/cup water, up to 6 ×/day 
(SKY; WIC).
d ow Nsides (o t Her Rubus ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). Apparently speaking of the leaves, “Should not be used during pregnancy, 
and, if taken during labor, should only be done under medical supervision.” Still, raspberry leaf is 
“widely recommended to be taken during pregnancy to help facilitate easier parturition.” “Unsu-it
able to use as an herbal remedy to treat eye infections such as conjunctivitis” (Newall et al., 1996).
Natural History (o t Her Rubus ):
The insect-pollinated, bisexual ofl wer produces the blackberry. Bumblebees ( Bombus) are prob-
ably their most effective pollinators. Smaller solitary bees often gather pollen and aid fertilization. 
Despite formidable thorns, browsing mammals nip the prickly canes, and numerous fruit eaters raid 
the thickets. Berries are a staple in season to many birds, (bluebird, cardinal, catbird, chickadees, 
crow, flicker, grosbeak, grouse, jay, magpie, mockingbird, oriole, pheasant, robin, solitaire, tanager, 
thrasher, thrush, titmice, towhee, waxwing, woodpecker) and mammals (bear, beaver, chipmunk, 
deer, elk, fox, hare, marmot, mice, moose, rat, sheep, skunk, squirrel). Rubus twigs are relished by 
cottontail rabbits and white-tailed deer. Rabbits clip off the stems at an oblique angle; a ragged end 
indicates deer browsing. Land turtles relish low-hanging fruits (eastern box turtle, wood turtle, and 
Blanding’s turtle) (EAS; MZN). Bright orange spots on leaf undersides, together with bunched or 
dwarfed shoots, indicate orange rust G(ymnoconia peckiana), a club fungus, is probably its most 
serious disease. Gall-making insects, mostly tiny wasps (Diastrophus) and gnats (Lasioptera), cre-
ate characteristic swellings on stems and leaves. Curled, distorted leaves may indicate blackberry 
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psyllids (Trioza ripuntata), common yellow-brown sucking insects also known as jumping plant 
lice. Caterpillars of the large ruby tiger moth (Phragmatobia assimilans) feed on blackberry. The 
blackberry looper caterpillar C( hlorochlamys chloroleucaria) forages on the fruits. A yfl -catching 
wasp (Hypocrabro stirpicolus) tunnels into blackberry stems, constructing cells for eggs and stored 
flies. Zipper-like scars on stems are egg scars of the black-horned tree cricket (Oecanthus nigricor-
nis) (EAS).
extra Cts (o t Her Rubus ):
Aqueous extracts anticholinesterase, myostimulant; uterotonic; fruit extracts with antiviral activity 
(CAN). Extract appears to relax uterus only in pregnant rats and humans, inactive on non-pregnant 
uterus (PNC). Anthocyanins and polyphenols in berries of several Ribes, Rubus, and Vaccinium 
spp. have in vitro antiradical activity on chemically generated superoxide radicals. The extracts also 
inhibit xanthine oxidase. All crude extracts active toward chemically generated superoxide radicals. 
The tannins in the leaves make leaf tea competitive with green tea for cancer and cardiopathy. I 
suspect that the wild strains of Rubus sanctus would be even better endowed with the anticancer and 
cardioprotective polyphenols than the cultivated blackberries and raspberries.
sheep so RReL (r umex A cetosell A L.) ++ po LyGo NACeAe
Notes (s Heep s orrel ):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day in the evening they shall keep it; they shall eat it with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (RSV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day between the two evenings, they should prepare it. 
Together with unfermented cakes and bitter greens they should eat it.
Numbers 9:11 (NWT)
Like so many other tart and bitter herbs, or bitter greens in the NWT, this one has been identiefi d 
by some scholars as a good candidate for one of the bitter herbs of the Bible. But Israeli botanist 
Michael Zohary does not include it in his Plants of the Bible, nor is this one of more than a dozen 
species of Rumex listed in his Flora of Palestine (FP1). It is not even bitter; it is pleasingly tart. I 
have enjoyed sheep sorrel soup with unfermented corn bread on occasion. Scandinavians even add 
it to bread. But I consider it very unlikely to be one embraced under the “bitter herb” concept in the 
Bible (BIB, FP1; ZOH). Used interchangeably with Rumex acetosa (HHB), also not reported in the 
Flora of Palestine. But, in one NWT passage, sorrel is mentioned: 
And the cattle and the full- grown asses cultivating the ground will eat fodder seasoned with sorrel.
Isaiah 30:24 (NWT).
Many of the species of Rumex are pleasingly tart with oxalic acid. And some tart sorrels may be 
among the more than a dozen species listed by Zohary in the Flora of Palestine (FP1).
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FIGURe . Sheep Sorrel (Rumex acetosella). Source: Regina Hughes in Reed (1970); colored by Peggy 
Duke.
Commo N Names (s Heep s orrel ):
Acederilla (Sp.; EFS); Acetosella (It.; EFS); Acidula (JLH); Agrelleta (Cat.; KAB); Aizon (JLH); 
Azeda Miuda (Por.; AVP); Azedas de Ovella (Por.; AVP); Azedinha (Mad.; Por.; AVP; JAD); 
Azedinha Alleluia (Por.; AVP); Bodilanyana (Suto; KAB); Boksuring (Afrikan; KAB); Bread and 
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Cheese (Eng.; KAB); Chuk (Hindi; NAD); Chuka (Hindi; SKJ); Chuka Palam (Beng.; India; EFS; 
NAD); Chutrika (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Cizaña (Ven.; EFS); Common Sorrel (Eng.; BUR; EAS); 
Cow Sorrel (Eng.; BUR); Cuckoo Bread (Eng.; EFS); Cuckoo’s Meat (Eng.; KAB); Feldsauramfer 
(Ger.; NAD); Field Sorrel (Eng.; EAS; KAB); Flora Carol Sorrel (Eng.; BUR); Horse Sorrel (Eng.; 
BUR); Hhummad Saghir (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kleiner Sauer Ampfer (Ger.; EFS); Losey (Dom.; 
AVP); Mountain Sorrel (Eng.; BUR); Oseille (Fr.; AVP); Oseille des Brebis (Fr.; AVP; KAB); 
Oseille Marron (Fr.; AVP); Oseillette (Fr.; AVP); Patience (Fr.; AVP); Petite Oseille (Fr.; Reunion; 
EFS; KAB); Red Top Sorrel (Eng.; BUR); Red Weed (Eng.; BUR); Romasilla (Chile; AVP); Ruiba-r
billo (Cr.; AVP); Samhadh Caora (Irish; KAB); Sangre de Toro (Col.; AVP); Sarcille (Fr.; KAB); 
Schapezuring (Dutch; EFS); Sheep Sorrel (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2; HJP; USN); Sorrel (Eng.; USN); 
Sour Dock (Eng.; EAS); Sour Sorrel (Eng.; JLH); Sourgrass (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; EAS); Tángax Úqux 
(Aleutians; JLH); Vinagrerita (Sp.; KAB); Wild Sorrel (Eng.; EAS); Wilde Zuring (Dutch; EFS); 
Wood Sorrel (Eng.; BUR); Xiao Suan Mo (China; USN).
a Ctivities (s Heep s orrel ):
Allergenic (1; WOI); Antiinafl mmatory (f; BUR); Antitumor (1; FNF); Depurative (f; EFS); Dia -
phoretic (f; EFS; KAB; WOI); Diuretic (f; FAD; PNC; WOI); Febrifuge (f; EFS; KAB); Hemostat (f; 
EFS); Laxative (1; APA); Peristaltic (f; APA); Poison (f; BIB; KAB); Purgative (f; EFS); Refrigerant 
(f; FAD; KAB); Styptic (f; BIB); Sudoric (fi f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (s Heep s orrel ):
Bleeding (f; BIB); Bruise (f; DEM); Cancer (f1; BUR; FAD; JLH; SKJ; TOM; WOI); Cancer, colon 
(f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, eye (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, face (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, hand (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; FNF; JLH); 
Dermatosis (f; EFS; JLH); Diarrhea (f; FAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; FAD); Dyspepsia (f; BIB); Dysuria 
(f; KAB; PNC); Epithelioma (1; FNF; JLH); Fever (f; FAD; KAB; NAD); Gastrosis (f; DEM); 
Inafl mmation (f; BUR; FAD); Jaundice (f; HJP); Metrorrhagia (f; FAD); Nephrosis (f; HJP; KAB); 
Pain (f; HJP); Scrofula (f; FEL); Scurvy (f1; BIB); Sore (f; BUR; DEM); Sore Throat (f; JLH; TOM); 
Sunburn (f; HJP); Syphilis (f; FEL); Tuberculosis (f; DEM); Tumor (f1; BUR; FNF; FAD; SKJ); 
Wart (f; DEM; JLH); Wen (f; JLH).
d osages (s Heep s orrel ):
FNFF = !!
Foliage widely eaten, but not often marketed. Also used as vegetable rennet to curdle milk. Roots 
said to be eaten (BIB; FAC; HJP). Native Americans ate the leaves, stems, seeds, even the roots, 
of various species of Rumex. Anticosti, Bella Coola, Chehalis, Cherokee, Delaware, Hesquiat, Ir-o
quois, Miwok, Okanagan, Saanich, and Thompson Indians reportedly eat the plant (DEM). Iri-sh
men long ago made sorrel soup with milk. Scandinavians add it to bread. As a food pharmaceutical, 
a USDA 100-g serving of fresh sorrel equates to about 10 g dry sorrel (HOW).
• Alabamians suggest gargling with a strong tea for sore throat (TOM).
• Aleutian Islanders apply steamed leaves to bruises and warts (DEM; JLH).
• Asian Indians suggest the expressed juice as antiscorbutic refrigerant (NAD).
• Cherokee poultice bruised leaves and flowers on old sores (DEM).
• Europeans use the plant for renal and urinary problems (KAB).
• Lebanese consider the tea diuretic and febrifuge (HJP).
• Lebanese take decoction for dyspepsia, jaundice, kidney pain, and sunburn (HJP).
• Mohegans chew fresh leaves to alleviate stomach problems (DEM).
• North Americans apply the juice as a salve to skin cancers (JLH).
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• Squaxin Indians eat raw leaves for tuberculosis (DEM).
• Tasmanians use the plant for cancer of the throat (JLH).
d ow Nsides (s Heep s orrel ):
Class 2d (AHP). Those with kidney stones should avoid this plant. Oxalates should be avoided by 
endometriosis and nephrosis patients. Oxalic acid levels may attain 10 to 35% of dry matter in some 
species. The lowest lethal dose (LDlo) reported for humans is 700 mg/kg body weight. Weighing 
100 kg, my LDlo would be 70,000 mg, or 70 g (more than 2 oz oxalic acid) (HOW). Schrader et al. 
(2001) reported fatal intoxication of grazing animals due to sweet clover M(elilotus alba), sheep’s 
sorrel (Rumex acetosella L.), bracken (Pteridium aquilinum Kuhn), and St. John’s wort (Hypericum 
perforatum L.) (X11413718).
Natural History (s Heep s orrel ):
A common fungal parasite is the leaf spot (Cercospora acetosella). This is the common winter host 
for Botrytis cinerea (gray mold fungus), which spreads to lowbush blueberry ofl wers in spring, pro -
ducing blight and tip dieback. A major insect forager is the downy, slug-shaped, reddish or bright 
green caterpillar of the American copper buttery fl ( Lycaena phlaeas). Adult males, showing black-
spotted, copper-colored forewings, defend small territories centered on sunny patches of sheep so-r
rel. Other Lycaena caterpillars may also feed. Ants frequently harvest mature seeds, dispersing 
them to their mounds. Bumblebees, honeybees, and some smaller butterflies visit the male plants, 
collecting pollen. Grouse, pheasants, prairie chickens, bobwhites, turkeys, and woodcocks consume 
the seeds, as do horned larks, red-winged blackbirds, bobolinks, hoary redpolls, and many sp-ar
rows. Voles and mice also eat the seeds. Poultry, rabbits, and deer readily graze the plant (EAS). 
Fruits are used as poultry feed. They are, like the foliage, on account of oxalic acid, reported to be 
poisonous to horses and sheep (BIB).
extra Cts (s Heep s orrel ):
Polysaccharides show antitumor activity (ZUL).
BUt Che R’s BRoo M (r uscus A cule Atus L.) ++ RUsCACeAe
Notes (but CHer ’s broom ):
And there shall be no more a pricking brier unto the house of Israel, nor any grieving thorn of all 
that are round about them, that despised them; and they shall know that I am the Lord GOD.
Ezekiel 28:24 (KJV)
And for the house of Israel there shall be no more a brier to prick or a thorn to hurt them among all 
their neighbors who have treated them with contempt. Then they will know that I am the Lord GOD.
Ezekiel 28:24 (RSV)
And no more will there prove to be to the house of Israel a malignant prickle or a painful thorn 
out of all those round about them. Those who are treating them with scorn; and people will have 
to know that I am the Sovereign Lord Jehovah.
Ezekiel 28:24 (NWT)
In my first Bible Book, I accepted other authors’ suggestions that this is the pricking brier of Ezekiel. 
So, on a nice spring day as I wrote this, I walked out to the Green Farmacy Garden to contemplate 
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FIGURe . Butcher’s Broom (Ruscus aculeatus).
the differences in the words “bramble,” “briar,” “brier,” “nettle,” “prickle,” “thorn,” many of which 
connote a special thorn-like appendage. Thorny, nettle-like, and thistle-like species abound in arid 
lands. My Ruscus is very prickly, the tips of the leaves being the offender, rather than some special 
appendage. But there are hundreds of prickly species in the Flora of Palestine, and I can only say 
that this could be one of them. It is not, however, mentioned by Zohary in his Flora of Palestine, nor 
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his later Plants of the Bible. I feel condfi ent that this Mediterranean species has been introduced and 
survived in Israel and would survive in most Mediterranean climates. Because it shows such great 
promise in some of my maladies of old age, I think it belongs in any faith-based medicinal herb 
treatise or biblical garden, whether or not it is the thorn or the brier of Ezekiel.
Commo N Names (but CHer ’s broom ):
Acebo Menor (Sp.; EFS); Asa Barri (Arab.; BOU); Atkizounn (Ber.; BOU); Box Holly (Eng.; Ocn.; 
AH2; USN); Briar (Eng.; BIB); Bois Pointu (Fr.; BOU); Box Holly (Eng.; BOU; USN); Bruscolo 
(It.; EFS); Brusco (Sp.; EFS); Butcher’s Broom (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; BOU; CR2; USN); Cobanpuskulu 
(Tur..; EFS); Erva dos Vasculhos (Por.; EFS); Fragon (Fr.; BOU); Fragon Epineux (Fr.; EFS); Fragon 
herisse (Fr.; EFS); Fragon Petit-houx (Fr.; EFS); Fragon Piquant (Fr.; BOU; USN); Gilbarbeira (Por.; 
EFS); Gilbardeira (Por.; EFS); Houx Frelon (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Jusbarda (Sp.; EFS); Khizana (Arab.; 
BOU); Kneeholm (Eng.; TAN); Knee Holly (Eng.; BIB; BOU); Muerdjel (Arab.; BOU); Myrte 
epineux (Fr.; EFS); Petit Houx (Fr.; BOU; USN); Prickle (Eng.; NWT); Pungitopo (It.; EFS); Rabba 
Bath (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Redradj (Ber.; BOU); Rusco (Sp.; Spain; EFS; VAD); Rusco Pungente 
(It.; EFS); Senesaq (Arab.; BOU); Shurrabet er-ra’i (Arab.; BOU); Sicilian Asparagus (Eng.; FAC); 
Sobhane Khallaku (Arab.; BOU); Stacheliger Mausedorn (Ger.; EFS); Stekelige Ruscus (Dutch; 
EFS); Unnab Barri (Arab.; BOU); Verdenace (Sp.; EFS).
a Ctivities (but CHer ’s broom ):
Alpha-adrenergic (1; PNC); Alpha-adrenergic Agonist (1; X11152059); Antiaggregant (f; PED); 
Antiedemic (1; VAD); Anti-inafl mmatory (12; KOM; PHR; PH2; SKY; VAD); Aperient (f; PNC); 
Bitter (f; PED); Capillariprotective (1; PH2; SKY; VAD; X11152059); Cyclooxygenase Inhibitor 
(1; X15364641); Deobstruent (f; EFS); Diaphoretic (f;. BOU; EFS; PNC); Diuretic (2; BOU; KOM; 
PED; PH2); Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Expectorant (f; BIB); Febrifuge (f; BOU; EFS); Laxative (f; 
APA; BGB; EFS); Orexigenic (f; BOU; EFS); Tonic (1; BOU; PH2); Vasoconstrictor (1; APA; PNC; 
PED); Venoconstrictor (1; PNC; SKY; X11152059); Venotonic (f1; VAD; X11152059).
iNdi Catio Ns (but CHer ’s broom ):
Amenorrhea (f; EFS); Anorexia (f; BOU); Arthrosis (1; APA); Atherosclerosis (f; PED; SKY); Bronchosis 
(f; HJP); Cancer, prostate (f; HHB; JLH); Capillary Fragility (1; PNC); Catarrh (f; BIB); Chilblain (f; BIB; 
X15664457); Circulosis (1; YAH); Constipation (f; DAW); Cramps (1; APA; KOM; PH2); CVI (12; APA; 
BGB; PH2; X14612852); Cystitis (f; VAD); Dropsy (f; BIB); Dyspnea (f; BIB); Dysuria (f; BIB); Edema (1; 
VAD); Erythema (1; VAD); Fever (f; BOU; EFS); Fractures (f; APA; BGB); Fungus (1; X10680445); Gout 
(f; VAD); Gravel (f; DAW); Hemorrhoid (12; APA; BOU; KOM; PH2; KOM; MAB; SKY); Hepatosis (f; 
BIB); High Blood Pressure (f; VAD); Hyperazotemia (f; VAD); Hypertriglyceridemia (1; BGB); Hyperuri-
cemia (f; VAD); Infection (1; X10680445); Inafl mmation (f12; APA; KOM; VAD); Itch (1; APA; KOM; 
PH2); Jaundice (f; BIB; EFS); Mycosis (1; X10680445); Nephrosis (f; BIB); Obesity (f; VAD); Orthostatic 
Hypotension (1; X11152059); Oliguria (f; VAD); Pain (1; KOM); Phlebitis (1; PED); Pneumonia (f; HJP); 
Prostatosis (f; DAW; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; EFS); Respirosis (f; BIB); Retinopathy (2; BGB); Rheumatism 
(f; APA); Scrofula (f; BIB); Stone (f; VAD); Swelling (f1; APA; KOM; PH2; VAD); Thrombosis (1; HHB; 
PED); Ulcus Cruris (f; HHB); Urethrosis (f; VAD); Uterosis (f; BGB); Varicosity (1; APA; BOU; MAB; 
SKY; YAH); Venolymphosis (1; YAH); Water Retention (F12; BIB; BOU, PH2).
d osages (but CHer ’s broom ):
FNFF = !
Young shoots cooked and eaten like asparagus, even called Sicilian Asparagus, and dressed with 
olive oil and lemon juice, a nice health food methinks. Scorched seed used as coffee substitute 
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(EFS; FAC; GMH; TAN); 300 mg tablets (APA); 7–11 mg ruscogenin (or neoruscogenin + rusco-
genin)/day, or equivalent in raw extract (KOM; PH2); 1–2 Tbsp fresh root (PED); 1.5–3 g dry root 
(PED); 2 g dry root:10 ml alcohol:10 ml water (PED); 1 g extract, 3 ×/day (SKY); StX (with 50–100 
mg ruscogenin)/day) (SKY). The VAD dosages are much higher, 60 g root/liter steeped 10 minutes; 
3 cups/day; 40 g in decoction, boiled 10 minutes, 3 cups/day between meals.
• Italians treat chilblains (X15664457), perhaps self-afl gellating with thorny boughs (BIB).
• Lebanese use the rhizome, sliced and dried, in decoction for catarrh, diuresis, dropsy, 
jaundice, kidney troubles, and respiratory difcfi ulties (HJP).
• Middle Easterners who use this folklorically showed that its extracts inhibiTt richophy-
ton violaceum (X10680445).
• North Africans use the plant for fever (BOU).
• Spanish writers hint that this may be the best of venotonic herbs (VAD).
d ow Nsides (but CHer ’s broom ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997; SKY, 1998). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic 
dosages (PH2). Commission E reports rhizome permitted for oral use. No contraindications or inter-
actions. Adverse effects: rarely gastric complaints, nausea, queasiness (AEH; KOM; PHR; PH2).
extra Cts (but CHer ’s broom ):
Ruscogenin, first isolated from this plant, is identical with Sapogenin B, which could be used as a 
starter material for steroids (BIB). Ruscogenins and neoruscogenins, similar to diosgenin, respo-n
sible for activities of decreasing inafl mmation and vascular permeability (SKY). Saponins are ant-i
aggregant, antiinafl mmatory, capillariforticafi nt, and diuretic (PED).
FRINGeD RUe (r ut A ch Alepensis L.) + RUt ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Ruta angustifolia Lowe; Ruta bracteosa DC.; Ruta chalepensis var. bracteosa (DC.) Boiss.; Ruta 
graveolens var. angustifolia Lowe fide HH2
Notes (Fri Nged r ue):
But woe unto you, Pharisees! for ye tithe mint and rue and all manner of herbs, and pass over 
judgment and the love of God: these ought ye to have done, and not to leave the other undone.
Luke 11:42 (KJV)
But woe to you Pharisees! for you tithe mint and rue and every herb, and neglect justice and the 
love of God; these you ought to have done, without neglecting the others.
Luke 11:42 (RSV)
But woe to you Pharisees, because you give the tenth of the mint and the rue and of every[other] 
vegetable, but you pass by the justice and the love of God! These things you were under obligation 
to do, but those other things not to omit.
Luke 11:42 (NWT)
At least the three versions above agree on mint and rue being tithed. But which rue? In my Medici-
nal Plants of the Bible, I relied on my predecessors and assumed that the biblical rue was Ruta 
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FIGURe . Fringed Rue (Ruta chalepensis).
graveolens. Israeli botanist Michael Zohary, however, without even indexing or mentioning R. gra-
veolens, assigns it to Ruta chalepensis, the only species covered in the Flora of Palestine. Men-
tioned only once in the Bible, first under its Greek name peganon, most often post-biblically as 
pigam, closely cognate with the Arabic fegam. Pliny mentions honeyed wine afl vored with rue, 
as well as 84 remedies containing rue, but I cannot be sure which species of rue he mentioned 
(FP2; ZOH). I feel rather certain that both could be grown in Israel but in this, my third botanical 
trip through the Bible, I will follow Zohary and treat Ruta chalepensis. The more temperate Ruta 
graveolens, thriving in Maryland in the United States, was discussed in my CRC Handbook of 
Medicinal Herbs (Edition 2).
Commo N Names (Fri Nged r ue):
Afar (Eth.; HH2); Al Shathap (Arab.; HH2); Aleppo Rue (Eng.; BOU); Aourmi (Ber.; BOU); Arou-
vadam Chedi ((Tam.; HH2); Arruda (Mad.; Por.; JAD); Arvada (Tam.; HH2); Bou Ghans (Arab.; 
BOU; HH2); Citronelle (Sp.; HH2); Citronelle Marron (Haiti; AVP); Common Rue (Eng.; ZOH); 
Djell (Ber.; BOU); Eastern Rue (Eng.; HH2); Egyptian Rue (Eng.; FAC); Ermul (Beng.; HH2); Fegan 
(Arab.; ZOH); Fidgel (Arab.; BOU; HH2); Fidjla (Arab.; BOU; HH2); Fringed Rue (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; 
USN); Ispunol (Beng.; HH2); Issel (Ber.; BOU); Issin (Ber.; BOU); Peganon (Greek; ZOH); Pigam 
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(Heb.; ZOH); Pismarum (Hindi; HH2); Red d’Alep (Fr.; BOU); Rora (Ma.; JFM); Ruda (Cr.; Peru; 
DAV; MDD); Ruda Antillana (Ma.; HH2; JFM); Ruda de España (Sp.; HH2); Ruda de la Tierra (Ma.; 
JFM; HH2); Ruda de las Antilles (Ma.; HH2; JFM); Ruda d’Espanya (Ma.; JFM); Ruda Tropical 
(Ma.; JFM); Rue (Eng.; Fr.; Pr.; AVP; BOU); Rue Ailee Fetide (Fr.; AVP); Rue d’Alep (Fr.; AVP); 
Rue d’Antilles (Fr.; AVP); Rue d’Orient (Fr.; AVP); Rura (Ma.; JFM); Ruta (Arab.; BOU); Ruta 
Sfangiata (It.; HH2); Rutsa (Arab.; BOU); Saadab (Arab.; ZOH); Sadab (Arab.; Hindi; GHA; HH2); 
Sadhab (Arab.; BOU; GHA); Satari (Hindi; HH2); Shadhab (Arab.; GHA); Shathab (Oman; Saudi; 
Yemen; GHA); Syrian Rue (Eng.; BOU; HH2); T’enadam (Arab.; HH2); Zent (Ber.; BOU).
a Ctivities (Fri Nged r ue):
Abortifacient (f; UPH); Analgesic (1; HH2); Antiedemic (1; JEB28(3):305); Antiendotoxemic (f; 
JEB90:267); Antiexudative (1; HH2); Antifeedant (1; X11935899); Antifertility (1; X2748734); 
Antiinafl mmatory (f1; HH2; JEB90:267; JEB28(3):305); Antiseptic (1; HH2); Antispasmodic (f; 
SOU; ZOH); Aphrodisiac (f; GHA); Arachnifuge (f; BOU); Bactericide (1; X12423924); Candi-di
cide (1; HH2); Cardiotonic (f; DAV); CNS Depressant (f1; JEB28(3):305); CNS Depressant (f; JFM); 
Decongestant (f; DAV; JFM); Digestive (f; DAV); Emetic (f; JFM); Embryotoxic (1; JEB69:93); 
Emmenagogue (f; BOU; UPH); Febrifuge (1; HH2); Fungicide (1; X10680445); Immunomodulator 
(f1; JEB90:267; X15013191); Insectifuge (1; PR17:202; X12672146); Molluscicide (1; FT71:308); 
NO Inhibitor (1; X15013191); Oxytocic (f; SOU); Phototoxic (1; DAV); Rubefacient (f; JFM); Seda-
tive (f; BOU; DAV); Spasmodic (f; BOU); Stomachic (f; JFM); Sudoric fi (f; JFM); Vermifuge (f; 
SOU; UPH); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (Fri Nged r ue):
Amenorrhea (f; FP2); Arthrosis (f1; GHA; X2598777); Cold (f; BOU); Bacillus (1; X12423924); 
Bacteria (1; X12423924); Bronchosis (f; AHL); Candida (1; HH2); Cardiopathy (f; JFM); Chi-ld
birth (f; JFM); Cold (f; HH2); Colic (f; GHA); Congestion (f; JFM); Cough (f; HH2); Cramp (f; 
WOI); Dermatosis (1; X10680445); Dysmenorrhea (f; DAV; FP2; HH2); Earache (f; BOU; HH2; 
JFM); Edema (1; JEB28(3):305); Endotoxemia (1; X15013191); Enterosis (f; BOU; GHA); Epilepsy 
(f; SOU); Epistaxis (f; SOU); Escherichia (1; HH2); Fever (f1; BOU; HH2); Fungus (1; X10680445); 
Gingivosis (f; JFM); Headache (f; GHA; HH2); Hysteria (f; DAV; FP2); Infection (1; X12423924; 
HH2); Inafl mmation (1; HH2); Measles (f; JFM); Microsporium (1; X10680445); Myalgia (f; DAV); 
Mycosis (1; X10680445); Nausea (f; BOU; HH2); Nervousness (f; BOU; HH2); Neurosis (f; HH2); 
Ophthalmia (f; DAV; HH2; UPH); Otosis (f; DAV); Pain (f1; BOU; GHA; HH2); Palpitation (f; 
SOU); Paralysis (f; HH2); Pediculosis (f; DAV); Pseudomonas (1; HH2); Pulmonosis (f; HH2); 
Rheumatism (f1; BOU; FP2; X2598777); Rhinosis (f; BOU; HH2); Scarlet Fever (f; JFM); Shock 
(f; HH2); Snakebite (f; GHA); Sore (f; BOU; UPH); Soroche (f; SOU); Staphylococcus (1; HH2); 
Stomachache (f; GHA); Stroke (f; DAV); Swelling (f1; BOU; JEB28(3):305); Worm (f; FP2; UPH); 
Wound (f; BOU; GHA); Yeast (1; HH2).
d osages (Fri Nged r ue):
FNFF = !
Aromatic leaves esteemed as spice by North African Jews, added to lamb and beef sausagems e(r-
guez); also used in Tunisian omelettes (hajja) (FAC).
• Arabians rub leaves on arthritic or painful areas (GHA) (watch out for photodermatitis; 
JAD).
• Dominicans mix juice with castor oil for bronchosis (AHL),
• Haitians use the plant as antiepileptic, emmenagogue, sudoricfi , vermifuge, and to treat 
ulcerated gums (JFM).
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• Expressed juice heated and used as eardrop in earache (JFM).
• Venezuelans take the decoction to overcome shock or spasms (JFM).
• Yemeni chew leaves with sugar for stomachache (GHA).
• Vapors of the plant said to dispel eye fatigue (JFM).
d ow Nsides (Fri Nged r ue):
Although widely used in Latin America, Julia Morton described the tropical rue as causing cold 
extremities, feeble slow pulse, gastroenterosis, salivation, swelling of the tongue, and vomiting 
(when taken in large doses). Overdoses taken in attempted abortion have been fatal (JFM).
extra Cts (Fri Nged r ue):
Iauk et al. (2004) showed that the antiinafl mmatory biblical rue protected against murine endotox-
emia (gavage at 1 g/kg per day for 7 to 14 days before injecting 0.75 mg endotoxin), There was ev- i
dence of reduced nitric oxide production. Ruta chalepensis has immunopharmacological properties 
counteracting the lethal effects of high doses of endotoxin (X15013191). Hadis et al. (2003) showed 
that rue (50% in coconut oil) repelled Mansonia mosquitoes in western Ethiopia. At 50% concentra-
tion, protection was 91.6%, 87.0%, 96.0%, 97.9% for rue, neem, pyrethrum, and deet, respectively. 
At 40% concentration deet, lemon eucalyptus and pyrethrum were signicafi ntly more effective than 
rue and neem (X12672146). Mancebo et al. (2001) demonstrated a clear antifeedant activity for rue 
extracts at a concentration of 0.32% (X11935899).
sUGARCANe (sAcch Arum officin Arum L.) +++ po ACeAe
Notes (s ugar Ca Ne):
Thou hast bought me no sweet cane with money, neither hast thou filled me with the fat of thy sac -
rifices: but thou hast made me to serve with thy sins, thou hast wearied me with thine iniquities.
Isaiah 43:24 (KJV)
You have not bought me sweet cane with money, or satisfied me with the fat of your sacrifices. But 
you have burdened me with your sins, you have wearied me with your iniquities.
Isaiah 43:24 (RSV)
For me you have bought no [sweet] cane with any money, and with the fat of your sacrifices you 
have not saturated me. In reality you have compelled me to serve because of your sins, you have 
made me weary with your errors.
Isaiah 43:24 (NWT)
To what purpose cometh there to me incense from Sheba, and the sweet cane from a far country? 
Your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor your sacrifices sweet unto me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (KJV)
To what purpose does frankincense come to me from Sheba, or sweet cane from a distant land? 
Your burnt offerings are not acceptable, nor your sacrifices pleasing to me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (RSV)
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe . Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum ). Source: BIB.
What does this matter to me that you bring in even frankincense from She’ba, and the good cane 
from the land far away? The whole burnt offerings of you people serve for no pleasure and your 
very sacrifuces have not been gratifying to me.
Jeremiah 6:20 (NWT)
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Back before I read Zohary’s book, my other reading had led me to conclude that the sweet cane of 
Isaiah was probably our sugarcane of today. But Zohary is inclined to believe that the sweet cane 
was more probably an aromatic grass of the genus Cymbopogon, or maybe even calamus, and seems 
to have ruled out the sugarcane and the vetiver. The sweet sugarcane is rather heavy to be carried 
from afar and Cymbopogons, Calamus, and today even Vetiver are more precious ounce for ounce 
than sugarcane. Still I leave sugarcane here, knowing it can be grown in Israel, as it can be in almost 
all tropical and subtropical countries. I have also cited many abstracts from Cuba, where sugarcane 
reigns supreme. I see a parallel between these good Cuban scientists trying to find more uses for 
King Cane, like our good United States scientists are always looking for more uses for King So-y
bean. The residue, bagasse, used in building materials, insulation against temperatures and sound, 
resins in phonograph records, mulch and litter, plastics, paper making, and in industrial chemicals, 
and now from Cuba, polycosanol and D-003. As the cost of fossil fuels increases, it may assume 
importance as an energy source. Sugarcane alcohol seems as promising as corn-based ethanol, 
as the price of petroleum spirals upward. Yet I do not hear of any efforts in Cuba to convert to an 
ethanol fuel economy.
Commo N Names (s ugar Ca Ne):
Adhipatra (Sanskrit; KAB); Afunu (Ada; KAB); Agbo (Cagayan; KAB); Ahleu (Korbo; KAB); Ahw-e
renkakraba (Fanti; KAB); Ahwereu (Twi; KAB); Ak (Beng.; KAB); Akali (Nepal; KAB); Akh (San..; 
KAB); Aku (Uriya; KAB); Ampeou (Cam.; KAB); Ampon (Cam.; KAB); Angarigai (Tam.; KAB); 
Ankhu (Majhi; NPM); Aos (Mar.; KAB); Ariva (Nc.; KAB); Arolam (Nc.; KAB); Arrake (Sokoto; 
KAB); Arukanupulakranuga (Tel.; KAB); Asibattiragam (Tam.; KAB); Asipatra (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Bhurirasa (Sanskrit; KAB); Bich (Sunwar; NPM); Bogleng (Ewe; Krebi; KAB); Boglengbiri (Krebi; 
KAB); Boglengfe (Krebi; KAB); Boglengyibor (Krebi; KAB); Boiepe (Nc.; KAB); Boinlioua (Nc.; 
KAB); Bu Ram (Tibet; NPM); Caña (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Caña de Azucar (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Cana de 
Asucar (Por.; AVP); Cana Doce (Por.; AVP); Cana Dolsa (Cat.; KAB); Canamelle (Fr.; KAB); Canchi 
(China; EFS); Canna (Brazil; KAB); Canna de Assucar (Por.; Brazil; AVP; KAB); Canna de Zucchero 
(It.; AVP); Canna Doce (Por.; KAB); Cannamelle (Fr.; It.; AVP; KAB); Canne (Haiti, Reunion; AHL; 
AVP; KAB); Canne a Sucre (Fr.; Haiti; AHL; AVP; EFS); Canne de Batavia (Fr.; KAB); Canne de 
la Chine (Fr.; KAB); Canne d’Haiti (Fr.; KAB); Canne Indigene (Fr.; AHL); Canne Pays (Fr.; AHL); 
Canya de Azucar (Dr.; Sp. AHL; EFS; IED); Canya Dulce (Sp.; EFS); Canya Miel (Sp.; EFS; KAB); 
Canyaduzales (Sp.; AVP); Canyuzales (Sp.; AVP); Chaku (Nepal; KAB); Cheraku (Tel.; KAB); Ch-er
akubhedamu (Tel.; KAB); Darbheshu (Mal.; KAB); Delenole (Nc.; KAB); Dilou (Nc.; KAB); Di-r
ghachhada (Sanskrit; KAB); Dogangueni (Nc.; KAB); Echtes Zuckerrohr (Ger.; TAN); Fary (Hova; 
Madagascar; KAB); Fisika (Sakalave; KAB); Fofungu (Awina; Ewe; KAB); Gadenadeboui (Nc.; 
KAB); Gana (Urdu; KAB); Ganda (Dec.; Hindi; KAB); Gandida (Sanskrit; KAB); Ganna (India; 
Nwp.; Pun.; EFS; KAN); Ghenru (Parbuttiah; KAB); Gol (Bom.; KAB); Goreate (Nc.; KAB); Gudada 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Gudadaru (Sanskrit; KAB); Gudakashta (Sanskrit; KAB); Gudamula (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Gudatrina (Sanskrit; KAB); Gura (Sanskrit; EFS); Gurdanda (Mun.; KAB); Gudodaru (Uriya; 
KAB); Gurkatauri (Mun.; KAB); Gurkosear (Mun.; KAB); Gursing (Sherpa; NPM); Ik (Beng.; Hindi; 
Nwp.; KAB); Ikhari (Nwp.; KAB); Ikhyu (Uriya; KAB); Ikku (Tam.; KAB); Ikshu (Kan.; Mal.; San-
skrit; San.; AH2; EFS; KAB); Ikshudanda (Kan.; KAB); Ikshupu (Tel.; KAB); Ikshura (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Impuco (Antis; EGG; RAR; SOU); Ingolu (Kan.; KAB); Inju (Tel.; KAB); Itica (Cocama; 
EGG; SAR); Jate (Nc.; KAB); Ka Ra (Tibet; NPM; TIB); Kabbo (Mar.; KAB); Kabbu (Kan.; KAB); 
Kabopolenouen (Nc.; KAB); Kajuli (Beng.; KAB); Kalai (Tam.; KAB); Kamand (Pun.; Sin.; KAB); 
Kan che (China; EFS; KAB); Kannal (Tam.; KAB); Kansia (Japan; KAB); Kantara (Kan.; Sanskrit; 
KAB); Kantaraka (Kan.; Sanskrit KAB); Kantarakam (Mal.; KAB); Kantaramu (Tel.; KAB); K-an
thirikhu (Nwp.; KAB); Kanupulacheraku (Tel.; KAB); Karambu (Ceylon; KAB); Karansariki (Hausa; 
KAB); Karimpu (Mal.; KAB); Karkotaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Karumbu (Tam.; Tulu; KAB); Kasabish-a
kar (Arab.; KAB); Kasibshakar (Arab.; KAB); Katari (Behar; KAB); Ketari (Behar; KAB); Keyan 
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00 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
(Burma; KAB); Khadgapatraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Khand (Pun.; KAB); Khum (Magar; NPM); Khu- n
jhi (Tharu; NPM); Khusiyar (Behar; KAB); Kiaboue (Nc.; KAB); Kinemaite (Nc.; KAB); Kondim-
oua (Nc.; KAB); Koubala (Nc.; KAB); Koshakara (Sanskrit; KAB); Kulluar (Beng.; KAB); Kumad 
(Hindi; KAB); Kushiar (Beng.; KAB); Kyan (Burma; KAB); Lavucheraku (Tel.; KAB); Madhura 
(Kan.; KAB); Madhutrina (Sanskrit; KAB); Madhutrinam (Mal.; KAB); Madhuyashti (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Madudirunam (Tam.; KAB); Maharasa (Nc.; KAB); Majonana (Culina; RAR); Marakabbu 
(Kan.; KAB); Mebouangue (Nc.; KAB); Mengou (Nc.; KAB); Mia (Annam; Ic.; KAB); Mia co ke 
(Tonkin; KAB); Mia lau (Tonkin; KAB); Mia ly (Tonkin; KAB); Migao (Nc.; KAB); Misk’i wiru 
(Aym.; Bol.; DLZ); Misqui Huiro (Peru; EGG; SOU); Moene (Nc.; KAB); Moindiene (Nc.; KAB); 
Moueouete (Nc.; KAB); Mrityupushpu (Sanskrit; KAB); Nai (Iran; EFS); Ñaamura (Uvosha; EGG); 
Naisakar (Guj.; KAB); Naishakar (Hindi; Iran; KAB); Ngala (Nc.; KAB); Niemba (Nc.; KAB); Noble 
Sugarcane (Eng.; USN); Nyaamura (Uvosha; SOU); Oen mangia (Nc.; KAB); Oen ou poudendate 
(Nc.; KAB); Ouali (Nc.; KAB); Ouane (Nc.; KAB); Ouassab (Arab.; EFS); Oudiepe-ait (Nc.; KAB); 
Ouene (Nc.; KAB); Ouenebail (Nc.; KAB); Paat (Peru; EGG; SOU); Pagad (Aguaruna; RAR); Pagat 
(Aguaruna; Huambisa; SOU); Paiambou (Nc.; KAB); Paieme (Nc.; KAB); Pam (Lepcha; NPM); 
Paruvayoni (Tam.; KAB); Paunda (Pun.; KAB); Payodhara (Sanskrit; KAB); Pidiak (Nc.; KAB); Pie 
canne (Haiti; AVP); Pobone (Nc.; KAB); Pochoasiri (Piro; EGG; SOU); Pochwacsuru (Piro; RAR); 
Poilote (Nc.; KAB); Pottikamupucheraku (Tel.; KAB); Punarikhu (Nwp.; KAB); Pundaram (Tam.; 
KAB); Pundra (Kan.; KAB); Pundraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Puri (Beng.; KAB); Qasab al Sukkar (Arab.; 
GHA); Qasabussakar (Arab.; KAB); Quilaba (Vis.; KAB); Rake (Hausa; KAB); Rasadali (Kan.; 
KAB); Rasala (Kan.; Sanskrit; KAB); Rasalu (Sanskrit; KAB); Rastale (Kan.; KAB); Rikhu (Hindi; 
Kum.; Nwp.; KAB); Roseau a sucre (Fr.; KAB); Sabi (Conibo; Shipibo; EGG; RAR; SOU); Sacchar 
(Nepal; SUW); Sahachar (Nepal; SUW); Saharnyi trastnik (Rus.; KAB); Sastra (Sanskrit; KAB); Sato 
Kibi (Japan; TAN; USN); Schimate (Nc.; KAB); Seker kamizi (Tur.; EFS); Senoorr (Amuesha; SOU); 
Senorr (Yanesha; EGG); Serdi (Bom.; Guj.; KAB); Sha T’ang (China; KAB); Sharhara (Sanskrit; 
EFS); Shakarsurkh (Pun.; KAB); Sheng (Ga; KAB); Sheradi (Guj.; KAB); Sherdi (Guj.; KAB); Shih 
mi (China; KAB); Soo (Limbu; NPM); Sotalong (Limbu; NPM); Sthiabanghi (Nc.; KAB); Sucre de 
canne (Fr.; EFS); Sukumasaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Sugarcane (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; AVP; USN); Suikerriet 
(Dutch; EFS; KAB); Sukker (Den.; EFS); Taa vata (Amahuaca; RAR); Tacamaree (Brazil; KAB); 
Tacuane (Chiriguano; DLZ); Tangalite (Nc.; KAB); Tanigarbu (Kan.; KAB); Tebu (Java; KAB); Tebu 
gula (Malaya; EFS); Tellacheraku (Tel.; KAB); Thsiogan (Nc.; KAB); Tilibi (Nc.; KAB); Tiyyamranu 
(Tel.; KAB); Trestie de zahar (Rom.; KAB); Trinadhiya (Sanskrit; KAB); Trinaraja (Kan.; KAB); 
Tshiambo (Nc.; KAB); Tu (Newari; KAB; NPM); Tubo (Tag.; KAB); Tunta (Tel.; KAB); Uduwa (Rai; 
NPM); Uinkh (Mooshar; NPM); Uk (Beng.; Hindi; Nepal; Sin.; KAB); Ukgas (Sin.; KAB); Ukh 
(Behar; Hindi; KAB); Ukhari (Nwp.; KAB); Ukhi (Behar; KAB); Ukhu (Danuwar; Nepal; Tamang; 
NPM; SUW); Ukkiragandam (Tam.; KAB); Ukkiragandi (Tam.; KAB); Unkh (Bkojpuri; NPM); Uns 
(Guj.; KAB); Uny (Kon. KAB); Us (Bom.; Decca; Mar.; KAB); Usa (Mar.; KAB); Uss (Kon. KAB); 
Usyu (Gurung; NPM); Usyup (Tamang; NPM); Vamsukamu (Tel.; KAB); Vansha (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Velam (Tam.; KAB); Vellakarimpu (Mal.; KAB); Vengarumbu (Tam.; KAB); Viha (Brazi Zucchero 
(It.; EFS); Vipularasa (Sanskrit; KAB); Vrishya (Sanskrit; KAB); Xai (Cashibo; EGG; RAR; SOU); 
Zuckerrohr (Ger.; AVP; EFS; KAB).
a Ctivities (s ugar Ca Ne):
Analgesic (f; X12709906); Anthelmintic (f; KAB); Antiaggregant (1; X15272645); Antiallergic 
(1; X15729619); Antidote (arsenic) (f; KAB); Antidote (copper) (f; KAB); Antiinafl mmatory (1; 
X15729619; X12709906); Antioxidant (1; X14756190); Antiplatelet (1; X15272645); Antiseptic 
(f; EFS); Antivinous (f; BIB); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; SUW); Bactericide (f; BIB); Cardiotonic (f; 
BIB; EFS); Demulcent (f; EFS; SUW); Depurative (f; TIB); Diuretic (f; AHL; BIB; GHA; SUW); 
Emollient (f; KAB); Febrifuge (f; BIB); Hepatoprotective (1; (X14756190); Hypocholesterolemic 
(1; X15272645); Immunostimulant (1; X14975361); Laxative (f; AHL; BIB); Osteoprotective (1; 
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X15357627); Pectoral (f; BIB; KAB); Piscicide (f; BIB); Radioprotective (1; X14975361); Refrige-r
ant (f; AHL; EFS); Stomachic (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (s ugar Ca Ne):
Allergy (1; X15729619); Anemia (f; KAB); Arthrosis (f; BIB); Backache (f; JFM); Biliousness (f; 
KAB); Blenorrhagia (f; DLZ); Boil (f; BIB); Calculus (f; DLZ; KAB); Cancer (f; JLH); Cancer, 
breast (f; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f; JLH); Cancer, 
tonsil (f; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (1; X15272645); Catarrh (f; BIB); Cold (f; DLZ; 
JFM); Colic (f; DLZ); Constipation (f; AHL); Cough (f; DLZ; GHA); Cystosis (f; DLZ); Decubitis 
(f; BIB); Delirium (f; KAB); Dermatosis (f1; JFM; X15729619); Diarrhea (f; JFM; KAB); Dysen-
tery (f; JFM); Dysuria (f; JFM); Enterosis (f; KAB); Erysipelas (f; KAB); Fatigue (f; KAB); Fever 
(f; TIB); Fungus (f; JFM); Frambesia (f; BIB); Gastrosis (f; JLH); Gingivosis (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid 
(f; BIB); Hepatosis (f; DLZ); Hiccup (f; BIB); High Cholesterol (1; X15272645); Infection (f; EGG; 
SAR); Inafl mmation (f1; JFM; X15729619); Jaundice (f; EGG); Laryngosis (f; BIB); Leprosy (f; 
KAB); Mastosis (f; JLH); Mucososis (f; KAB); Mycosis (f; JFM); Nephrosis (f; BIB; DLZ; EGG); 
Neurosis (f; DLZ); Opacity (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; GHA; SAR); Osteoporosis (1; X15357627); 
Pain (f1; EGG; X12709906); Pertussis (f; BIB); Proctosis (f; JLH); Ringworm (f; JFM); Smallpox (f; 
BIB); Sore (f; KAB); Sore Throat (f; BIB); Splenosis (f; BIB); Splinter (f; JFM); Stomatosis (f; JLH); 
Thirst (f; KAB); Thrombosis (1; X15272645); Uterosis (f; JLH); Wound (f; BIB; EGG).
d osages (s ugar Ca Ne):
FNFF = !!!.
• Arabians use cane juice as antitussive, diuretic, and ophthalmic (GHA).
• Cubans drink expressed juice as diuretic; formerly sucked roasted cane for diarrhea and 
dysentery (JFM).
• Curacaons make decoction of dry fallen leaves for dysuria (JFM).
• Mexicans take juice from roasted stems for colds (JFM).
• Peruvians drink fermented cane juice for liver pains (EGG).
• Peruvians put powdered sugar on wounds to prevent infection (EGG).
• Peruvians take roasted cane against jaundice and kidney pain (EGG).
• Various cultures suggest molasses for cancer of the breast, mouth, rectum, stomach, ton-
sils, and uterus (JLH).
• Yumbos apply a few drops of warm sap to infected eyes (SAR).
• Mashed root with vinegar poulticed onto backache (JFM).
• Ash of epidermis applied with vinegar to ringworm (JFM).
Natural History (s ugar Ca Ne):
Sugarcane is susceptible to the following viruses: cucumber mosaic, maize leaf efl ck, sugarcane 
mosaic, tulip breaking, wheat streak mosaic, chlorotic streak, and sereh. The following fungi have 
been reported from sugarcane: Allantospora radicicola, Alternaria sp., Apiospora camtospora, 
Arthrobotrys suberba, Aspergillus sp., A. flavus , A. fumigatus, A. herbariorum, A. nidulans, A. niger, 
A. penicillioides, A. repens, A. sydowii, A. terreus, a form of A. flavus designated asA . parasiticus on 
mealybugs infesting cane, Asterostroma cervicolor, Ceratostomella adiposum, C. paradoxa, Cerco-
spora koepkei, C. vaginae, Chytridium sp., Cladosporium herbarum, Clathrus columnatus, Colletot-
richum falcatum, C. graminicola, C. lineola, Corticium sasakii, Curvularia sp., Cytospora sacchari, 
Endoconidiophora adiposa, E. paradoxa, Eriosphaeria sacchari, Fusarium spp., Gibberella fujiku-
roi, Gloeocercospora sorghi, Gnomonia iliau, Graphium sacchari, Helminthosporium sacchari, H. 
stenospilum, Himantia stellifera, Hormiactella sacchari, Hypocrea gelatinosa, Ithyphallus rubicun-
dis, Leptosphaeria sacchari, Ligniera vascularum, Lophodermium sacchari, Macrophoma sacchari, 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Marasmius sacchari, M. stenophyllus, Melanconium sacchari, Microdiplodia melaspora, Myco-
sphaerella sacchari, M. striatiformans, Myriogenospora aciculisporae, Nectria spp., Neurospora 
sitophila, Nigrospora oryzae, Odontia saccharicola, Olpidium sacchari, Papularia sphaerosperma, 
P. vinosa, Periconia sacchari, Phyllosticta sorghina, Physalospora rhodina, P. tucumanensis, Phy-
tophthora erythroseptica, Plectospira gemmifera, Polyporus spp., P. occidentalis, P. sanguineus, P. 
tulipiferus, Poria ambigua, Psilocybe atomatoides, Pythium spp., P. arrhenomanes, P. graminicola, 
P. aphanidermatum, P. artotrogus, P. debaryanum, P. dissotocum, P. helicoides, P. irregulare, P. 
mamillatum, P. monospermum, P. periilum, P. rostratum, P. splendens, P. ultimum, P. vexans, Rhi-
zoctonia ferruginea, R. pallida, R. solani, Rosellinia paraguayensis, R. pulveracea, Saccharomyces 
zopfii , Schizophyllum commune, Scirrhia 1ophodermioides, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichoderma lignorum, 
Tubercularia saccharicola, Vermicularia graminicola, Xylaria apiculata, Nectria flavociliata , and 
N. laurentiana. The following nematodes have been reported on sugarcane :Anguina spermophaga, 
Helicotylenchus sp. Heterodera spp., Hoplolaimus sp., Meloidogyne sp., Pratylenchus spp., P. praten-
sis, Rotylenchus spp., R. similes, Scutellonema spp., Trichodorus christie, and Tylenchorhynchus spp. 
(Golden, 1984). Bacteria include Bacillus megatherium, B. mesentericus, Xanthomonas albilineans, 
X. rubrilineans, X. rubrisubalbicans, and X. vasculorum (Agriculture Handbook No. 165).
extra Cts (s ugar Ca Ne):
Cuban researchers (Ledone et al. 2005) showed that a mixture of fatty acids from sugarcane (mostly 
palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids) showed antiinafl mmatory activity in test models for 
allergy, suggesting utility in allergic and inafl mmatory dermatosis (X15729619). Other Cuban sci-
entists, Noa et al. (2004), looking at by-products of the sugarcane industry (like United States sci-en
tists look at soy by products) are working with a cholesterol-lowering mix called D-003. D-003 also 
prevents bone loss and bone resorption in ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats. Compared with 
a sham group, prednisolone signicafi ntly reduced trabecular bone volume, while D-003 signicafi ntly 
and dose-dependently prevented the induced reduction of TBV. “D-003 could be useful for manag-
ing corticosteroid-induced osteoporosis” (X15357627). Gamez et al. (2004), working with beagles, 
reported antiplatelet and hypocholesterolemic effects. At 200 and 400 mg/kg, D-003 signicafi ntly 
reduced total cholesterol, inhibited platelet aggregation, and increased bleeding time, compared to 
controls administered D-003 for 9 months to beagles induced no signs of toxicity (X15272645).
GLAss Wo Rt ( sAlicorni A europe A L.) ++ Che Nopo DIACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Salicornia europaea var. herbacea L.; Salicornia herbacea (L.) L.; Salicornia virginica L.
Notes (g lasswort ):
But who may abide the day of his coming? and who shall stand when he appeareth? for he is like 
a refiner’s fire, and like fullers’ soap.
Malachi 3:2 (KJV)
But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears? “For he is like a 
refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap.”
Malachi 3:2 (RSV)
But who will be putting up with the day of his coming, and who will be the one standing when he 
appears? “For he is like the fire of a refiner and like the lye of laundrymen.”
Malachi 3:2 (NWT)
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FIGURe . Glasswort (Salicornia europea). Source: BIB.
According to Grieve, “there are references in the Bible to the use of Glasswort for soap and for 
glass” (GMH). The potash, or alkaline salts used in biblical “sop-emaking,” were derived from the 
ashes of glassworts and other halophytic species. The potash was then mixed with olive oil.
Hartwell lists this and other species of glasswort called kelpwort and samphire as folk remedies 
for tumors and superufl ous efl sh. As “herba salicorniae herbaceae,” it is used medicinally in Pal -
estine (BIB). Zohary lists no Salicornias in his Plants of the Bible (ZOH) but does list this species 
in his Flora of Palestine (FP1) as an edible medicinal species, a pioneer species in saline puddles 
drying up.
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Commo N Names (g lasswort ):
Akkeishi Sô (Japan; TAN); Chicken-claws (Eng.; USN); Common Glasswort (Eng.; USN); Glass-
wort (Eng.; BIB; TAN); Lye (Eng.; NWT); Marsh Samphire (Eng.; TAN; USN); Saltwort (Eng.; 
TAN); Soap (Eng.; BIB; KJV; RSV); Sope (Eng.; BIB); Yan Jiao Cao (China; USN).
a Ctivities (g lasswort ):
Antiscorbutic (1; EFS; FNF); Depurative (f; EFS); Digestive (1; EFS); Tonic (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (g lasswort ):
Cancer (f; JLH); Dropsy (f; EB28:315); Scurvy (1; EFS).
d osages (g lasswort ):
FNFF = !
Plant (leaves, stems and seed) is edible but ashes are more often used like lye in making soap 
(TAN; UPH).
WILLo W (sAlix A cmophyll A Bo Iss.) ++ s ALICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Salix glauca Anderss.; Salix octandra Del. fide DEP
Notes (w illow ):
Zohary mentions that the biblical Hebrew word refers both to this and other species ofS alix in Israel 
(vfi e species). He notes that this is a honey plant, a tannin source, used for wicker work (ZOH). I refer 
readers to the better-known S. alba and S. babylonica for fuller accounts. Poplars and willows belong 
to the same family, and are fast-growing weed trees especially when growing near water. Zohary 
suggests that if the willows of the Bible were native to the Holy Land, they would have beenS alix 
acmophylla or Salix alba, which hybridize readily. I suggest that romantics like me like the idea of the 
weeping willow, Salix babylonica, in their biblical garden. These three may be keyed as follows:
• Branches erect or ascending; leaves less than 10 times as long as broad:
• — Stamens, 4 to 5; capsule pedicels circa 1.5 mm long; branches reddish:S . acmophylla
• — Stamens, 2; capsules sessile; branches yellow-green to brown: S. alba
• Branches pendulous; leaves more than 10 times as long as broadS: . babylonica
Zohary notes that, in general, Salix alba is found in cooler areas, S. acmophylla in hotter areas.
Commo N Names (w illow ):
Aravah (Heb.; ZOH); Bada (Hindu; Pun.; DEP; NAD; SKJ); Bed (Pun.; SKJ); Bedh (Afg.; DEP); 
Bisu (Pun.; DEP); Budha (Bom.; Sin. DEP; NAD; SKJ); Gadphains (Up.; SKJ). Ncsn.
a Ctivities (w illow ):
Febrifuge (f; NAD; SKJ).
iNdi Catio Ns (w illow ):
Fever (f; NAD; SKJ).
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FIGURe . Willow (Salix acmophylla). Source: KAB.
d osages (w illow ):
FNFF = ?
• Asian Indians suggest the bark for fever (SKL).
• Natural History (Willow):
• Leaves lopped for fodder.
w Hite willow ( sALIX ALbA l .) ++ sali CaCeae
Notes (w Hite w illow ):
And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses.
Isaiah 44:4 (KJV)
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They shall spring up like grass amid waters, like willows by flowing streams.
Isaiah 44:4 (RSV)
And they will certainly spring up among the green grass, like poplars by the water ditches streams.
Isaiah 44:4 (NWT)
Along the Jordan River, willows frequent the fresher waters, and Euphrates poplars the more brac-k
ish waters. Willows are handsome, fas-tgrowing trees, useful for holding banks against ofl oding. 
The wood can be used for fuel, and some willows have been recommended as energy sources. 
Slender willow twigs, or withes, are used in wicker work. Willow branches were used by the Jews 
in some of their religious rites and ceremonies. Willows were among four species the Hebrews were 
commanded to take at the Feast of the Tabernacles. The bark may contain as much as 13% tannin. 
Honey plants (BIB; FP1; ZOH). Regarded as antiperiodic, antiseptic, astringent, tonic, and verm- i
fuge, the white willow is used in folk remedies for calluses, corns, debility, diarrhea, dysentery, 
dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, fever, gout, hemotysis, malaria, rheumatism, tumors, and warts. Leba-
nese recognize the aspirin-like quality of the bark decoction, using it for colds, grippe, and pain, 
and a strong decoction for venereal disease. Even “transplanted” to America, the Lebanese used the 
bark of the American species for colds, ufl , headache, pains, and rheumatism, even amplifying my 
generic belief that “all willows are the same in his medicine” (BIB; HJP).
Commo N Names (w Hite w illow ):
Ak Sogut (Tur.; EFS); Aravah (Heb.; ZOH); Aubier (Fr.; HH3); Bai Liu (Pin.; AH2); Bai Liu Gen 
(Pin.; AH2); Bai Liu Ye (Pin.; AH2); Beasa (Kas.; MKK); Bedisiah (Afg.; DEP; KAB); Bis (India; 
Pun.; EFS; NAD); Bushan (Pun.; KAB); Changma (Pun.; DEP); Dotterweide (Ger.; KAB); European 
Willow (Eng.; EFS); Falber (Ger.; HH3); Huid Piil (Den.; KAB); Huntindon Willow (Eng.; KAB); 
Hvit Pihl (Swe.; KAB); Isbidar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Itea (Greek; KAB); Iva (Rus.; KAB); Kha-r
wala (Trans-Indus; DEP; KAB); Khilaf (Arab.; BOU); Knotwilg (Dutch; EFS); Madnu (Pun.; 
WOI); Malchang (Pun.; SKJ); Osier Blanc (Fr.; BOU; EFS); ‘Oud el Maa (Arab.; BOU); Pertiche 
Bianco (It.; EFS); Piletroi (Den.; EFS); Plon Blanc (Fr.; KAB); Safsaf Abiad (Arab.; BOU); Safsaf 
Abyad (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Salce (Sp.; EFS); Salce Blanco (Sp.; KAB); Salcie (Rom.; KAB); S-al
cio (It.; KAB); Salguiero (Por.; KAB); Salguiero Branco (Por.; EFS); Salicastro (It.; HHB); Salice 
Bianco (It.; EFS); Salice Comune (It.; HH3); Salice da Pertiche (It.; HH3); Salico da Safsaf (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Sauce Blanco (Sp.; EFS); Saudre (Fr.; HH3); Saula (Cat.; KAB); Saule Argente (Fr.; 
HHB); Saule Blanc (Fr.; BOU; EFS; HH3); Saule Comun (Fr.; HHB); Sausse (Fr.; HH3); Schietwilg 
(Dutch; EFS); Schotwilg (Dutch; EFS); Silber Weide (Ger.; EFS; HH3); Swallow-Tailed Willow 
(Eng.; BOU); Talezzast Amellal (Ber.; BOU); Vivir (Kas.; KAB); Vrba (Bosnia; JLH); Vuir (Kas.; 
NAD); Weide (Ger.; EFS); Weiss Weide (Ger.; DEP; EFS; HH3); White Willow (Eng.; AH2; CR2); 
Witte Wilg (Dutch; EFS; KAB); Zafzafa (Malta; KAB).
a Ctivities (w Hite w illow ):
Analgesic (f12; HJP; KOM; PIP; PH2; WAM; PR15:344); Anaphrodisiac (f; MAD); Antiaggregant 
(1; VAD); Antihidrotic (f; CAN); Antiinafl mmatory (f12; KOM; PH2; PIP; WAM); Antiperiodic 
(f1; DEP; EFS); Antiprostaglandin (1; BGB); Antipyretic (f12; KOM; NAD; PIP; PH2; WAM); 
Antirheumatic (f12; PR15:344; CAN; EFS; FAD); Antiseptic (f1; CAN; DEP; EFS); Antispasmodic 
(f1; BOU; VAD); Astringent (f1; APA; EFS; FAD; PED; PH2; VAD); Bitter (1; FAD; PED); Cardio-
protective (1; VAD); Contraceptive (f; MAD); Febrifuge (f1; FNF); Keratolytic (1; FNF); Sedative 
(f1; MAD; VAD); Tonic (f; BIB; DEM); Vulnerary (f; BOU).
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FIGURe . White Willow (Salix alba).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Hite w illow ):
Alopecia (f; DEM); Ankylosing Spondylitis (1; CAN); Arthrosis (f12; PR15:344; APA; FAD; MAD; 
SKY); Bleeding (f; BUR); Bursitis (1; SKY); Callus (f; BIB; JLH); Cancer (f; BIB; FAD; JLH); Can-
didiasis (f; BIB); Cardiopathy (1; FAD); Cataracts (1; FAD); Catarrh (1; CAN); Cold (f1; APA; VAD); 
Colic (f; MAD); Corn (f1; BIB; FAD; MAD); Cramp (f1; VAD); Debility (f; BIB; BUR); Dermatosis 
(1; FAD; MAD); Diabetes (f; MAD); Diarrhea (f1; APA; BIB; BUR; DEM; FAD; MAD); Dysentery 
(f; BIB; BUR); Dyskinesia (f; VAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; BIB; MAD; VAD); Dyspepsia (f; BIB; FEL; 
MAD); Dyspnea (f; DEM); Earache (1; MAD; PED); Encephalosis (f; MAD); Enterosis (f1; DEM; 
VAD); Fever (f1; APA; DEM; FAD; MAD; NAD; PH2; PIP); Flu (f1; BIB; FNF; VAD); Fungus 
(1; CEB); Gastrosis (f1; VAD); Gout (1; APA; MAD; PNC); Headache (f1; BGB; PH2; PIP; VAD; 
WAM); Hemoptysis (f; BIB; MAD; WOI); Hoarseness (f; DEM); Infection (f1; APA; CAN; DEP; 
EFS); Inafl mmation (f1; APA; PH2); Inufl enza (f1; CAN); Insomnia (f1; MAD; VAD); Malaria (f1; 
BIB; BUR; DEP; FEL; NAD); Myalgia (f1; APA; CAN); Neuralgia (f; MAD; VAD); Neurasthenia 
(f; MAD); Obesity (f; APA); Osteoarthrosis (2; SKY; PR15:344); Pain (f12; HJP; PHR; PH2; PNC; 
WAM; PR15:344); Pertussis (f; MAD); Poison Ivy (1; FAD); Rheumatism (f12; FAD; PHR; PH2; 
PIP; VAD); Scrofula (f; MAD); Sore (f; BIB; FAD; FEL; MAD); Sprains (1; APA); Stomachache 
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(1; VAD); Tendonitis (1; BGB); Thrombosis (1; VAD); Thrush (f; BIB); Toothache (f1; BGB; JAD); 
Ulcus cruris (f; MAD); Vaginosis (f; BIB); Wart (1; FNF; JLH); Worm (f; MAD).
d osages (w Hite w illow ):
FNFF = !
Tender twigs and leaves often used for fodder, sometimes for human food. Leaves used as tea or 
adulterant thereof (WOI); 1–2 tsp powdered bark 1 to 3 ×/day (APA); two to three 379-mg capsules, 
as needed or every 3 hours, up to 18 capsules (APA); 1–2 ml bark tincture (25% alcohol) 3 ×/day 
(APA; SKY); 20–40 mg salicin (APA); 1–3 g dry bark, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–3 ml liquid 
extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 1–2 g bark (20–40 mg salicin), two or three 380-mg 
capsules every 3 hours (JAD); 60–120 mg salicin per day (KOM; PIP); 2–4 Tbsp fresh bark (PED); 
3–6 g dry bark (PED); 4.5 g dry bark:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2–3 g bark in cold water, 
bring to boil, steep 5 minutes (PH2), 1–5 ×/day (SKY).
• Bosnians apply wine bark decoction to corns and warts (JLH).
• Cherokee take the astringent bark for alopecia, diarrhea, dyspnea, fever, and hoarseness 
(DEM).
• North Africans consider the leaves are calmative, antispasmodic, genital sedative, the 
bark useful for fever and rheumatism (BOU).
d ow Nsides (w Hite w illow ):
Class 1. Salicylates; tannins (AHP, 1997). Commission E reports for oral use of bark, contraindica-
tions, adverse effects, and interactions: on theoretical grounds similar to those of the salicylates 
(AEH). (All plants contain salicylates.) In view of the lack of toxicological data, excessive use, 
especially during lactation and pregnancy, should be avoided. Individuals with aspirin hypers-en
sitivity, asthma, diabetes, gastrosis, gout, hemophilia, hepatosis, hypothrombinaemia, nephrosis, 
and peptic ulcers should be cautious with salicylates. Alcohol, barbiturates, and oral sedatives may 
potentiate salicylate toxicity. Beware of salicylate interaction with oral anticoagulants, methot-rex
ate, metoclopramide, phenytoin, pronebecid, spironolactone, and valproate. Salicylates excreted in 
breast milk reportedly can cause macular rashes in breast-fed babies. Salicylate toxicity may cause 
dermatosis, gastrosis, hematochezia, nausea, nephrosis, tinnitus, and vomiting (CAN). Excessive 
use of the tannin-rich bark may cause diarrhea and nausea (SKY). Still, “willow is much safer than 
aspirin” (SKY). Not for use during viral infections because of [remote theoretical; JAD] possibility 
of Reye’s syndrome (WAM).
Natural History (bla Ck w illow ):
Insect pollinators include pollen collectors such as bumblebees, honeybees, and solitary ground ne-st
ing bees, and false darkling beetles A( sclera) and punctate leaf beetles O( rsodacne). In the north 
woods, buds and/or tender twigs are consumed by grosbeak, grouse, and ptarmigan. Beaver, deer, 
elk, hare, mice, moose, muskrat, rabbit, rat, and squirrel also eat twigs, foliage, and/or bark (MZN). 
Beaver seem to prefer this species. Sapsuckers may pit the stem seeking sap (EAS). Bugs eating 
poplar leaves often also eat willow, relatively immune to the salicylates. White, with brown spots, 
willow lacebugs (Corythucha salicilis) suck sap from the lower leaf surface. Adult beetles may eat 
the leaves, larvae stripping them; for example, imported willow or shining leaf beetle (Plagiodera 
versicolora) is metallic blue or green, the willow leaf beetles (Chrysomela interrupta) is yellow with 
black markings, and the spotted willow leaf beetle L(ina interrupta) is reddish with black markings. 
Also among the beetles consuming leaves are cottonwood leaf beetles Ch( rysomela scripta), ea fl
beetles, and eafl weevils, not to mention the Japanese beetle. Long horn beetles may may drill weak 
trees; for example, the cottonwood borer may girdle leaf bases, in the process also transmitting the 
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fungus willow scab or blight (Pollaccia saliciperda), which can cause leaves to blacken and die. 
Other fungal diseases includeC ytospora shrysosperma, causing elongate cankers, andP hytophora 
cactorum, causing slimy weeping lesions on lower trunks. On dead or decaying willows, seek the 
yellowish, crown coral mushroom (Clavicorona pyxidata) (EAS). Many sphinx moth caterpillars eat 
willow; for example, big poplar or modest sphinx, one-eyed sphinx, and twin spotted sphinx. Tent 
moth caterpillars (Malacosoma disstria) and the gypsy moth are fairly common, along with several 
noctuiids. Among common butteryfl caterpillars are mourning cloak, tortoise shells, and viceroy. 
Midges and sawflies may create leaf galls. Feeding en masse, willow sawyfl larvae, resembling black 
and yellow caterpillars, may strip the plant of its leaves. Giant willow aphids may suck sap from 
twigs in summer. Then there are oystershell scale and willow scale (EAS).
extra Cts (w Hite w illow ):
Salicylates antiaggregant, antiinafl mmatory, antipyretic, antiuricosuric/uricocsuric, and hyper/
hypoglycemic. The pro-drug salicin, which does not irritate the stomach, is metabolized to saligenin 
in the GI tract and salicylic acid after absorption. “Products containing willow should preferably 
be standardized on their salicin content …” (CAN). “The analgesic actions of willow are typically 
slow-acting but last longer than standard aspirin products” (SKY). McCarty and Block (2006) note 
the potential in cancer and diabetes for IKKbeta Inhibitors like salicylic acid, found presumably in 
all willow species. IKKbeta Inhibitors may help reverse insulin resistance and control type-2 diab-e
tes. Serving as IKKbeta Inhibitors in vitro are the salicylic acid, resveratrol from the biblical grape, 
and silybinin from milk thistle (X16880431).
WeepING WILLo W (sAlix b Abylonic A L.) + sALICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Salix japonica Thunb. fide NPM
Notes (w eepiNg w illow ):
And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses.
Isaiah 44:4 (KJV)
They shall spring up like grass amid waters, like willows by flowing streams.
Isaiah 44:4 (RSV)
And they will certainly spring up among the green grass, like poplars by the water ditches streams.
Isaiah 44:4 (NWT)
Zohary suggests that if the willows of the Bible were native to the Holy Land, they would have been 
Salix acmophylla or Salix alba, which hybridize readily. I suggest that romantics like me like the idea 
of the weeping willow, Salix babylonica, in their biblical garden.
Commo N Names (w eepiNg w illow ):
Arbol del Desmayo (Sp.; KAB); Attuppalai (Ap.; Tel.; KAB; SKJ; WOI); Babylon Weeping Willow 
(Eng.; USN); Bada (Pun.; DEP; WOI); Bains (Nepal; NPM); Bed (Pun.; WOI); Bedmaju (Pun.; KAB); 
Bes (Pun.; DEP); Besu (Pun.; DEP); Bhosi (Nepal; DEP; KAB; WOI); Bidai (Pun.; DEP); Bisa (Kas.; 
Pun.; DEP; SKJ; WOI); Bitsubes (Pun.; WOI); Chinese Willow (Eng.; EFS); Desmay (Cat.; KAB); 
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FIGURe . Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica).
Desmayo (Sp.; EFS; KAB); Echte Trauer Weide (Ger.; EFS); Echte Treur Wilg (Ger.; EFS); Gadhbains 
(Garhwal; Up.; SKJ); Garb (Fr.; KAB); Giur (Kas. DEP; KAB); Guir (Kas.; NAD; WOI); Hazomal-a
helo (Hova; KAB); Kashir Vir (Kas.; SKJ); Katira (Pun.; Pun.; SKJ; WOI); Laila (Pun.; DEP; WOI); 
Liu (China; EFS; KAB); Liu Zhi (Pin.; DAA); Lloron (Sp.; KAB); Majhinus (Kum.; WOI); Majnun 
(Pun.; Hindi; DEP; KAB; SKJ); Maju (Pun.; DEP); Momakha (Burma; DEP; KAB); Plakychaya 
Iva (Rus.; KAB); Quir (Kas.; SKJ); Salcie Pleteasa (Rom.; KAB); Salguiero (Por.; AVP); Salguiero 
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Chorão (Por.; AVP; EFS); Salice Piangente (It.; KAB); Salice Plangente (It.; KAB); Sauce (Peru; Sp.; 
EGG; ROE); Sauce de Babilonia (Sp.; USN); Sauce Llorón (Cuba; Dr.; Peru; Pr.; Sp.; AVP; EGG; 
ROE; USN); Saule de Babylone (Fr.; EFS); Saule Pleurier (Fr.; EFS; USN); Shidar-eYanagi (Japan; 
USN); Tissi (India; Nepal; EFS; NAD; WOI); Trauerweide (Ger.; KAB; USN); Treuwilg (Dutch; 
KAB); Wala (Pun.; DEP; WOI); Weeping Willow (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN).
a Ctivities (w eepiNg w illow ):
Anthelmintic (f; DEP; NAD); Antidote (varnish) (f; DAA); Antipyretic (f; DEP; ROE; SHJ); Anti-
septic (f1; DAA; EFS; NAD; WOI); Astringent (f; DEP; WOI); Bactericide (1; WOI); Fungicide (1; 
LMP); Insecticide (1; LMP); Tonic (f1; DEM; DEP; EFS; NAD; WOI); Vermifuge (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (w eepiNg w illow ):
Abscess (f; DAA; ROE); Alopecia (f; DEM; ROE); Arthrosis (f1; DAW; ROE; SKJ; WOI); Baci-l
lus (1; WOI); Bacteria (1; WOI); Bleeding (f; DAA); Boil (f; DAA); Cancer (f; JLH); Carbuncle (f; 
DAA; DAW); Dandruff (f; ROE); Dermatosis (f; ROE); Diarrhea (f; DEM); Dyspnea (f; DEM); 
Enterosis (f; ROE); Fever (f1; DEP; ROE; SKJ; WOI); Flu (f; ROE); Fungus (1; LMP); Gonorrhea 
(f; DAA; DAW); Hoarseness (f; DEM); Infection (1; ROE; WOI); Jaundice (f; DAA; DAW); Malaria 
(f1; DAW; ROE); Mycosis (1; LMP); Parasite (f; DAA); Rheumatism (f1; DAW; ROE; SKJ; WOI); 
Sore (f; DAW; ROE); Staphylococcus (1; ROE); Swelling (f; DAA); Worm (f; DEP; EFS; NAD).
d osages (w eepiNg w illow ):
FNFF = !
Young leaves, shoots, and ofl wer buds parboiled and eaten; older leaves a tea adulterant; source of 
a manna (FAC).
• Andeans suggest the plant can whiten the teeth (ROE).
• Andeans take bark tea for fever, enterosis, and malaria, and bathe rheumatism therewith 
(ROE).
• Asian Indians suggest the catkins as antipyretic (SKJ), the bark as anthelmintic (DEP).
• Cherokee Indians take bark tea for alopecia, diarrhea, fever, and hoarseness (DEM).
• Chinese treat boils around the mouth with root ashes in mustard oil (LMP).
• Chinese use infusion (bark, twigs, and/or leaves) for fever, gonorrhea, jaundice, and rhe-u
matism (LMP).
• Tippery British ash the inofl rescence in ointments for burns (AAH).
extra Cts (w eepiNg w illow ):
Bark contains 3 to 4% salicin (ROE).
BRItt Le WILLo W (sAlix fr Agilis L.) + sALICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Salix fragilior Host.; Salix fragilis f. bullata; Salix fragilis var. decipiens; Salix persicofolia Host. 
fide HH3 and USN
Notes (brittle w illow ):
… the willows of the brook compass him about.
Job 40:22 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Brittle Willow (Salix fragilis).
Zohary does not list this among the species of the Holy Land; thus, I think it highly unlikely that 
this is, in fact, the biblical willow (ZOH). The tree is cultivated in fuel plantations on swampy 
ground in India. The wood, soft, light, and even grained, is said to be more durable than other w-il
lows and is suitable for cricket bats. It is also employed in the match industry. Charcoal made from 
the wood is used for gunpowder. In Iran, the tree is reported to yield a sweet manna-like exudation. 
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Twigs are employed for basketry. This is one of the many “herbalist’s aspirin.” Tannin and gallic 
acid might explain the anticancer activity (BIB).
Commo N Names (brittle w illow ):
Brittle Willow (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; USN); Bruchweide (Ger.; HH3); Crack Willow (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; 
BIB; DEP; HH3; USN); Kashmir. Willow (Eng.; BIB; WOI); Knackweide (Ger.; HH3; USN); 
Red-Wood Willow (Eng.; BIB; DEP); Saule Fragile (Fr.; HH3); Saule Rouge (Fr.; HH3); Tilhang 
(Lahoul; DEP); White Welsh Willow (Eng.; HH3); Zerbrechliche Weide (Ger.; HH3).
a Ctivities (brittle w illow ):
Antiperiodic (f1; BIB; DAW); Antirheumatic (f; BIB); Astringent (f; DAW); Hemostat (f; DEM); 
Sedative (f1; DAW); Vulnerary (f; DEM).
iNdi Catio Ns (brittle w illow ):
Bleeding (f; DEM); Cancer (f1; BIB; JLH); Cold (1; DAW); Fever (f1; DAW); Herpes (f; BIB); Infec-
tion (f; BIB); Insomnia (1; DAW); Malaria (f1; BIB; DAW); Rheumatism (f1; DAW); Sore (f; DEM); 
Tumor (f; JLH); Virus (f; BIB).
d osages (brittle w illow ):
FNFF = !
Leaves used as manna, eaten as food (FAC).
• Iranian writers suggest the manna for herpes (BIB).
Co MMo N sALt Wo Rt ( sAlsol A kAli L.) ++ Che Nopo DIACeAe
Notes (Commo N saltwort ):
for though thou wash thee with nitre, and take thee much sope.
Jeremiah 2:22 (KJV)
The alkaline salts used in soap manufacture during biblical times were said to be obtained by bu-rn
ing the plants of the saltwort. Salsola kali is probably the most common of 20 kinds of saltwort in 
the Holy Land. Soap was made by mixing such ashes with olive oil, instead of animal fat. Glass is 
also made therefrom, because of the high alkali content.
Commo N Names (Commo N saltwort ):
Barilla Plant (Eng.; HOC); Barrela Borda (Cat.; KAB); Barrila Borde (Sp.; USN); Barrila Pinchosa 
(Sp.; USN); Barrilha-Espinhosa (Por.; USN); Barrilheira (Por.; USN); Carqueja Brava (Mad.; Por.; 
JAD); Common Saltwort (Eng.; USN); Eestridge (Eng.; KAB); Elkali (Arab.; KAB); Erba Kali 
(Malta; KAB); Espinardo (Sp.; KAB); Glasswort (Eng.; HOC; JLH); Hurd (Arab.; Syria; HJP); 
Jaghun (Jhalawan; Kharan; KAB); Kalikraut (Ger.; USN); Kali Salzkraut (Ger.; USN); Kelpwort 
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FIGURe .00 Common Saltwort (Salsola kali). Source: Regina Hughes in Reed (1970).
(Eng.; KAB); Marie Épineuse (Fr.; KAB); Marie Vulgaire (Fr.; KAB); Mata Pinchuda (Sp.; KAB); 
Pincho (Sp.; KAB); Prickly Saltwort (Eng.; HJP; KAB; USN); Riscolo (It.; KAB); Russian Thistle 
(Eng.; HOC; USN); Russian. Tumble Weed (S. Afr.; KAB); Sajji Butti (Pun.; SKJ); Sea Thrift 
(Eng.; KAB); Shawk Ahmar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Soda (Malta; KAB); Sonde Commun (Fr.; KAB); 
Sowdwort (Eng.; KAB); Tumbleweed (Eng.; X15696348).
a Ctivities (Commo N saltwort ):
Allergenic (1; X15808117); Anthelmintic (f; WOI); Antiseptic (f; BIB; HJP); Cathartic (f; WOI); Diuretic 
(f; WOI); Emmenagogue (f; WOI); Poison (f; DAW); Stimulant (f; WOI); Vulnerary (f; HJP).
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iNdi Catio Ns (Commo N saltwort ):
Amenorrhea (f; WOI); Cancer (f; JLH); Constipation (f; WOI); Dropsy (f; DAW); Excrescence (f; 
JLH); Infection (f; HJP); Worm (f; KAB; SKJ; WOI); Wound (f; BIB).
d osages (Commo N saltwort ):
FNFF = !
Food farmacy. Young shoots edible (TAN). Roots eaten as starvation food during the Great Depr-es
sion (HOC).
• East Indians use the ashes as a therapeutic antiseptic dressing (BIB).
• Lebanese apply the ash to wounds to prevent infection (HJP).
d ow Nsides (Commo N saltwort ):
A major cause of hay fever (HOC).
Natural History (Commo N saltwort ):
Although said to be toxic in quantity, still camels, goats, and horses are said to graze it (BIB).
peeLU (sAlv Ador A persic A L.) ++ sALvADo RACeAe
Notes (peelu ):
Another parable put he forth unto them, saying, The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mus-
tard seed, which a man took, and sowed in his field: Which indeed is the least of all seeds: but 
when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air 
come and lodge in the branches thereof.
Matthew 13:31- 32 (KJV)
Another parable he put before them, saying, “The kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard 
seed which a man took and sowed in his field; it is the smallest of all seeds, but when it has grown 
it is the greatest of shrubs and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and make nests 
in its branches.”
Matthew 13:31- 32 (RSV)
Another illustration he set before them, saying, “The kingdom of the heavens is like a mustard 
grain which a man took and planted in his field; which is, in fact, the tiniest of all the seeds, but 
when it has grown it is the largest of the vegetables and becomes a tree, so that the birds of heaven 
come and find lodging among its branches.”
Matthew 13:31- 32 (NWT)
Zohary favors Brassica nigra, the black mustard, as the grain of mustard seed in the Bible. He 
does not consider Moringa or Salvadora, which both have seeds bigger thanB rassica but do grow 
into shrubs or small trees. Both of these tropical tree species are found in the tropical vegetation 
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found at the mouths of the Aravah and Jordan valleys (ZOH). A little late in my research, I found 
a “new” (actually an over 100-year-old) reference (DEP) where we read that Royle had speculated 
that Salvadora persica was indeed the Mustard Tree of the Bible (I have speculated it was the 
Horseradish tree (Moringa). Indeed, Watt (author of DEP) labeled the plant “The Mustard Tree of 
the Bible.” He notes that the small red berries are strongly aromatic and pungent, like mustard or 
cress, and not much appreciated by the natives of India. The pungent shoots and leaves are eaten 
as a salad (DEP). According to UPW, it is popular among the Mohammedens because the prophet 
himself is said to have used the plant to clean his teeth and to relieve toothache (UPW). Small 
wonder that Saudi studies have confirmed that it works better than a toothbrush (X15560804). 
PubMed has more than a dozen citations relating to antiseptic and/or dental applications of the 
species.
Commo N Names (peelu ):
Abisga (Ber.; BOU); Adjou (Ber.; BOU); Arac (Fr.; BOU); Arak (Arab.; BOU; GHA); Babul 
(Ber.; BOU); Barir (Arab.; GHA); Irak (Arab.; GHA); Jal (Nwp.; KAB); Kabats (Arab.; BOU); 
Mesuak (Fr.; BOU); Miswak (Arab.; Yemen; BOU; GHA); Mustard Tree (Eng.; DEP); Peelu (Eng.; 
Scn.; AH2; FAC); Pilu (Ayu.; Urdu; AH2; KAB); Plewan (Pushtu; KAB); Rak (Arab.; Yemen; 
X15890471); Saltbush (Eng; 4PW); Siwak (Arab.; BOU); Tidjat (Ber.; BOU); Toothbrush Tree 
(Eng.; BOU).
a Ctivities (peelu ):
Alexiteric (f; KAB); Analgesic (f; WOI); Antidote (f; KAB; X15890471); Antiplasmodial (1; 
X12426089); Antiplaque (1; X3505835); Antiscorbutic (f; WOI); Antiseptic (1; X11887585; 
X15890471); Antiulcer (1; PHM6:363); Aphrodisiac (1; DEP; KAB); Ascarifuge (f; WOI); Astrin-
gent (f; WOI); Biliousnesss (f; WOI); Candidicide (1; X7898373); Carminative (f1; BOU; KAB; 
UPW; WOI); Deobstruent (f; KAB; WOI); Diuretic (f; BOU; KAB; FP2; WOI); Emetic (f; UPW); 
Emmenagogue (f; WOI); Febrifuge (f; WOI); Fungicide (1; X7898373); Hepatotonic (f; WOI); Laxa-
tive (f; GHA); Litholytic (f; WOI); Orexigenic (f; BOU; KAB); Purgative (f; DEP; WOI); Sedative 
(1; PR16:395); Sialogogue (f; UPW); Stimulant (f; WOI); Stomachic (f; BOU; WOI); Tonic (f; BOU; 
WOI); Vesicant (f; WOI).
iNdi Catio Ns (peelu ):
Ankylostomiasis (f; UPW); Anorexia (f; BOU; KAB); Asthma (f; WOI); Bacteria (1; X11887585; 
X14973564); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bite (f; BOU); Blennorrhea (f; UPW); Blister (f; GHA); Boil 
(f; BOU; UPW); Bruise (f; BOU); Cancer (f; WOI); Catarrh (f; WOI); Childbirth (f; DEP); Cold (f; 
UPW); Convulsion (1; PR16:395); Cough (f; WOI); Cystosis (f; UPW); Dysmenorrhea (f; GHA); 
Dyspepsia (1; UPW; WOI); Fever (f; WOI); Fungus (1; X7898373); Gas (f; WOI); Gastrosis (f; BOU; 
WOI); Gingivosis (12; BOU; UPW; WOI; X15560804); Gonorrhea (f; UPW; WOI); Headache (f; 
UPW); Hemorrhoid (f; WOI); Infection (1; X7898373); Infertility (f; UPW); Leukoderma (f; KAB); 
Malarial (1; X12426089); Mycosis (1; X7898373; X15560804); Odontosis (f1; GHA; X15890471); 
Ozoena (f; WOI); Pain (f; WOI); Periodontosis (f1; GHA; JAC7:405; X2239575); Plaque (f1; GHA; 
X15560804); Pulmonosis (f; UPW); Rheumatism (f; KAB; WOI); Rhinosis (f; WOI); Scabies (f; 
WOI); Snakebite (f; KAB); Sore (f; BOU; GHA); Splenosis (f; BOU; WOI); Sting (f; GHA); Stomach-
ache (f; BOU; UPW); Stomatosis (f; UPW; X15890471); Streptococcus (1; X11887585; X14973564); 
Swelling (f; GHA); Syphilis (f; BOU); Toothache (f; UPW); Ulcer (1; PHM6:363); Venereal Disease 
(f; BOU; UPW); Worm (f; WOI); Wound (f; WOI).
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FIGURe .0 Peelu (Salvadora persica). Source: KAB.
d osages (peelu ):
FNFF = !!
Leaves and shoots eaten raw or cooked, or made into sauce; fruits edible, fresh, dried, as a mustard 
substitute, or made into a beverage that can be fermented (FAC; FP2; TAN). Ash of plant made into 
a salt-like powder called kegr. Resin used for chewing gum. Seed fat used like butter (FAC).
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• Arabs apply crushed leaves to swellings; dry powdered leaves to blisters and ulcers (GHA).
• Arabs take dried fruits with cloves, ginger, and sugar daily to regulate menstruation 
(GHA).
• North Africans consider fruits carminative, febrifuge, orexigenic, and stomachic (BOU).
• North Africans take powdered leaves, with honey and millet ofl ur, made into balls. Taken 
every morning for 40 days for syphilis (BOU).
• Yemeni use frayed twigs effectively as toothbrush (on sale for a dime) (GHA).
extra Cts (peelu ):
Trimethylamine is a gingival stimulant and antidyspeptic and carminative (UPW).
tho RNy BURNet ( sArcopoterium spinosum (L.) spACh ++ R os ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Pimpinella spinosa Gaertn.; Poterium spinosum L.; Sanguisorba spinosa (L.) Bertol.; HH2
Notes (t Hor Ny bur Net):
Therefore, behold, I will hedge up thy way with thorns, and make a wall, that she shall not find 
her paths.
Hosea 2:6 (KJV)
Therefore I will hedge up her way with thorns; and I will build a wall against her, so that she 
cannot find her paths.
Hosea 2:6 (RSV)
Therefore here I am hedging your way about with thorns; and I will heap up a stone wall against 
her, so that her own roadways she cannot find.
Hosea 2:6 (NWT)
There are multitudes of thorny plants in the desert, and Zohary has accepted this as the best ca- n
didate for the thorn in the path of the harlot in Hosea 2:6, noting that it is one of the most common 
dwarf shrubs, the dominant species in what the Flora of Palestine calls the batha communities. 
The batha(h) is a name for a vegetation type dominated by this and others such aGs ymnocarpus 
decander, Noea mucronata, and Traganum nudatum. It is widely used there for fuels, for cooking 
and lime kilns, and for broom manufacturing and hedging, including (dare I say) “harlot hedging” 
(FP2). Local peasants customarily hedge their gardens and courtyards with spiny dwarf shrubs like 
this one. Zohary says the thorny burnet best tfi s the Hebrew sir (plural sirim). Abundant in Jerusa-
lem, it might have been used to fashion the crown of thorns plaited by the Romans as recounted in 
Matthew, Mark, and John. In modern Hebrew, it is still called bathah meaning “waste” (garigue), 
a name adopted according to Zohary from Isaiah 5:6: “I will make it a waste; it shall not be pruned 
or hoed, and briers and thorns shall grow up.”
Commo N Names (t Hor Ny bur Net):
Becherblume (Ger.; HH2); Dorniger Becherstrauch (Ger.; HH2); Pimpinelle Èpineuse (Fr.; HH2); 
Sir (Arab.; Heb.; ZOH); Spinoporci (It.; HH2); Strauchige Becherblume (Ger.; HH2); Thir (Arab.; 
ZOH); Thorn Burnet (Eng.; HH2); Thorny Burnet (Eng.; ZOH).
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a Ctivities (t Hor Ny bur Net):
Antielastase (1; HH2); Antisarcomic (1; HH2); Antitumor (1; HH2); Cardioprotective (1; HH2); 
Hypoglycemic (1; HH2); Hypotensive (1; HH2); Vasodilator (1; HH2).
iNdi Catio Ns (t Hor Ny bur Net):
Cancer (1; HH2); Cardiopathy (1; HH2); Diabetes (1; HH2); High Blood Pressure (1; HH2); Sa-r
coma (1; HH2).
d osages (t Hor Ny bur Net):
FNFF = !
Peasants in the Holy Land use the leaves as a potherb (ZOH). 5 g root bark/250 ml in decoction; 
2 Tbsp after meals 3 ×/day (HH2).
• Bedouins suggest that the plant has antidiabetic activity (HH2).
Cost Us (sAussure A costus (FALC.) LIpsCh) ++ A ste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Aplotaxus lappa Decne.; Aucklandia costus Falc.; Aucklandia lappa Decne.; Saussurea lappa C.B. 
Clarke; Theodorea costus O. Ktze. fide HH2
Notes (Costus ):
All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia.
Psalms 45:8 (KJV)
Your robes are all fragrant with myrrh and aloes and cassia.
Psalms 45:8 (RSV)
All your garments are myrrh and aloeswood [and] cassia.
Psalms 45:8 (NWT)
Unlike Zohary, I followed Moldenke and Moldenke in my first Bible book (Duke, 1983) and con-
cluded that the cassia of Psalms 45 was the Indian kuth (standardized common name “costus,” 
widely used in perfumes and incenses). Other scholars, such as Zohary, would think that cassia in 
the Bible was more likely to be a species of Cinnamomum (which see; and I agree). Still I include 
the kuth here. Others might side with the Moldenkes. Although noted as an aphrodisiac, costus’ 
chief use is as a perfume. In China and India it serves as incense in temples. The essential oil is va- l
ued in perfumery and cosmetics. The essential oil has strong antiseptic and disinfectant properties, 
especially against Streptococcus and Staphylococcus. The root owes its insecticidal property to its 
essential oil content. Roots are employed in Kashmir as insecticide to protect shawls and woolen 
fabrics. A process for treating costus roots or inulin obtained from them for the production of fruc-
tose has been reported. Dried stems of the plant are used as fodder in winter (BIB).
Commo N Names (Costus ):
Agada (Sanskrit; KAB); Aucklandia (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Changala (Tel.; DEP); Chengulva (Tel.; 
NAD); Chobiqut (Kas.; WOI); Costus (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Goda Mahanel (Sing.; DEP); 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe .0 Costus (Saussurea costus).
Goshtam (Tam.; DEP); Gostan (Tam.; NAD); Indische Kostuswurzel (Ger.; HH2); Kashmirja 
(Sanskrit; DEP); Kashtam (Sanskrit; NAD); Koshnaha (Iran; KAB); Koshta (Kan.; WOI); Kostum 
(Tam.; DEP); Kostuspafl nze (Ger.; HH2); Kosuta (Kan.; NAD); Kot (Hindi; Pun.; DEP; KAB); Kur 
(Beng.; Hindi; DEP; NAD); Kushta (Mar.; Sanskit; WOI); Kushtha (Sanskrit; Ayu.; AH2; HH2); 
Kust (Arab.; Iran; DEP; HH2; NAD); Kust Talkh (Pun.; DEP); Kustabeheri (Arab.; KAB); Kustam 
(Tel.; KAB; NAD); Kustullhalu (Arab.; KAB); Kustum (Tel.; DEP); Kut (Guj.; Hindi; Urdu; HH2; 
KAB); Kuth (Eng.; Hindi; Kas.; Nepal; CR2; MKK); Kutshirin (Iran; KAB); Kuttalkh (Iran; KAB); 
Mook Heong (Malaya; HH2); Mu Hsian (Malaya; HH2); Mu Xiang (Pin.; AH2; DAA); Muk Heung 
(Canton; KAB); Ouplate (Bom.; DEP); Pachak (Beng.; Hindi; DEP; KAB); Patalapadmini (Kasmir; 
NAD); Pokharmul (Hindi; NAD); Post Khai (Kas.; DEP); Practige Kostwurz (Ger.; NAD); Putchuk 
(Tam.; DEP; KAB); Rusta (Bhote; DEP); Sepuddy (Mal.; DEP; KAB); Upalet (Bom.; Guj.; NAD); 
Upaleta (Guj.; DEP); Yun Mu Xiang (Pin.; AH2).
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a Ctivities (Costus ):
Alexipharmic (f; KAB); Alterative (f; KAB; KAP; SUW); Amebicide (1; NAD); Analgesic (f; KAB); 
Anthelmintic (f; HHB; KAB); Antianginal (1; PH2); Antidote (f; PH2); Antiedemic (1; X12222664); 
Antiinafl mmatory (1; X12916066); Antilambdial (f; X14497181); Antileukemic (1; X15209353); Anti -
mycobacterial (1; PR14:303); Antioxidant (1; PR14:250); Antiperistaltic (1; WOI); Antiproliferant (1; 
X12916066); Antiradicular (1; PR14:250); Antiseptic (1; HH2; KAB; KAP; PH2); Antispasmodic (1; 
HH2; SUW; WOI; JAC7:405); Antistress (1; PH2); Antitubercular (1; PR14:303); Antiulcer (1; PH2); 
Aphrodisiac (f; DEP; HHB); Apoptotic (1; X15737683); Astringent (f; KAP); Bactericide (1; HH2; 
PR14:303; X15814268); Bronchoconstrictor (1; WOI); Bronchodilator (1; NAD; WOI; JAC7:405); Bron-
chospasmolytic (1; PH2); Candidicide (1; HH2); Cardiotonic (1; KAB; KAP); Carminative (f1; KAB; 
KAP; SUW; WOI); Caspase Inducer (1; X15209353); Cerebrotonic (f; KAB); Circulostimulant (1; WOI); 
CNS Depressant (1; NAD; WOI); Contraceptive (f; PH2); Cytotoxic (1; X14510592); Depurative (f; 
KAB); Diuretic (1; HHB; KAB; SKJ; WOI; JAC7:405); Emmenagogue (f; HHB; KAB); Expectorant (1; 
KAB; KAP; WOI); Fungicide (1; HH2; PH2); Hypogycemic (1; JAC7:405); Hypotensive (1; HH2; WOI; 
JAC7:405); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X12538000); Insecticide (1; WOI); Myorelaxant (f1; KAP; NAD); NF-
kappaB Inhibitor (1; X15209353); Sedative (f1; KAP; NAD); Stimulant (f; PH2; SUW); Stomachic (f; 
KAB; SUW); TNF-alpha Inhibitor (1; X15209353); Tonic (f; IHB; KAB; SUW); Vasodilator (1; HH2).
iNdi Catio Ns (Costus ):
Angina (1; PH2; JAC7:405); Anorexia (f; PH2); Arthrosis (f1; KAB; X12222664); Asthma (f; DEP; 
IHB; PH2; SUW); Bacteria (1; HH2; PH2; X15814268); Bronchosis (f1; KAB; PH2; WOI); Cancer 
(f; HHB; KAP); Cancer, abdomen (f; HHB; JLH); Cancer, colon (f; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); 
Cancer, spleen (f; JLH); Cancer, stomach (1; X15737683); Candida (1; HH2); Cardiopathy (1; PH2; 
SKJ); Childbirth (f; IHB); Cholera (f; DEP; NAD; PH2; SUW); Constipation (fl IHB); Cough (f; 
DEP; KAB; PH2; SUW); Cramp (f; MKK); Deafness (f; KAB); Dermatosis (f; DEP; IHB; KAP; 
PH2; SUW); Diabetes (1; JAC7:405); Dysentery (f; MKK); Dyspepsia (f; DEP; KAP; NAD); Edema 
(1; X12222664); Enterosis (f; HHB); Epilepsy (f; KAB); Erysipelas (f; KAB); Fever (f; IHB; KAB); 
Fungus (f1; HH2; KAB); Gas (f1; KAB; PH2); Gastrosis (1; PH2; X15737683); Headache (f; KAB); 
Helicobacter (1; X15814268); Hepatosis (f; JLH); Hiccup (f; KAB; KAP); High Blood Pressure (f; 
HH2); Hysteria (f; KAB); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (1; HH2; PH2); Inafl mmation (f; KAB); 
Insomnia (f1; NAD); Itch (f; KAB); Klebsiella (1; HH2); Leprosy (f; KAB; KAP); Leukoderma 
(f; KAB); Malaria (f; KAB; KAP); Mycosis (f1; HH2; KAB); Nephrosis (f; KAB); Pain (f; IHB; 
KAB); Paralysis (f; KAB); Rheumatism (f; DEP; KAB; KAP; SUW); Ringworm (f; KAB); Scabies 
(f; KAB); Schistosoma (1; HH2); Shigella (1; HH2); Smallpox (f; IHB); Sore (f; DEP; KAB; KAP); 
Spasm (f1; NAD); Splenosis (f; JLH); Staphylococcus (1; HH2; KAP; WOI); Stomachache (f; IHB); 
Streptococcus (1; KAP; WOI); Stress (1; PH2); Toothache (f; DEP); Trematode (1; HH2); Tubercu-
losis (1; JNP61:1181); Typhus (f; KAB); Ulcer (1; PH2; X15814268); Worm (f1; HH2; KAB); Wound 
(f; IHB; KAP; PH2); Yeast (1; HH2).
d osages (Costus ):
FNFF = !
Root used as spice; esssential oil used to afl vor baked goods, beverages, candies, frostings, gelatins, 
and puddings (FAC). One 500-mg capsule, twice a day for 30 days (JAC7:405).
• Ayurvedics consider the root alterative, aphrodisiac, good for blood, bronchitis, co-m
plexion, cough, epilepsy, erysipelas, headache, hysteria, itch, leukoderma, ringworm, and 
scabies (KAB).
• Chinese smoke the CNS-depressant root as a substitute for opium (NAD).
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• Punjabi, considering the root aphrodisiac, depurative, apply powdered root to sores and 
wounds with worms, and to rheumatism (KAB).
• Unani consider the root alexipharmic, analgesic, anthelmintic, carminative, cerebrotonic 
emmenagogue, and tonic, using it for arthrosis, asthma, cough, deafness, fever, hepatosis, 
inafl mmation, nephrosis, ophthalmia, paralysis, and pulmonosis (KAB).
d ow Nsides (Costus ):
Class 1 (AHP). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) 
(PH2 designates no dosage!; JAD).
extra Cts (Costus ):
EO LD50 = 2660–4350 mg/kg orl rat (HH2).
LAKe RUsh ( schoenoplectus l Acustris (L.) pALLA.) + CypeRACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Scirpus acutus.; Scirpus lacustris L. fide FAC, HOC but not necessarily USN
Notes (l ake r us H):
Therefore the LORD will cut off from Israel head and tail, branch and rush, in one day.
Isaiah 9:14 (KJV)
So the LORD cut off from Israel head and tail, palm branch and reed in one day.
Isaiah 9:14 (RSV)
And Jehovah will cut off from Israel head and tail, shoot and rush in one day.
Isaiah 9:14 (NWT)
I suspect there are no divine differences between the common name reed and rush, and concur 
with Zohary, suggesting this, the largest species of the six local species ofS choenoplectus (for-
merly Scirpus). Noting that in Isaiah 58:5 there is reference to the rush bowing down their heads, 
as rushes do, Zohary concludes that rush and reed are both most logical translations of the Hebrew 
agmon, and that the larger the species, the more likely the translation. It is used in construction, 
braiding, purifying murky waters, and most parts are consumable in emergencies. But I find little 
in the way of medicinal uses. DEM entries below apply to S. acutus. EFS entries may apply to S. 
validus.
Commo N Names (l ake r us H):
Agmon (Heb.; ZOH); American Great Bulrush (Eng.; HOC); Club Rush (Eng.; WOI); Great Bul-
rush (Eng.; EFS; FAC); Hardstem Bulrush (Eng.; DEM); Lake Rush (Eng.; ZOH); Soft Stem Bul-
rush (Eng.; HOC); Tule (Sp.; FAC); Nscn.
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a Ctivities (l ake r us H):
Astringent (f; BUR; SKJ); Diuretic (f; BUR; SKJ); Emetic (f; DEM); Emmenagogue (f; BUR); 
Hemostat (f; DEM); Poison (f; DAW; WOI); Sedative (f; EB24:86).
iNdi Catio Ns (l ake r us H):
Bleeding (f; DEM); Insomnia (f; EB24:86).
d osages (l ake r us H):
FNFF = !!
Facciola notes that most parts of the plants are edible; young shoots, raw or cooked; rootstocks and 
buds at ends of rhizomes, raw or cooked; pollen mixed with meal for breadstuffs; seeds ground for 
breadstuffs; Cheyenne ate inner part of stem raw (DEM; FAC).
• Chinese use the stem (with other plants) for cancer (JLH).
• Clallam Indians used them to ceremonially suck out the cause of sickness (DEM).
• Montana Indians chewed the roots to prevent thirst (DEM).
• Navajo use the plant as a ceremonial emetic (DEM).
• Thompson Indians applied ashes from burned stalks to baby’s bleeding navel (DEM).
• Woodlands Cree poultice pith of stem on wounds to stop bleeding (DEM).
d ow Nsides (l ake r us H):
Rhizomes suspected to poison grazing cattle (WOI).
Go LDeN th Ist Le (scolymus hisp Anicus L.) ++ Aste RACeAe
Notes (g olde N t Histle ):
I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of the valleys. As the lily among thorns, so is my love among 
the daughters.
Canticles 2:1- 2 (KJV)
I am a rose of Sharon, a lily of the valleys. As a lily among brambles, so is my love among maidens.
Canticles 2:1- 2 (RSV)
A mere saffron of the costal plain, I am a lily of the low plains. Like a lily among thorny weeds, so 
is my girl companion among the daughters.
Canticles 2:1- 2 (NWT)
I was really surprised to find mention of saffron in the NWT, and even more intrigued when I read 
in FAC and TAN that the ofl wers of this species are used as a substitute or adulterant of saffron. 
But I suppose the KJV and RSV translation is better: rose of Sharon. However, for the Scolymus, I 
will concur with Zohary when he suggests that the quoted verse is from one of nine containing the 
biblical word hoah (plural hohim), apparently suggesting to him a ruderal in calcareous ruins and 
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neglected places (Scolymus hispanicus) and a weed in alluvial wheat efi lds (Scolymus maculatus). 
The two species are keyed as follows:
• Florets orange yellow; white-hairy outside; stem wings interrupted; leaves without mar-
ginal white nerve: Scolymus hispanicus
• Florets lemon yellow; with long dark hairs outside; stem wings continuous; leaves with a 
thick marginal white nerve: Scolymus maculatus
• (FP3; ZOH)
After 30 years of compiling, I finally, as I recall, met the useful word lithuretic in PubMed abstract 
X9434612, but I added the word litholytic, knowing that was the word I had used more often. But 
there really is a difference: lithuretic seems to mean helping pass stones or gravel through the ure-
thra or in the urine. Finding a lot on the food value but little on the medicinal value, I grabbed for 
the lithuretic new word.
Commo N Names (g olde N t Histle ):
Cardillo (Sp.; FAC; USN); Golden Thistle (Eng.; FAC; USN); Goldwurzel (Ger.; USN); Scolyme 
(Fr.; TAN); Scolyme d’Espagne (Fr.; USN); Spanish Oysterplant (Eng.; USN; TAN); Spanish Sa-l
sify (Eng.; FAC); Sunnariah (Eng.; Australia; USN); Tagarnina (Sp.; USN); Nscn.
a Ctivities (g olde N t Histle ):
Antioxidant (1; X15800394); Antispasmodic (1; X9434612); Diuretic (f; DAW); Litholytic (f; 
X9434612); Lithuretic (f; X9434612); Spasmogenic (1; X9434612).
iNdi Catio Ns (g olde N t Histle ):
Cramp (f; X9434612); Stone (f; X9434612).
d osages (g olde N t Histle ):
FNFF = !!
Roots eaten cooked, or scorched as coffee substitute; shoots eaten boiled; tender leaves and blanched 
petioles cautiously consumed in salads; dressed in olive oil and vinegar in Madrid; ofl wers used to 
adulterate saffron (FAC; TAN).
d ow Nsides (g olde N t Histle ):
Be careful with the thorns.
extra Cts (g olde N t Histle ):
The ethanolic root bark extract and taraxasteryl acetate, and a ufl id extract, exhibit strong biphasic 
antispasmodic and spasmogenic responses, on isolated rat ileum, suggesting a possible lithuretic 
activity (X9434612).
ALexANDRIAN seNNA (senn A Alex Andrin A 
MILL.) + FABACeAe (CAesALpINIACeAe)
syNo Nyms :
Cassia acutifolia Delile; Cassia angustifolia Vahl; Cassia lanceolata Forssk.; Cassia senna L.; 
Senna acutifolia (Delile) Batka; Senna angustifolia (Vahl) Batka fide AH2.
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Notes (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
And the angel of the Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he 
looked, and behold, the bush burned with fire, yet it was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (KJV)
And the angel of the Lord appeared to him in a flame of fire out of the midst of a bush; and he 
looked, and lo, the bush was burning, yet it was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (RSV)
Then Jehovah’s angel appeared to him in a flame of fire in the midst of a thornbush. As he kept look-
ing; why, here the thornbush was burning with the fire, and the thornbush was not consumed.
Exodus 3:2 (NWT)
Zohary (1982) argues convincingly that the plant called sneh should be translated Senna, not Aca-
cia nilotica as Moldenke and Tristam concluded, or Rubus as other scholars had concluded. Why? 
Because Acacia nilotica and Rubus do not occur on the Sinai, (Fonck even suggests it might be a 
hawthorn, perhaps Crataegus sinaica). He concludes that “the most plausible explanation for sneh 
is Cassia senna named sene in all Arabic-speaking countries.” The taxonomic name has changed 
to Senna alexandrina but sene persists in most Arabic quarters. Zohary makes one of his few 
medicinal observations: “It is known medically as a stimulant and purgative, under the name folia 
sennae.” Writing concerning (ZOH) Lebanon, my friend Jane Philips says that the dried leaves 
and pods are a nostrum in the Middle East — the drinkers, usually elderly, sipping their unplea-s
ant brew slowly, and sometimes complaining about their chronic constipation. The nostrum is also 
believed to purify the blood, alleviate hemorrhoids, and serves as a general alterative and tonic for 
the nervous system. Borelli et al. (2005), evaluating the carcinogenic potential of anthraquinones, 
found instead that senna pod extracts might exert antitumor activity on rat colon carcinogenesis 
(X16008128).
Commo N Names (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
Agerger (Ber.; BOU); Alexandrian Senna (Eng.; USN); Alexandrinische Senna (Ger.; USN); Bhu-i
khakhasa (Hindi; KAB; WO2); Bhuitarvada (Mar.; DEP; WO2); Bhumiari (Sanskrit; KAB; WO2); 
Bhumichari (Sanskrit; KAB); Bhumivalli (Sanskrit; KAB); Bombay. Senna (Eng.; WO2); Casse 
(Fr.; USN); Casse à Feuilles Étroites (Fr.; BOU); Casse Trompeuse (Fr.; BOU); Chiieh-Ming (China; 
EFS); Fan Hsieh Yeh (China; EFS; KAB); Fan Xie Ye (Pin.; AH2); Hemapatri (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Hemapatrika (Sanskrit; KAB); Hindisana (Hindi; India; DEP; EFS); Hindisana Kapat (Hindi; DEP; 
KAP); Indian Senna (Eng.; BOU; USN); Jalatika (Sanskrit; KAB); Jian Ye Fan Xie (Pin.; AH2); 
Kalyani (Sanskrit; KAB); Kattunilavirai (Tam.; KAB); Lotus Senna (Eng.; KAB); Mahaushadbi 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Malaharini (Sanskrit; KAB); Markandika (Sanskrit; KAB); Mecca Senna (Eng.; 
IHB); Medicinal Senna (Eng.; KAB); Middiawal (Guj.; WO2); Mrudirechani (Sanskrit; KAB); M-ul
cacha (Mah.; Mar.; DEP; NAD); Naelaponna (Tel.; NAD); Natkisana (Dec.; KAB); Natkisanapatta 
(Dec.; KAB); Natkisona (Dec.; DEP; NAD); Nattunelavarai (Tam.; WO2); Nattu Nila Virai (Tam.; 
WO2); Neelaponna (Tel.; WO2); Neelatangeedu (Tel.; WO2); Nellatangedu (Tel.; MPI); Nelavagai 
(Tam.; WO2); Nelavari (Sing.; Sin.; KAB; NAD); Nelavarike (Kan.; WO2); Nila Vakai (India; Tam.; 
EFS; MPI; NAD); Nilavaka (Mal.; KAP; NAD); Nilavaki (Mal.; WO2); Nilavari (Sindh KAB; 
NAD); Nilavirai (Tam.; NAD); Nilavitai (Kan.; NAD); Nubian Senna (Eng.; IHB); Pero Sama 
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FIGURe .0 Alexandrian Senna (Senna alexandrina).
e Hindi (Arab.; EFS); Pitapushpi (Sanskrit; KAB; WO2); Puve Kain Yoe (Burma; DEP; KAB; 
NAD); Rechani (Sanskrit; KAB); Sana (Arab.; GHA); Sana-e-Hindi (Arab.; Iran; DEP; NAD); Sana 
Hhigazf (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sanakola (Sindh.;  KAB; NAD); Sania (Aramaic; ZOH); Sanna Makki 
(Arab.; Beng.; GHA; WO2); Sana Sa’idi (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Sen de España (Sp.; USN); Sena (It.; 
Malaya; EFS); Sena Alejandrina (Sp.; USN); Senamakki (Beng.; Guj.; DEP; NAD; WO2); Sene 
(Arab.; ZOH); Séné (Fr.; BOU); Séné d’Egypte (Fr.; USN); Senna (Arab.; Eng.; Dutch; Ger.; EFS; 
USN); Senna Bush (Eng.; ZOH); Senna Haram (Arab.; BOU); Senna Hindi (Arab.; BOU); Senna 
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Makki (Arab.; GHA); Senna Mekki (Arab.; BOU); Senna Sa’eidi (Arab.; BOU); Senne (Den.; EFS); 
Shonamakhi (Mar.; WO2); Shonamukhi (Oriya; Uriya; KAB; WO2); Shonpat (Beng.; DEP); Siah 
Yip (China; Malaya; EFS; KAB); Sinamekia Agaci (Tur.; EFS); Sneh (Heb.; ZOH); Sona Mukhi 
(India; Sanskrit; EFS); Sonaehindi (Iran; KAB); Sonamakki (Mah.; NAD); Sonpat (Beng.; DEP; 
WO2); Soonamukhi (Kan.; WO2); Sooranatnila Avarai (Tam.; WO2); Stholotpala (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Sunnamukhi (Mal.; WO2); Svarnamukhi (Sanskrit; KAB); Svarnapatri (Ayu.; AH2); Svarnapatrika 
(Sanskrit; KAB); Svarnini (Sanskrit; KAB); Swarnamakhi (Sanskrit; WO2); Swarnapatrika (S-an
skrit; WO2); Ta Hwai Yeh (China; KAB); Tinnevelly Senna (Eng.; BOU; USN); True Senna (Eng.; 
Ocn.; AH2; USN); Ye Fan Xie (Pin.; AH2).
a Ctivities (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
Alterative (f; HJP); Anthelmintic (f; WO2); Antidysenteric (f; WHO); Antihepatotoxic (1; CAN); 
Antiherpetic (1; WO3); Antileukemic (1; CAN); Antispasmodic (f; PED); Antiviral (1; WO3); Bac-
tericide (1; WO2); Bitter (f; PED); Carminative (f; WHO); Cathartic (f1; SKY); Expectorant (f; 
WHO); Fungicide (f1; JAD); Hepatotonic (f; WO2); Hepatotoxic (1; X11324140); Laxative (f1; BGB; 
PH2; PIP); Mutagenic (1; BGB); Neurotonic (f; HJP); Peristaltic (1; PED; WHO); Tonic (f; WO2); 
Trypsin Inhibitor (1; WO3).
iNdi Catio Ns (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
Acne (f; WO2); Ameba (f; WO2); Anemia (f; PH2); Anorexia (f; KAB); Biliousness (f; WO2); 
Bronchosis (f; WO2); Burn (f; WO2); Cancer (f; JLH); Cholera (f; WO2); Constipation (f12; KOM; 
PH2; PIP; WHO); Cramp (F; PED); Dermatosis (f; WHO); Dysentery (f1; WHO); Dyspepsia (f; 
WHO); Enterosis (f; KAB; PH2); Fever (f; PH2; WHO); Fungus (1; FNF); Gas (f; CR2; WHO); 
Gastrosis (f; WO2); Gonorrhea (f; WHO); Gout (f; WO2); Halitosis (f; WO2); Hemorrhoid (f; BGB; 
HJP; PIP; WHO); Hepatosis (f; PH2); Herpes (1; WO3); Hiccup (f; WO2); Infection (f1; FNF; 
WO2); Jaundice (f; PH2); Leprosy (f; WO2); Leukemia (1; CAN); Mycosis; (1; JAD); Nausea (f; 
WO2); Nerves (f; HJP); Pimple (f; WO2); Ringworm; (f1; JAD); Splenosis (f; PH2); Syphilis (f; 
DEP); Typhoid (f; PH2; WO2); Venereal Disease (f; DEP; WHO); Virus (1; WO3); Worm (f; WO2); 
Wound (f; WHO).
d osages (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
FNFF = X
0.5–2 g (1/2 to 1 tsp) per cup water (APA); two 25-mg StX extracts, 1–2 ×/day (APA); 3–6 Alexan-
drian or 4–12 Tinnevelly pods steeped in 150 ml warm water for 6–12 hrs (CAN); 0.5–2 g dry lea-f
lets (CAN); 0.5–2 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) (CAN); 0.5–2.0 ml BPC liquid extract 
(CAN); 20–30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives/day calc as sennoside B (KOM); 1 g dry leaf:5 ml 
alcohol/5 ml water (PED); 1–2 g dry leaf (PED; WHO); 0.5–2 g dry leaf; two 25–mg capsules/day; 
10–60 mg sennosides (SKY); 1–2 g fruit (WHO).
• Algerian, Iranian, and Lebanese elders frequently sip senna tea for constipation, thinking 
it helps blood, nerves, and piles (HJP).
• Asian Indians sometimes chew the leaves as a laxative (DEP).
• Asian Indians use powdered leaves in secondary syphilis (DEP).
• North Africans take tea of powdered leaves and pods, with or without rose leaf, as la-xa
tive and purgative (BOU).
• Saudis use leaf decoction, alone or with other herbs, as laxative for cramps and consti-pa
tion (GHA).
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d ow Nsides (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
Class 2b, 2c, 2d (AHP, 1997). Commission E and other sources report interaction of anthranoid 
laxatives (AEH). Anthranoid-containing laxatives can be habit forming; some contain compounds 
suspected of being cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and even tumorigenic; epidemiological studies 
in Germany reveal that abusers of anthranoid laxatives have a three-times-higher rate of colon ca-rci
noma. One woman developed clubbing of her digits and hypertrophic osteoarthropathy after taking 
at least three tablets daily for 3 years for weight loss. She also experienced several months of secon-d
ary amenorrhea. Of senna leaf, Blumenthal et al. (1998) list abdominal pain of unknown origin, acute 
intestinal inafl mmation (e.g., Crohn’s disease and colitis ulcerosa), and appendicitis as contraindic-a
tions. Should not be used in lactation, during pregnancy, or with children under 12 years old (KOM). 
Occasional cramp-like discomfort of the GI tract may require dosage reduction (KOM). Side effects 
with chronic use or abuse: disturbance of electrolyte balance, especially hypokalemia (may be ex-ac
erbated by simultaneous administration of corticoadrenal steroids, licorice root, or thiazide diuretics) 
leading to cardiopathy and muscular weakness (especially with concurrent uses of cardiac gly-co
sides, corticosteroids, or diuretics) (KOM). Pigmentation of the intestinal mucosa P(seudomelanosis 
coli) is harmless and usually reverses on discontinuation of the drug. Simulating laxatives like this 
should not be used for more than 1 to 2 weeks without medical advice (KOM). Newall, Anderson, 
and Phillipson (1996) report anthraquinones are purgative and irritate the GI tract. Because of the 
anthraquinones, nonstandardized preparations should be avoided during pregnancy and lactation 
(CAN). “Anthraquinones may be secreted into breast milk CAN.” Also contraindicated in hemo-r
rohoids and nephropathy (CAN), intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain of unknown causes, any 
enterosis (appendicitis, colitis, Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome) hemorrhoids, nephropathy, 
menstruation (AHP, 1997). Do not use more than eight to ten days (AHP, 1997). “Do not use this 
product if you have abdominal pain or diarrhea. Consult a health care provider prior to use if you 
are pregnant or nursing. Discontinue use in the event of diarrhea or watery stools. Do not exceed 
recommended dose. Not for long term use” (AHP, 1997 CAN). “Some herbal laxative preparations 
such as cascara and senna, for example, can cause an increase in the potency of digoxin” (D’epiro, 
1997 CAN). Pedersen cautions against taking the fresh leaf (we have done that in Peru with modest 
laxative results). “Senna causes gripping unless taken in combination with carminative herbs such 
as ginger, cloves, or various mint species. Although generally recognized as safe, senna is somewhat 
more habit forming than cascara” (PED CAN). Lininger et al. (1998) pronounce it “safe for children 
over the age of six” (half the adult dose) (SKY CAN). I’d be more cautious.
extra Cts (a lexa Ndria N s eNNa):
Possibly representing a negative case for my synergy proposition: “The toxicity of total extracts is 
greater than that of of the individual sennosides. It has been proposed that the laxative and toxic 
components of senna could be separated” (CAN). Elsewhere I have read that the sennosides are sy-n
ergic as far as their laxative action is concerned. But then anomalously, Newall et al. 1996 report that 
Sennosides A and B are reported to be most potent with respect to laxative action, but the least toxic 
compared to other anthraquinone fractions. The LD50 values of sennosides A and B are 4100 mg/kg 
ivn mus and of rhein-8-glycoside 400 mg/kg ivn mus. All fractions had LD50 = 5000 mg/kg orl rat.
MILK th Ist Le (silybum m Ari Anum (L.) GAeRt N.) +++ Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Carduus marianus L.
Notes (milk t Histle ):
Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee; and thou shalt eat the herb of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (KJV)
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FIGURe .0 Milk Thistle (Silybum marianum).
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Thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall eat the plants of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (RSV)
And thorns and thistles it will grow for you; and you must eat the vegetation of the field.
Genesis 3:18 (NWT)
Being positive is not always possible. Zohary lists three species as good candidates for the thorns 
and briers (not for thistles), Echinops viscosus, Notobasis syriaca, and this species, Silybum mari-
anum, my favorite, bearing the common names Holy Thistle and Mary’s Thistle. He confesses there 
is no concrete evidence that any of these three “are the barkanim of Gideon”, but they are more 
probable because they are tall plants likely used as whips. They are the most abundant of the thorns 
around Ophra where judge Gideon was, beating out wheat in the wine press (Judges 6: 11). I would 
not call milk thistle an annual, as does Zohary. Mine, like his, germinates one year, has leaves 
appressed to the ground that winter, bolting in the spring. Flowers will soon follow the bolting, 
and then come the seeds, eagerly harvested by the gleeful goldfinch. Then the biennial in midsum-
mer is done for the year. Those few seeds that escape the goldfinches germinate in the fall. Zohary 
selects Centaurea iberica rather than Silybum for the thistle of the Bible (ZOH). Usually I tend to 
go with Zohary when such controversies arise. But I still favor the milk thistle as the biblical thistle, 
especially in Genesis after Eve has eaten the forbidden fruit. Not only is it edible “vegetation of the 
efi ld,” at least in my book, its hepatoprotective properties might even spare some of the travails of 
eating poisonous vegetation of the efi ld, including mushrooms. Could it be Eve’s milk rather than 
Mary’s milk that imparted the white to the veins of the milk thistle? I do indeed doubt that, as I do 
the following tidbit from GMH: the tradition that the white veins making this thistle unique resulted 
from the milk of the Virgin falling on a thistle (GMH), leading to the instant evolution of the new 
milk-veined species. While agnostically doubting, I continue to tell the tale during my biblical tours 
of the Green Farmacy Garden.
Commo N Names (milk t Histle ):
Akoub (Arab.; BOU); Armurariu (Rom.; KAB); Artichaut Savage (Fr.; BOU); Baq (Arab.; BOU); Ba-r
kanim (Heb.; ZOH); Baskavkas (Tur.; EB49:406); Blessed Milk Thistle (Australia; USN); Bou Zerwal 
(Arab.; BOU); Cardo (Mad.; JAD); Cardo Asnal (Arg.; EFS); Cardo de María (Sp.; USN); Cardo de 
Santa Maria (Por.; EFS); Cardo del Late (It.; KAB); Cardo della Madonna (It.; EFS); Cardo di Maria 
(It.; EFS; KAB); Cardo Lechal (Sp.; EFS); Cardo Lechero (Sp.; USN); Cardo-leiteiro (Por.; USN); 
Cardo Mariano (It.; Sp.; EFS; KAB; USN); Cart de Maria (Cat.; KAB); Cart Gallofer (Cat.; KAB); 
Carthame Macule (Fr.; KAB); Chardon Argente (Fr.; BOU); Chardon Lacte (Fr.; KAB); Chardon-
Marie (Fr.; USN); Chardon Notre Dame (Fr.; EFS); Chardon Tache (Fr.; KAB); Doujnilourman (Ber.; 
BOU); Feedistel (Ger.; KAB); Fouarek (Arab.; BOU); Frauendistel (Ger.; EFS; KAB); Froschdistel 
(Ger.; KAB); Gevlekt distelhruid (Dutch; EFS); Gundagai Thistle (Australia; USN); Harsharf Barri 
(Arab.; BOU); Hasoub (Arab.; BOU); Hedegar (Sp.; EFS); Holy Thistle (Eng.; EFS); Kocak Avas 
(Tur.; EB49:406); Lady’s Thistle (Australia; USN); Lait de Sainte Marie (Fr.; KAB); Lekhlakh (Arab.; 
BOU); Lievevrouwen Destel (Dutch; EFS); Lishliash (Arab.; BOU); Marian Distel (Dutch; EFS); 
Marian Thistle (Eng.; EFS); Mariendistel (Dutch; Ger.; EFS; KAB; USN); Marietidsel (Den.; EFS); 
Melk Destel (Dutch; EFS; KAB); Meryemanadikeni (Tur.; EFS); Milk Thistle (Eng.; CR2); Ostrop-
estro (Rus.; KAB); Sempertin (Swe.; KAB); Shouk Boulti (Arab.; BOU); Shouk el Diman (Arab.; 
BOU); Shouk el Gemal (Arab.; BOU); Shouk el Ghazal (Arab.; BOU); Shouk en Nasara (Arab.; 
BOU); Shouket el Baiidisinnari (Arab.; BOU); Shouk Sinnari (Arab.; BOU); Silberdistel (Ger.; KAB); 
Silybon (Greek; KAB); St. Mary’s Thistle (Eng.; EFS); Stechkornerdistel (Ger.; EFS); Tataoura (Ber.; 
BOU); Thistle (Eng.; BIB); Thorn (Eng.; BIB; ZOH); True thistle (Eng.; EFS); Variegated Thistle 
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(Eng.; USN); Vrowwendistel (Dutch; KAB); Silybe de Marie (Fr.; USN); Wehedistel (Ger.; KAB); 
Wolldistel (Ger.; KAB); Xeuk Baghli (Malta; KAB); Zaz (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (milk t Histle )
Adrenergic (1; WOI); Alterative (f; BIB; EFS); Antiaggregant (1; ACT9:170); Antiallergic (1; 
MAB); Antiangiogenic (1; X12943822; NP9(2):6); Antibilious (f; APA); Anticarcinogenic (f1; 
MAB; NP9(2):6); Antidepressant (f; PNC); Antidiabetic (f1; ACT9:251; Antidotal (2; SHT); Ant-i
dote (mushroom) (f1; PH2); Antiedemic (f1; MAB; NP9(2):6); Antibfi rotic CGH; Antihistaminic 
(1; MCK); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; BGB; MAB; WAM); Antileukotriene (1; MAB); Antimetastatic 
(1; X15224346); Antioxidant (12; MAB; SHT); Antiproliferant (1; HC020444-262; NP9(2):6); 
Antiprostaglandin (1; MAB); Antitelomerase (1; X15076315); Antitoxic (2; SHT); Antitumor (f1; 
MAB); Antitumor Promoter (1; NP9(2):6); Antiulcer (1; PR14:581); Antiviral (1; PNC); Aperient 
(f; BIB; WOI); Apoptotic (1; JN133:3861S; X15117815); Bitter (f1; PED); cAMP-Phosphodiester-
ase Inhibitor (1; MAB); Caspase Activator (1; X15117815); Chemopreventive (1; NP9(2):6); Chola-
gogue (f2; BIB; EFS; PHR); Choleretic (1; HHB; MAB; NP9(2):6); COX-2 Inhibitor (1; NP9(2):6); 
Cytoprotective (1; NP9(2):6); Cytotoxic (1; NP9(2):6); Demulcent (f; KAB; PNC; WOI); Depura-
tive (f; EFS); Dermoprotective (1; X15586237); Diaphoretic (f; EFS; WOI); Digestive (1; WAM); 
Diuretic (f; HC020444-262); Emmenagogue (f; BIB; EFS; PHR; PH2); Expectorant (f; BIB); Feb-
rifuge (f; EFS); Glutathionigenic (1; MAB); HDL-genic (1; HC020444-262); Hemostat (f; BIB); 
Hepatoprotective (2; KOM; SHT; WAM); Hepatoregenerative (2; KOM; MAB); Hypocholesterol-
emic (1; MAB); Hypolipidemic (1; PNC); Hypotensive (1; MCK; ACT9:170); Hypotriglyceridemic 
(1; CGH); IKKbeta Inhibitor (1; X15617879); Immunostimulant (1; NP9(2):6); i-NOS Inhibitor (1; 
NP9(2):6); Lactogogue (f1; APA; BIB; HMM; NMH; WOI); Lipolytic (1; PNC); 5-Lipoxygenase 
Inhibitor (1; MAB); Litholytic (f; WOI); Nephroprotective (1; ACT9:170; NP9(2):6); Neuroprotec-
tive (1; ACT9:251); p450 Inducer (1; X12695340); p450 Inhibitor (1; X15155549); Pancreaprotective 
(1; MCK; X15325843); Peristaltic (1; WOI); p-Glycoprotein Inhibitor (1; X15072439); Phagocytotic 
(1; NP9(2):6); Photoprotective (1; NP9(2):6); PKC Inhibitor (1; X15070174); Purgative (f1; BIB; 
WOI); Radioprotective (1; NP9(2):6); SOD-genic (1; CGH); Stimulant (f; EFS; PHR); Sudoric fi (f; 
BIB; WOI); Sunscreen (1; MAB); Sympathicolytic (f; HHB); T-Cell Activator (1; NP9(2):6); TNF-
alpha Inhibitor (1; NP9(2):6); Tonic (f1; BIB; EFS; PHR; WAM); Xanthine-oxidase Inhibitor (1; 
ACT9:170; X15070174; NP9(2):6).
iNdi Catio Ns (milk t Histle ):
Acne (f; MCK); Ague (f; GMH); Allergy (f1; MCK; ACT9:251); Amenorrhea (f; MCK; NP9(2):6); 
Anorexia (2; FAD; PHR); Anthrax (f; BIB); Arthrosis (f; ACT9:251); Asthma (f1; BIB; ACT9:251); 
Atherosis (1; X15617879); Biliousness (f; GMH; WOI); Bleeding (f; BIB; HHB; NP9(2):6); Bron-
chosis (f; BIB; BOU; EB49:406); Calculus (f; BIB; WOI); Cancer (f; JLH; WOI; NP9(2):6); Cancer, 
bladder (f1; NP9(2):6); Cancer, breast (f1; HHB; JLH; MAB); Cancer, cervix (f1; HC020444-262); 
Cancer, colon (f1; FNF; JN133:3861S); Cancer, lung (f1; X15224346); Cancer, nose (f; HHB; JLH); 
Cancer, ovary (f1; HC020444-262); Cancer, prostate (f1; X15899838); Cancer, skin (f1; HC020444-
262; NP9(2):6; X15586237); Cancer, tongue (f1; HC020444-262); Cardiopathy (1; X15617879); 
Catarrh (f; BIB; GMH); Cerebrosis (f; ACT9:251); Childbirth (f; HHB); Cholecocystosis (2; APA; 
BIB; PHR; PH2); Cholelithiasis (f; MCK); Cirrhosis (2; BGB; KOM; PH2; SHT); Colic (f; HH3; 
PH2); Colitis (f; ACT9:251); Congestion (f; MCK); Constipation (f; MCK); Cough (f; BIB); Cramp (f; 
BIB); CTS (f1; ACT9:251; HC020444-262); Cystosis (f; HH3); Depression (f; BIB; HC020444-262); 
Dermatosis (f1; BIB; MCK; PED); Diabetes (f1; MAB; WOI; HC020444-262); Diabetic Neuropathy 
(1; MAB); Dropsy (f; BIB; HHB; WOI); Dysmenorrhea (f; APA; HC020444-262); Dyspepsia (f12; 
FAD; KOM; MCK; PH2; SHT; NP9(2):6); Dyspnea (f; EB49:406); Dysuria (f; NP9(2):6); Edema (f1; 
ACT9:251); Enterosis (f; APA; WOI); Erysipelas (f; MCK); FAS (f; ACT9:251); Fever (f1; BIB; EFS; 
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HHB); Fibrosis (1; CGH); Food Allergies (1; WAM); Gallstones (1; HHB; MAB; SKY; HC020444-
262; NP9(2):6); Gastrosis (f; APA); Hematuria (f; HC020444-262; NP9(2):6); Hemoptysis (f; BIB); 
Hemorrhage (f; KAB; MCK); Hemorrhoid (f; BIB; HHB; MAB; WOI); Hepatosis (f12; KOM; PH2; 
SHT; WAM); Hepatosis A (1; BGB); High Blood Pressure (1; MCK; HC020444-262); High Choles-
terol (1; MAB); High Triglycerides (1; CGH; X15177299); Hydrophobia (f; BIB; GMH); Hypereme-
sis (f1; NP9(2):6); Hypotonia (f; HH3); Infection (f; HHB); Inafl mmation (f1; APA; HC020444-262; 
X15617879); Intoxication (1; FAD); Insulin Resistance (1; SYN); Itch (1; MAB); Jaundice (f2; 
BIB; HH3 MAB; PH2; PNC; WAM); Leukemia (f1; HC020444-262; NP9(2):6); Leukorrhea (f; 
BIB); Malaria (f1; BIB; HHB; PHR; PH2; HC020444-262); Menopause (f; HHB); Metastasis (1; 
X15224346); Metrorrhagia (f; HHB); Migraine (f; HH3); MS (f; ACT9:251); MS (1; HC020444-
262); Mushroom Poisoning (2; FAD; SHT); Myalgia (1; HC020444-262); Nausea (f1; MAB; Cyto-
protective (1; NP9(2):6); Nephrosis (f12; BGB; NP9(2):6); Neurosis (f; ACT9:251); Obesity (1; PNC); 
Oligolactea (f; APA); Ovarian Cancer (f1; MAB); Pain (f; NP9(2):6); Pancreatosis (1; X15325843); 
Peritonosis (f; BIB); Phlebitis (f; APA); Plague (f; BIB; GMH); Pleurisy (f; BIB; GMH); Psoriasis 
(f; PED; SKY); Pulmonosis (f; BIB); Snakebite (f; MCK); Sore (f; HHB); Splenosis (f; BGB; BIB; 
HH3; PHR; PH2; NP9(2):6); Steatosis (f; MCK); Swelling (f1; MCK; ACT9:251); Syndrome X (1; 
SYN; X15617879); Ulcer (1; PR14:581); Ulcus cruris (f; HHB; HH3); Urticaria (f; MCK); Uterosis 
(f; BIB; PHR; PH2; WOI); Varices (f; HHB; HH3); Worm (f; BIB).
d osages (milk t Histle ):
FNFF = !!
Deveined leaves eaten as veggies; young shoots boiled and eaten (TAN); heads boiled and eaten like 
artichoke; oilseeds roasted as coffee substitute; roots also eaten like salsify (FAC; MCK); stalks, 
like those of most thistles, are edible and nutritious, but have caused fatalities in cattle (BIB). Seeds 
serve as famine food for humans (BIB), actually sold to me like sunofl wer seed in Pakistan. Seeds 
scorched as coffee substitute, seed oil used for food or lubrication, which might also serve as a fa-m
ine food for humans. 1 tsp (3–5 g) mashed seed/cup water, 3–4 ×/day, 1/2 hour before meals (APA; 
HH3); 1 g seed HHB. 3.5–15 g seed/day (HH3). 4–9 ml/day ufl id extract (1:1) (KOM); 12–15 g 
whole or powdered seed; an equivalent to 200–400 mg silymarin, the collective name for silybinin, 
silydianin, and silychristin (KOM; SHT); 4–9 g/day seed (MAB); one or two 535-mg capsules 3 
×/day; StX 420–840 mg silymarin/day (NH); one to two 540-mg capsules (StX with 175 mg certi-
efi d potency seed extract with at least 80% silymarin, synergically combined in a base of turmeric 
and artichoke) 3 ×/day, with water (NH); 2–3 tsp fresh leaf (sic) (PED); 1–3 g dry leaf (sic) (PED); 
175 mg 80% silymarin StX (PED); 420 mg silymarin/day (PNC); 200–400 mg silymarin (SHT), 
200–600 mg silymarin/day for Syndrome X (SYN).
• American Eclectics use strong seed tincture for amenorrhea, bleeding, dysuria, gallstone, 
congestion, hematuria, hepatosis, hyperemesis, nephrosis, splenosis (NP9(2):6).
• Basque use seed decoction as antiinafl mmatory, antineoplastic, aperient, digestive, 
diuretic, hemostat, hypotensive and venotonic (NP9(2):6).
• Germans use as demulcent in catarrh and pleurisy, for jaundice and biliary disorders 
(GMH).
• Lebanese consider the flower infusion alterative, refrigerant, and tonic (HJP).
• Lebanese boil leaves in vinegar for skin ailments and tonics (HJP).
• Lebanese use astringent vulnerary root for hemorrhoids and worms (HJP).
• Lebanese use seed infusion for stones of gallbladder and liver, and as a hydragogue, -lac
togogue, litholytic, stimulant, and tonic (HJP).
• North Africans suggest the seed tincture is for cough, peritonitis, pulmonitis (or bronchi-
tis), uteral congestion, and varicose veins (BOU).
• Turkish use ground-roasted seed decoction for shortness of breath in bronchosis (EB49:406).
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d ow Nsides (milk t Histle ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2). 
None known (WAM); Commission E reports no contraindications or drug interactions for the fruit. 
Occasional mild laxative effects are reported (AEH). “The long term safety and the advisability of 
the use of these extracts in pregnant or women of potential childbearing remain to be established” 
(LRNP, March 1988). One observational study (n = 2000) reported circa 1% side effects, mostly 
transient GI distress (SHT). “May be used by … pregnant and lactating women (SKY). Antag-o
nizes phentolamine and yohimbine (PH2). One Australian report, attributed to something other 
than silybin in the milk thistle product, suggested abdominal cramping, diaphoresis, diarrhea, na-u
sea, vomiting, and weakness (PH2). Silymarin may induce p450. Milk thistle decreased the trough 
concentrations of indinavir in humans (X15916450).
Natural History (milk t Histle ):
Birds like the seeds, goldfinches getting most of mine. GMH debunks the old birdwatcher’s tale that 
birds line their nests with the thistle down. Most nests are built before the thistle sets seed; coltsfoot 
and willow down are more probable because they seed much earlier, when birds are building.
extra Cts (milk t Histle ):
Milk thistle regenerates injured liver cells (SKY). Silymarin, at 100 mg/kg in rabbit diets, is reported 
to induce p450. Such data weakly suggest that milk thistle might detoxify (or inactivate) drugs deto-x
iefi d by p450. Silymarin, the antihepatotoxic lignan, is hypolipidenic, lowering fatty deposits in the 
livers of experimental animals, and has been used successfully for Hepatosis B virus (PNC). Pre-
treatment with silymarin and silybin gives 100% protection against mushroom poisoning in experi-
mental animals. Posttreatment? When silybin was given ivn to humans within 48 hours of ingesting 
death cap mushroom, it effectively prevented fatalities (PNC). Equally good results were reported 
in Santa Cruz, California, in January 2007. LD50 silibinin 1065 mg/kg ivn mus HH3. LDlo silyma-
rin = 20,000 mg/kg orl mus (MAB); LDlo silymarin = 1000 mg/kg orl dog (MAB); LDlo Extracts 
>16,000 mg/kg orl mus HH3. McCarty (2005) discussed the potential of milk thistle polyphenols 
for reversing fat-induced insulin resistance. He noted intriguing evidence that the beta subunit of the 
signalsome — IKKbeta, a crucial catalyst of NF-kappaB activation — is an obligate mediator of the 
disruption of insulin signaling induced by excessive exposure of tissues to free fatty acids and by 
hypertrophy of adipocytes. He speculated that agents that safely inhibit activation of IKKbeta may 
help reverse insulin resistance and help control type 2 diabetes. He suggests resveratrol (from grapes) 
and silibinin. Dietary silibinin can inhibit the growth of certain cancers in rodents and may have 
potential as an IKKbeta inhibitor. Silymarin also favorably impacts glycemic and lipidemic control 
in type 2 diabetics with cirrhosis. IKKbeta plays a crucial role in insulin resistance, atherogenesis, 
inafl mmatory disorders, and cancer (X15617879). Katiyar (2005) elucidated the anti-inafl mmatory, 
antioxidant, and immunomodulatory potential of silymarin in preventing skin cancer. Silymarin has 
chemopreventive effects against chemical and photocarcinogenesis (X15586237).
Ch ARLo CK (sin Apis A rvensis L.) + BRAss ICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Brassica arvensis Rabenh.; Brassica kaber (DC.) Wheeler.; Brassica sinapis Vis.; Brassica sina-
pistrum Boiss.; Caulis sinapiaster E.H.L.; Eruca arvensis Noulet.; Napus agriasinapis Schimp et 
Spenn.; Raphanus arvensis Crantz.; Rhamphospermum arvense Andrz.; Sinapis kaber DC.; Sina-
pis orientalis L.; Sinapis polymorhpa Geners.; Sinapis schkuhriana Reichb. fide HH2
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FIGURe .0 Charlock (Sinapis arvensis). Source: Regina Hughes in Reed (1970). Colored by Peggy 
Duke.
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Notes (CHarlo Ck):
Another parable put he forth unto them, saying, The kingdom of heaven is like to a grain of mus-
tard seed, which a man took, and sowed in his field: Which indeed is the least of all seeds: but 
when it is grown, it is the greatest among herbs, and becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air 
come and lodge in the branches thereof.
Matthew 13:31–32 (KJV)
Another parable he put before them, saying, “The kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard 
seed which a man took and sowed in his field; it is the smallest of all seeds, but when it has grown 
it is the greatest of shrubs and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and make nests 
in its branches.”
Matthew 13:31–32 (RSV)
Another illustration he set before them, saying, “The kingdom of the heavens is like a mustard 
grain which a man took and planted in his field; which is, in fact, the tiniest of all the seeds, but 
when it has grown it is the largest of the vegetables and becomes a tree, so that the birds of heaven 
come and find lodging among its branches.”
Matthew 13:31–32 (NWT)
Zohary favors Brassica nigra, the black mustard, as the grain of mustard seed in the Bible. As an 
Israeli botanist, he would know better than I that Brassica nigra is the tallest of the local species of 
Brassica and closely related Sinapis, and has seed circa 1 mm. But he also admits that “The Greek 
sinapis is undoubtedly ‘mustard (ZOH).’” No need to quibble about whether it is the least of seed 
or not. (I suspect a mustard seed is hundreds of times heavier than orchid seed, even my Artemisia 
annua seed.) I suspect that in biblical times, as in Maryland efi lds in spring, few but botanists make 
distinctions between the Brassica and Sinapis. Taxonomists still quibble over the genus in which 
to place the charlock, one candidate for the biblical mustard seed. “Mustard is not mentioned in 
the Old Testament but is often referred to in the Mishnah.” (ZOH). Hager’s Handbuch lists a lot of 
common names, phytochemicals, and synonyms, but no indications or activities (HH2). I would use 
it generically with black or white mustard myself. All can be weeds. More PubMed abstracts deal 
with weediness than medicine. But the species share the chemistry and medicine of other Brassica 
and Sinapis.
Commo N Names (CHarlo Ck):
Ackersenf (Ger.; HH2); Ager Sennep (Den.; POR); Agersennep (Den.; POR); Åkersenap (Swe.; 
POR); California Rape (Eng.; USN); Charlock (Eng.; GMH; USN); Collejón (Sp.; USN); Corn 
Kale (Ireland; AAH); Erba Falcona (It.; HH2); False Hederich (Ger.; HH2); Field Mustard (Eng.; 
GMH); Guelot (Fr.; HH2); Herik (Dutch; POR); Jotte (Fr.; HH2); Mostarda (Mad.; Por.; JAD); 
Mostarda-dos-Campos (It.; Por.; POR; USN); Mostaza de los Campos (Sp.; HH2; POR); Mostaza 
Silvestre (Sp.; POR); Moutarde de Champs (Fr.; HH2); Moutarde Savage (Fr.; HH2); Nabinha (Por.; 
POR); Rapaccina (It.; HH2); Ravanello (It.; HH2); Raveluche (Fr.; POR); Rikkasinappi (Fin.; POR); 
Ruche (Fr.; HH2); Sangle (Fr.; HH2); Sangle Wilder Senf (Ger.; HH2); Sanve (Fr.; POR); Sar-a
mago (Mad.; JAD); Senapa dei Campi (It.; HH2); Senape (It.; USN); Senape Selvatica (It.; POR); 
Senapino (It.; HH2); Sénevé, (Fr.; POR); Serapino (It.; POR); Wild Mustard (Eng.; HH2); Yang Ye 
Jie (China; POR).
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a Ctivities (CHarlo Ck):
Diuretic (f; EFS); Dyspepsia (f; EFS); Emetic (f; EFS); Molluscicide (1; X11775093); Ovicide 
(1; X11775093); Rubefacient (f; EFS); Stimulant (f; EFS); Tonic (f; AAH); Trypsin Inhibitor (1; 
X8070965); Vesicant (f; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (CHarlo Ck):
Cancer (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Jaundice (f; AAH); Scurvy (1; AAH); Splenosis (f; JLH).
d osages (CHarlo Ck):
FFFF = !!
Seeds used as mustard substitute or oil source. Irish and Swedes boil it as a green vegetable (GMH).
• Anglicans took a floral preparation for jaundice (AAH).
• Limerick people drank the juice as a spring tonic to prevent disease the rest of the year 
(AAH).
• Shetland Islanders once relied on charlock (leaf with 1300 ppm ascorbic acid) and wild 
radish to contain scurvy (AAH).
d ow Nsides (CHarlo Ck):
Similar to Brassica and Sinapis.
extra Cts (CHarlo Ck):
As with rocket and garlic mustard, the seed oil is closely akin to Lorenzo’s oil, which for awhile was 
promoted as a remedy for certain types of dystrophy.
v INe o F so Do M (sol Anum A nguivi LAM.) + so LANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Solanum hermannii Dunal; Solanum indicum auct.; Solanum indicum subsp. distichum (Thonn.) 
Bitter; Solanum scalare C. H. Wright; Solanum sodomeum L.; Solanum sodomeum var. hermannii 
(Dun.) Dun fide (USN and ZUL).
Notes (v iNe o F s odom ):
For their vine is of the vine of Sodom, and of the fields of Gomorrah; their grapes are grapes of 
gall, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (KJV)
For their vine comes from the vine of Sodom, and from the fields of Gomor’rah; their grapes are 
grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (RSV)
For their vine is from the vine of Sodom, and from the terraces of Gomor’rah; their grapes are 
grapes of poison, their clusters are bitter.
Deuteronomy 32:32 (NWT)
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Non-Israeli writers often identify this as the biblical vine of Sodom, but Israeli Zohary (ZOH) iden-ti
efi s it as Calotropis (which see) and does not identify thisS olanum species or any of its synonyms in 
the Flora of Palestine (FP3). A useless weed in the past, this plant might be investigated as a source of 
steroids. Bad spiny weeds like this might be reduced in whole plant utilization schemes, harvesting the 
biomass for useful phytochemicals, producing power alcohol from the residual biomass in the process. 
(ZUL entries below apply to S. sodomeum var. hermannii.) The American Herbal Products Associa-
tion (AH2) has designated the nameS olanum anguivi as the standardized common name (Scn.) listing 
the ayurvedic name brihati (often spelled brahati), a name often associated withS olanum indicum 
L. But AH2 equates it with Solanum indicum auct., so I cannot necessarily be sure of which species 
they are talking. Solanum indicum L. is also an important and useful species. In theU seful Plants of 
West Tropical Africa (UPW), we read under S. anguivi such appealing names as children’s potato and 
children’s tomato, making them sound a bit more appealing than evil’s apple and Sodom’s apple. UPW 
adds that this is a very polymorphic aggregate of sub-shrubby plants of innumerable infraspecic fi
taxa. Mende of Sierra Leone consider the armed (thorny) variants male, the unarmed females.
Commo N Names (v iNe o F s odom ):
Apple of Sodom (Eng.; HOC); Bitter Apple (Eng.; HOC); Bou Sikroun (Arab.; JLH); Brihati (Ayu.; 
AH2); Children’s Potato (Eng.; UPW); Children’s Tomato (Eng.; UPW) Culuta (Guinea-Bissau; UPW); 
Itchie (Nig.; UPW); Jakato (Sierra Leone; UPW); Katung (Togo; UPW); Kma (Liberia; UPW); Ma-n
sarin Nyateila (Gambia; UPW); Nsusuaa (Ghana; UPW); Sira Korossé (Guinea; UPW); Solanum 
anguivi (Scn.; AH2); Sulu Jato (Gambia; UPW); Teï (Ivo.; UPW); Vine of Sodom (Eng.; BIB).
a Ctivities (v iNe o F s odom ):
Analgesic (f; BIB; ZUL); Antiseptic (f1; BIB; ZUL; X9644084); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB); Bactericide 
(1; X9644084); Diuretic (f; HOC); Molluscicide (1; X10925405); Orexigenic (f; UPW); Poison (f; 
DAW); Tonic (f; UPW); Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (v iNe o F s odom ):
Anorexia (f; UPW); Backache (f; ZUL); Bacteria (1; X9644084); Boil (f; UPW; ZUL); Cancer (f1; 
JLH; X3621146); Cancer, skin (f1; JLH; X3621146); Cataract (f; UPW); Constipation (f; ZUL); 
Cough (f; HOC); Cystosis (f; HOC; ZUL); Dermatosis (f1; BIB; ZUL; X3621146); Dropsy (f; ZUL); 
Edema (f; HOC); Enterosis (f; ZUL); Fever (f; UPW); Fungus (f; BIB); Gas (f; ZUL); Impotence (f; 
BIB; HOC; ZUL); Infection (f1; BIB; X9644084); Infertility (f; BIB; HOC; ZUL); Itch (f; ZUL); 
Keratoacanthoma (1; X3621146); Keratosis (1; X3621146); Leprosy (f; UPW); Mycobacteria (1; 
X9644084); Mycosis (f; BIB); Ophthalmia (f; UPW); Otosis (f; UPW); Pain (f; ZUL); Proctosis 
(f; BIB); Ringworm (f; BIB; UPW); Sore (f; UPW); Swelling (f; HOC); Toothache (f; BIB; ZUL); 
Tumor (f; JLH); Wound (f; BIB; ZUL).
d osages (v iNe o F s odom ):
FNFF = !?
Many species of Solanum, like this one, are reportedly both toxic and edible, and their primitive 
ancestors are more likely to be poisonous than derived cultivars. Even the picturesque Gambian 
names hint of doubt, mansarin nyateila (= the prince who causes blindness) and sulu jato (= hyena’s 
bitter tomato) do not stimulate my appetite. Still, the cherry-tomato-like fruits are eaten and used in 
sauces and soups, and said to stimulate the appetite (UPW).
• Gambians make a collyrium for cataracts and whiteness of the eye from the plant (UPW).
• Ghanans believe the fruits are orexigenic (UPW).
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• Ivory Coastals use leaves against leprosy (UPW).
• Manyika chew the root and spit the juice onto wounds as a vulnerary (BIB).
• North Africans (Morocco, Tunisia) use the plant in cataplasms for cold tumors (JLH).
• South Africans apply the fruit to ringworm in cattle and horses (BIB).
• Tonga hold the fruit onto an aching tooth (BIB).
• Xhosa apply the fruit or root juice to skin ailments (BIB).
• Zulu use the root bark for barrenness and impotency (BIB).
d ow Nsides (v iNe o F s odom ):
Fatal cases of poisoning reported with children for fruits of S. sodomeum var. hermannii. Symp -
toms of human poisoning include colic, cramps, diarrhea, difcfi ulty with speech and vision, dilated 
pupils, dizziness, exhaustion, fever, hallucinations, headache, listlessness, nausea, and sweating 
(ZUL). The root of even S. anguivi is said to be poisonous.
BItte R-AppLe (sol Anum inc Anum L.) ++ so LANACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Solanum sanctum L.
Notes (bitter -a pple):
The way of the slothful man is as an hedge of thorns: but the way of the righteous is made plain.
Proverbs 15:19 (KJV)
The way of a sluggard is overgrown with thorns, but the path of the upright is a level highway.
Proverbs 15:19 (RSV)
The way of the lazy one is like a brier hedge, but the path of the upright ones is a way cast up.
Proverbs 15:19 (NWT)
This is one of the few places where the NWT was the shorter of the triad I often cover (NWT; KJV; 
RSV). I rather doubt that the words brier and thorn are divinely distinct so I will not question these 
trivial differences. Zohary comments that the Hebrewh edek appears only twice in the Bible (Proverbs 
15:19 and Micah 7:4–5), and in either case is associated with a thorny hedge. In Arabhica,d aq refers 
specicfi ally to Solanum incanum. Respecting his opinion, I have cited the Proverbs passage in its three 
versions above. Unlike the vine of Sodom, this S. incanum is reported in the Flora of Palestine, mostly 
in tropical areas of the lower Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea region (ZOH). UPW says this one s-pe
cies is an aggregate of more than 50 that have been recognized species, many individually recognized 
by African farmers. They even speculate that it came to Africa from Asia via Egypt 400 to 500 years 
b.c. A component of some arrow poisons and love philtres. Ethiopians use the fruits as a condiment in 
certain beverages. Leaves not used as a potherb. A glyc-oalkaloid content up to 4.81% is found in some 
races, particularly the one cultivated by the Paniya tribe of Iritty, North Kerala. Bushmen use the fruit 
juice in arrow poison. Root and seed contain a renne-ltike enzyme (BIB).
Commo N Names (bitter -a pple):
‘Ain al Baqar (Arab.; GHA); Akumba (Upper Volta; UPW); Angulai (Tigrinia; KAB); Angulle 
(Tigrinia; KAB); ‘Arsam (Arab.; GHA); ‘Arsan (Arab.; GHA); Atoropo (Ghana; UPW); Ba Koyo 
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(Guinea; UPW); Bitter Apple (Eng.; S. Afr.; KAB); Bitterappel (S. Afr.; ZUL); Bitter Tomato (Eng.; 
UPW); Brien (Eng.; RSV; ZOH); Culuta (Guinea-Bissau; UPW); Data (Liberia; UPW); Djang (Ce-m
eroons; UPW); Eggplant (Eng.; UPW); Fambora (Sen.; UPW); Garden Egg (Eng.; UPW); Gifappel 
(S. Afr.; ZUL); Gray Nightshade (Eng.; ZOH); Grysbitterappel (S. Afr.; ZUL); Hadak (Arab.; GHA; 
ZOH); Háw Mòy (Niger; UPW); Hedek (Heb.; ZOH); Helkem (Dho.; GHA); Ikan (?; FAC); Kaurat-
rim (Brahui; KAB); Koro Kaneil (Mali; UPW); Kujakataku (Gambia; UPW); Mazg (Arab.; GHA); 
‘Mazj (Oman; GHA); Meringam (?; FAC); Morola (Pedi; KAB); Nuqum (Yemen; GHA); Palestine 
Nightshade (Eng.; FAC); Tarku (Nig.; UPW); Thola (Suto; KAB); Thorn (Eng.; RSV; ZOH); Thorn 
Apple (Eng.; S. Afr.; ZUL); Ungulleh (Tigrinia; KAB); Yalo (Sierra Leone; UPW); Nscn.
a Ctivities (bitter -a pple):
Anodyne (f; BIB; UPW); Anticancer (f1; X15527763); Antiedemic (f1; HDN); Antihepatomic (1; 
X11108802); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; HDN); Antiseptic (f1; HDN; ZUL); Antitachycardic (1; HDN); 
Apoptotic (1; X8954074; X15527763); Bactericide (1; ZUL); Carcinogenic (f1; BIB); Cardiodepre-s
sant (1; HDN); Caspase-3 Inducer (1; X15527763); Cholagogue (1; HDN); Contraceptive (f; BIB); 
Cytotoxic (1; JNP53:513); Diuretic (f; HDN); Expectorant (f; HDN); Febrifuge (f1; HDN); Hepato-
protective (1; HDN; PM54:222); Hypotensive (1; HDN); Insectifuge (f; HDN); Piscicide (f1; BIB; 
HDN); Poison (f; BIB); Spasmolytic (f1; HDN); Stomachic (f; UPW); TNF Inducer (1; X8954074).
iNdi Catio Ns (bitter -a pple):
Bacteria (1; ZUL); Bleeding (f; ZUL); Bloat (f; BIB); Bronchosis (f; HDN); Bruise (f; GHA); Burn (f; 
UPW); Calculus (f; BIB); Cancer (f1; JLH; HDN; X15527763); Cancer, lung (f1; JLH; X15527763); 
Carbuncle (f; BIB); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Caries (f; UPW); Catarrh (f; UPW); Colic (f; HDN); Co-n
stipation (f; BIB); Cough (f; UPW); Cramp (f1; HDN); Craw-craw (f; HDN); Dandruff (f; HDN; 
ZUL); Dermatosis (f; HDN); Diarrhea (f; HDN; UPW); Dysmenorrhea (f; HDN); Dyspepsia (f; 
GHA; HDN; UPW); Earache (f; GHA; HDN; UPW); Edema (f1; HDN); Enterosis (f; ZUL); Ep-i
lepsy (f; HDN); Epistaxis (f; BIB); Epithelioma (f; JLH); Fever (f1; HDN); Fungus (1; HDN); Gas (f; 
GHA); Gastrosis (f; UPW); Gonorrhea (f; HDN); Headache (f; HDN); Hematuria (f; UPW); Hemo-r
rhoid (f; GHA); Hepatoma (1; X11108802); Hepatosis (f1; BIB; HDN; ZUL); Herpes (f; HDN); High 
Blood Pressure (1; HDN); Infection (f1; HDN; ZUL); Infertility (f; BIB); Inafl mmation (f1; HDN); 
Itch (f; BIB); Laryngosis (f; UPW); Melanoma (f; JLH); Myalgia (f; HDN); Mycosis (1; HDN); 
Nephrosis (f; BIB); Neuralgia (f; UPW); Neurosis (f; HDN); Ophthalmia (f; UPW); Pain (f; HDN; 
UPW); Pleurisy (f; HDN; KAB); Pneumonia (f; HDN; KAB); Pulmonosis (f; BIB; KAB); Rhino -
sis (f; UPW); Ringworm (f; UPW); Ringworm (f1; BIB; HDN; ZUL); Quinsy (f; UPW); Scabies 
(f; BIB); Snakebite (f; HDN; ZUL); Sore (f; HDN); Sore Throat (f; HDN; KAB); Staphylococcus 
(1; ZUL); Stomachache (f; UPW); Swelling (f; UPW); Syphilis (f; HDN); Tachycardic (1; HDN); 
Tonsilosis (f; HDN); Toothache (f; GHA; HDN; KAB); Trichophytosis (1; HDN); Tumor (f; JLH); 
Venereal Disease (f; HDN); Vertigo (f; HDN; UPW); Wound (f; GHA; HDN).
d osages (bitter -a pple):
FNFF = !!
Green fruits eaten raw or diced and added to soups, fresh or dried; seeds used to curdle milk; leaves 
of some cultivars. edible cooked in soups; used as vegetable rennet (BIB; FAC; TAN; UPW).
• Arabians boil berries in oil to make eardrops (GHA).
• Arabians direct smoke from burning dried berries toward hemorrhoids (GHA).
• Congolese use leaf sap as expectorant in bronchosis and spasmodic coughs, a throat paint 
for laryngitis, quinsy, sore throat, and tonsilitis (UPW).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Ethiopians use the leaf for bloat and epistaxis; the fruit for calculus, constipation, gon-or
rhea, itch, renitis, and wounds; the root for gonorrhea; and the ash for scabies (BIB).
• Europeans in South Africa use the fruit juice for dandruff (BIB).
• Guinea natives gargle the decoction or tea for sore throat or take for dyspepsia or sto-m
achache (UPW).
• Omani insert sore fingers in fruits to draw out pus (GHA).
• Paniya women use as contraceptive, while barren Nigerians viewed as fertility symbol 
(BIB).
• Pedi take roasted plant for pleurisy, pneumonia, the decoction for other chest problems 
(KAB).
• South Africans poultice fruits onto external benign tumors (JLH).
• Sutos of South Africa use plant for sore throat and toothache (KAB).
• Taiwanese use the rhizomes for hepatitis (ZUL).
• Tanganyikans insert flower in ear for earache (UPW)
• Tanganyikans use root for abdominal pain, carbuncles, and hepatosis; the fruit for sna-ke
bite; and the gall for earache (BIB).
• Tanzanians use for dandruff, dermatosis, earache, gonorrhea, hepatosis, pneumonia, 
ringworm, sore, syphilis, and wounds (ZUL).
• Yemeni and Dhofari inhale smoke from burning seeds for toothache (GHA).
• Zimbabweans use roots for dysmenorrhea; gastrointestinal, respiratort, and venereal 
complaints; and toothache (ZUL).
• Zulu use the juice of the plant for ringworm (BIB).
d ow Nsides (bitter -a pple):
“Aqueous fruit extract causes skin carcinoma in animals” (HDN). Unripe fruit and other parts poiso-n
ous to animals, inducing bloat, colic, diarrhea, paralysis, polypnea, salivation, and tachycardia (ZUL).
BRoo MCo RN (sorghum bicolor (L.) Moe NCh.) ++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Andropogon sorghum Brot.; Andropogon bicolor Roxb.; Holcus saccharatus; Holcus sorghum L.; 
Sorghum saccharatum (L.) Moench; Sorghum vulgare Pers.
Notes (broom Cor N):
Now there was set a vessel full of vinegar: and they filled a sponge with vinegar, and put it upon 
hyssop, and put it to his mouth.
John 19:29 (KJV)
A bowl full of vinegar stood there; so they put a sponge full of the vinegar on hyssop and held it 
to his mouth.
John 19:29 (RSV)
A vessel was sitting there full of full of sour wine. Therefore they put a spongeful of the sour wine 
upon a hyssop [stalk] and brought it to his mouth.
John 19:29 (NWT)
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
FIGURe .0 Broomcorn (Sorghum bicolor).
While I suspect the odds are with Zohary, who identiefi s this biblical quote with Syrian hyssop 
(Origanum syriacum), I find it easier to visualize bunches of sorghum, much as mother used as dry 
ofl ral arrangements in rural Alabama. That is, back when poor white southerners used sorghum 
syrup on their corn cakes and one uncle who grew the sorghum still had oxen. Yes, I can see evil 
guards mockingly offering a thirsty prisoner a vinegar-soaked head of sorghum. I am not the only 
one who offers this alternative for some of the hyssop passages in the Bible. Even Zohary admits that 
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sorghum is better suited than common millet to the Israeli climate, thriving both in the lowlands and 
uplands as a very productive summer crop, even without irrigation. Zohary asserts that the species is 
known to have moved from East Africa via southwest Asia to India, archaeologically confirmed at 
circa 2000b .c. Little will readers suspect, but sorghum is usually what was intended when corn was 
mentioned in the Bible (there was no corn sensu Zea mays in the old world before Columbus).
Commo N Names (broom Cor N):
Ägyptische Zeiskorn (Ger.; EFS); Akoko (Ga; KAB); Alboro’o (Sal.; AVP); Alcandia (Sp.; KAB); 
Amabele (Zulu; KAB); Ampemby (Hova; KAB); Awi (Twi; KAB); Bajrajhopanwa (Nwp.; Oudh 
KAB); Bakaka (Sakalave; KAB); Balai (Fr.; KAB); Balais de Jonc (Fr.; AVP); Bassiqui (Gambia; 
KAB); Batad (Vis.; KAB); Blé de Guinée (Fr.; AVP); Bondajanu (Tel.; KAB); Broom Corn (Eng.; 
DEP; EFS); Caña Dulce (Mex.; AVP); Challu (Peru; AVP); Chari (Pun.; KAB); Chavela (Ker.; Mal.; 
Mar.; DEP; KAB; SKJ); Chinese Sugarcane (Eng.; DEP); Cholam (Tam.; DEP; KAB; SKJ); Cholum 
(Sri.; KAB); Chotri Junri (Pun.; DEP); Dari (Tur.; EFS); Dari Seed (Malta; KAB); Dawa (Sudan; 
AVP); Deodhan (Bom.; Hindu; DEP; EFS); Devatadhanyamu (Tel.; DEP); Dhura (Arab.; DEP); 
Dhutar (Baghwana; KAB); Dirghamala (Sanskrit; SKJ); Djagung Roté (Malaya; EFS); Dura (It.; 
AVP); Durra (Eng.; Arab.; Egypt; Ven.; AVP; DEP; EFS); Durrha (Ger.; EFS); Egyptian Millet (Eng.; 
EFS); Escoba (Peru; EGG); Escoba Millo (Ven.; AVP); Fo (Ewe; Krepi; KAB); Ganggai (Mun.; KAB); 
Gao Liang (Pin.; DAA); Grand Millet (Fr.; EFS); Great Millet (Eng.; DEP; EFS); Guinea Corn (Eng.; 
DEP; EFS); Hirse (Ger.; AVP); Ikshupatraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Indian Millet (Eng.; DEP); Janera 
(Hindi; KAB); Jaoriturkimani (Afg.; KAB); Jaundri (Bom.; KAB); Jerusalem Corn (Eng.; EFS); Joar 
(Hindi; Kum.; DEP); Jolah (Kan.; Mysore; KAB; SKJ); Jondla (Dec.; DEP; KAB); Jovaree (India; 
EFS); Jowari (Las Bela; KAB); Juar (Kon.; KAB); Junali (Bhabar; Kum.; DEP; KAB); Junri (Nwp.; 
DEP); Kadval (Mar.; DEP; KAB); Kafferkorn (Ger.; EFS); Kafferkorn Gras (Dutch; EFS); Kaffir 
Corn (S. Afr.; KAB); Kangra (Bom.; DEP); Kaoliang (China; DEP; EFS); Karaliringu (Sin.; KAB); 
Kasajonar (Beng.; KAB); Kayda (Arab.; Egypt; DEP); Kaydi (Arab.; Egypt; KAB); Kiosagi (Afg.; 
DEP); Koko (Krobo; KAB); Kurbi (Beng.; DEP); Maía de Guinea (Peru; EGG); Maicillo (Cr.; AVP); 
Mais de Millo (Cr.; AVP); Mais Millo (Col.; AVP); Melca (Cat.; KAB); Miglio Saggina (It.; EFS); 
Mijo (Sp.; AVP); Mil (Fr.; AVP); Milho (Por.; KAB); Milhozaburro Vermelho (Por.; AVP); Mil-
langue (Lan.; KAB); Millo (Cuba; Pr.; Sp.; AVP); Milo (Sp.; EFS); Milocolo (Por.; AVP); Moham-
madisa (Makran; KAB); Mohrenbartgras (Ger.; EFS); Mohrhirse (Ger.; AVP; EFS); Moorhirse (Ger.; 
KAB); Nirgol (Kan.; DEP); Petit Mil (Haiti; AVP); Phag (India; DEP); Pti Mil (Haiti; AVP); Pyoung 
(Burma; DEP); Quav Ntsuas (Hmong; EB57:365); Saggina (It.; AVP; EFS); Saina (Sp.; KAB); Salu 
(Mar.; DEP); Serçe Darici (Tur.; EFS); Shalu (Dec.; Mar.; DEP; KAB); Shu Shu (China; KAB); Sorga 
a Scopa (It.; EFS); Sorghohirse (Ger.; EFS); Sorgo (Cuba; Peru; Por.; Pr.; Rus.; AVP; EFS; EGG; 
KAB); Sorgo Azucarado (Sp.; EFS); Sorgo Commun (Guad.; AVP); Sorgo Escobero (Peru; EGG); 
Sorgo Forrejero (Ven.; AVP); Sorghum (Eng.; JAD); Sundia (Guj.; DEP; KAB); Talla (Tel.; DEP); 
Targhar (Babian Shahrig; KAB); Tella Jonna (Tam.; Tel.; DEP; NAD); Thuthera (Cp.; KAB); Ti Chê 
(China; EFS); Ti Liang (China; EFS); Triguillo (Sal.; AVP); Varifemba (Betsileo; KAB); Vermelho 
(Por.; AVP); Zhurna (Sanskrit; DEP); Zura (Arab.; KAB); Nscn.
a Ctivities (broom Cor N):
Anthelmintic (f; WBB); Antiabortive (f; AHL; BIB); Antioxidant (1; JAF51:6657); Aphrodisiac (f; KAB; 
SKJ); Cyanogenic (1; WOI); Demulcent (f; BIB; EFS; KAB; PH2; SKJ; WOI); Depurative (f; KAB); 
Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS; KAB; WOI); Emollient (f; BIB; EFS); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Stomachic (f; LMP).
iNdi Catio Ns (broom Cor N):
Anorexia (f; KAB); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; BIB); Bronchosis (f; JFM); Burn (f; JLH; 
TOM); Cancer (f; JLH; KAB); Congestion (f; JFM); Cough (f; JFM); Cystosis (f; FEL; KAB); 
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Debility (f; BIB); Dermatosis (f; WBB); Diarrhea (f; JFM; WBB); Dyspepsia (f; PH2); Dysuria 
(f; BIB; KAB); Eczema (f; WBB); Epilepsy (f; BIB); Flu (f; BIB); Goiter (f; JFM); Hemorrhoid (f; 
KAB); Malaria (f; WBB); Mastosis (f; WBB); Measles (f; BIB; JFM); Nephrosis (f; BIB; KAB; 
TOM); Pulmonosis (f; JFM); Stomachache (f; BIB); Swelling (f; WBB); Tuberculosis (f; BIB; WBB); 
Worm (f; WBB).
d osages (broom Cor N):
FNFF = !!!
Seeds an important cereal in many cultures. Palestinean eat the hyssop (or “Jerusalem corn”) a main 
and nutritious part of their diet. The grains are gathered and ground for meal used in baking coarse 
bread. A single fruiting head can be large enough to feed a family. Some suggest that the “parched 
corn” Ruth received from Boaz was sorghum. Pearled grain cooked like rice or ground into ofl ur. 
Hondurans pop the seeds like popcorn. Parched seed used as coffee substitute. Stalks used as a-ni
mal feed, and the seed for bird feed. Important for silage or hayS. orghums with large juicy stems 
are used in the manufacture of syrup, sugar, or energy alcohol. Hmong report the stems edible, and 
source of sugar (BIB; EFS; JFM; EB57:365). Decoct 1 Tbsp powdered toasted seed (JFM). Decoct 
2 oz seed/qt water for cystosis (FEL).
• American Blacks take the seed decoction for bladder, kidney, and urinary complaints 
(KAB).
• Arubans poultice heated seeds in oil on backs of pulmonary patients who drink a hot tea 
of a diaphoretic Pectis (JFM).
• Brazilians drink seed decoction for bronchosis, cough, and other pulmonary complaints 
(JFM).
• Curacaons drink the leaf tea for measles (JFM).
• Lebanese use sorghum gruel for debility due to lung maladies like tuberculosis (HJP).
• Lebanese use hot sorghum as a poultice (HJP).
• Venezuelans decoct 1 Tbsp seed, with or without lemon, for diarrhea (JFM).
d ow Nsides (broom Cor N):
No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) (PH2 designates no sp-e
cicfi quantiefi d dosage!; JAD.) Cyanide poisoning can occur in grazing animals overgrazing the foliage, 
especially wilted foliage (WOI). Still, replacing African sorghum with AmericanZ ea has generated 
an epidemic in squamous carcinoma of the esophagus.F usarium fungi grow freely on maize, produc-
ing fumonisins, which reduce nitrates to nitrites and synthesize cancer-producing nitrosamines. Nitr-o
samines are carcinogens.F usarium fungi do not thrive on sorghum, sorghum producing two orders 
of magnitude less fumonisins than maize. The higher incidence of esophageal cancer in black males 
is ascribed to their greater consumption of traditional beer, which is produced by fermenting maize. 
Patients with esophageal cancer consume more beer than controls. Countries in Africa, where the staple 
is still sorghum, have a low incidence of squamous carcinoma of the esophagus (X15617883).
Natural History (broom Cor N):
Major diseases reported on sorghums include Cercospora sorghi, Colletotrichum graminicola 
(anthracnose of leaves and stems), Helminthosporium turcicum (leaf blight), Macrophomina pha-
seoli (charcoal rot), Periconia circinata (milo disease), Phyllachora sorghi, Phyllosticta sorghi, 
Puccinis purpurea (rust), Ramulispora sorghi (sooty strip), Sclerospora sorghi (downy mildew), 
Sorosporium ehrenbergii, Sphacelia sorghi, Sphacelotheca sorghi (covered smut), Sph. cruenta 
(loose smut), and Sph. reiliana (head smut). Plants are also severely attacked by various species of 
Striga (S. lutea, S. hermontheca, S. senegalensis, S. densiflora ). Nematodes isolated from sorghum 
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include the following species: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. pseudorobustus, Hoplo-
laimus pararobustus, Meloidogyne javanica, Peltamigratus nigeriensis, Pratylenchus brachyurus, 
P. zeae, Quinisulcius acutus, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema cavenessi, S. clathricauda-
tum, Tylenchorhynchus acutus, and T. parvus (HOE).
extra Cts (broom Cor N):
Molasses, derived from the seeds, was used with sulfur as a spring tonic in rural Alabama (TOM). 
(I remember my father and mother talking about it, but do not know that they ever toniefi d me 
therewith but we did occasionally use it as syrup on pancakes.) Dicko et al. (2005) screened 50 s-or
ghum varieties. Germination did not affect the content in total phenolic compounds but decreased 
the content of proanthocyanidins, 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, and afl van-4-ols. Sorghum grains with 
pigmented testa, chestnut color glumes, and reddish plants had higher contents, a larger diversity 
of phenolics, and more antioxidant activities. Among varieties used for to, dolo, couscous, and 
porridge preparation, the dolo (local beer) varieties had more and more diverse phenolics and the 
highest antioxidant activities. 3-Deoxy-anthocyanidins, namely apigenidenins and luteolinidins, are 
abundant in sorghum grains but rare or absent in other plants. Leucoapigenidenin (apiforol) and 
leucoluteolinidin (luteoforol) may confer resistance to mould (X15796598).
BeNZo IN (styr Ax benzoin DRyANDeR.) ++ sty RACACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Benzoin officinale Hayne; Lithocarpus benzoin Bt. fide HH2
Notes (beNzoi N):
They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and 
poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit 
whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (KJV)
They sacrifice on the tops of the mountains, and make offerings upon the hills, under oak, poplar, 
and terebinth, because their shade is good. Therefore your daughters play the harlot, and your 
brides commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (RSV)
On the tops of the mountain they sacrifice and on the hills they make sacrificial smoke, under 
massive tree and storax tree and big tree because its shade is good. That is why your daughters 
commit fornication and your own daughters in law commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (NWT)
While the PH2 covers three species of the genus Styrax and one of the genus Liquidambar, few 
people can identify the resins of these trees, the product of commerce. Recent authorities maintain 
that the “incense” used in the service of the Tabernacle was a mixture, in definite proportions of 
frankincense, galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua ), onycha (Styrax benzoin), and stacte (Styrax officina -
lis), and the use of any incense not composed of these four ingredients in the proper proportions was 
strictly forbidden (BIB). I certainly do not want to rock city hall, especially a biblical city hall. AH2 
likewise covers three species (S. benzoin, S. paralleloneurum, and S. tonkinensis), giving them 
all the same standardized common name, that of “benzoin tree.” Zohary discusses only one sp-e
cies, identifying it as S. officinalis . He notes that the Hebrew livneh occurs only twice in the Bible, 
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FIGURe .0 Benzoin (Styrax benzoin).
regarding the Hosea quote as “definitely styrax,” which he identiefi s as Styrax officinalis , which is 
reportedly native to Israel. This is a more humid Asian species, reported from India, Cambodia, 
Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Java, Sumatra, and Malaysia (USN). Thus, this species hist-ori
cally would have needed to be imported from outside Israel.
Commo N Names (beNzoi N):
An Hsi Hsiang (China; EFS); Árbol de Benjuí (Sp.; USN); Arbre à Benjoin (Fr.; USN); Asilbent (Tur.; 
EFS); Bantung (Sumatra; IHB); Belzuino (It.; EFS); Benjamin Tree (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Benjoim de 
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Sumatra (Por.; HH2); Benjoin (Fr.; EFS); Benjoin de Sumatra (Fr.; HH2); Benjui (Sp.; EFS); Benjui 
de Sumatra (Sp.; HH2); Benzoë Baum (Ger.; EFS); Benzoë Boom (Dutch; EFS); Benzoin Tree (Eng.; 
Scn.; AH2); Estoraque (Sp.; EFS); Gum Benjamin Tree (Eng.; EFS); Gum Benzoin (Eng.; HH2); 
Kamanan (Malaya; EFS); Kamayan (Malaya; EFS); Kaminan (Malaya; EFS); Kemenjan (Malaya; 
EFS); Kemenyan (Indonesia; Java; Sumatra; IHB; USN); Luban (Beng.; Bom.; Hindi; India; EFS; 
SKJ); Manan (Malaya; EFS); Melláina (It.; EFS); Minan (Malaya; EFS); Ngan Si Hsiang (China; 
EFS); Onycha (Eng.; USN); Pokok Kemenyan (Malaya; IHB); Shambirani (Madras; SKJ); Shan 
Fan Ye (Pin.; DAA); Siam Storace Benzoino (It.; EFS); Storaxbaum (Ger.; USN); Styraxtree (Eng.; 
USN); Sumatra Benzoin (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2; HH2); Sumatra Benzointree (Eng.; USN); Talanan 
(Sumatra; IHB); Snowbell (Eng.; EFS); Wohlriechender Asant-Baum (Ger.; EFS).
a Ctivities (beNzoi N):
Allergenic (1; X6239881); Anesthetic (f1; FNF); Anticancer (f1; FNF); Antiinflammatory (f1; FNF); 
Antimutagenic (1; FNF); Antioxidant (1; FNF); Antiseptic (f1; CRC; DEP; EFS; SKJ); Antispasmodic 
(f1; FNF); Antiviral (1; FNF); Aphrodisiac (f; DEP; LMP); Bactericide (1; FNF); Carminative (f; BIB; 
CRC; WOI); Deodorant (f; CRC); Disinfectant (f; CRC); Diuretic (f; CRC); Expectorant (f1; CRC; PH2; 
SKJ); Fungicide (1; FNF); Immunostimulant (1; FNF); Insecticide (1; CRC); Insectifuge (f1; FNF); 
Larvicide (1; IHB); Laxative (f1; FNF); Narcotic (f1; FNF); Nematicide (1; FNF); Sedative (f1; CRC; 
FNF; LMP); Stimulant (f; CRC; DEP; EFS; LMP); Vermifuge (f1; FNF); Vulnerary (f; CRC; EFS).
iNdi Catio Ns (beNzoi N):
Arthrosis (f; CRC); Asthma (f; DEP); Bacteria (1; FNF); Bronchosis (f; BIB; CRC); Cancer (f1; 
CRC; FNF; JLH); Cardalgia (f; LMP); Catarrh (f; CRC; PH2); Circumcision (f; CRC); Cold sore 
(f; CRC; JFM); Colic (f; CRC); Constipation (f1; FNF); Corn (f; JLH); Coryza (f; IHB); Cough 
(f1; CRC); Cramp (f1; FNF); Cystosis (f; DEP); Dermatosis (f; IHB; LMP); Diarrhea (f; DAD); 
Earache (f1; FNF); Enteralgia (f; LMP); Fever (f; IHB); Fungus (1; FNF); Gastrosis (f; PH2); Gout 
(1; FNF); Heart (f; LMP); Hemorrhoid (f; LMP); Herpes (f; CRC); Infection (f1; CRC; EFS; SKJ); 
Inafl mmation (f1; FNF); Insomnia (f1; FNF); Itch (f; IHB); Labor (f; LMP); Laryngitis (f; BIB; 
CRC; IHB); Mastosis (f; CRC; IHB); Mucososis (f; DEP); Mycosis (1; FNF); Nipple (f; IHB); Pain 
(f; LMP; PH2); Pharyngosis (f; IHB); Phthisis (f; DEP); Podiatry (f; IHB); Polio (1; FNF); Polyp 
(f; JLH); Pulmonosis (f; PH2); Respirosis (f; PH2); Rheumatism (f; IHB; LMP); Rhinosis (f; JLH); 
Ringworm (f; CRC; IHB); Shingle (f; CRC); Sickle Cell Anemia (1; FNF); Spermatorrhea (f; CRC); 
Stomachache (f; PH2); Stroke (f; LMP; PH2); Syncope (f; LMP; PH2); Ulcer (1; FNF); Virus (1; 
FNF); Worm (f1; FNF); Wound (f1; CRC; EFS); Yeast (1; FNF).
d osages (beNzoi N):
FNFF = !
In the United States, Sumatra benzoin (S. benzoin and S. paralleoneurus) is more customarily used 
in pharmaceutical preparations, Siam benzoin S(. tonkinensis et al.) in the afl vor and fragrance 
industries; for example, in alcoholic beverages, baked goods, beverages, candy, desserts, gelatins, 
and puddings, the highest average maximum level was circa 0.014% in baked goods and candies. 
Benzoin adds the gloss to chocolate eggs, the turbidity to syrups, and some of the afl vor to baked 
goods, candies, chewing gums, gelatins, ice creams, puddings, and soft drinks (DAD; FAC). For 
topical Friar’s or Turlington’s Balsam (each 100 ml contains an alcohol extract from 10 g benzoin, 
8 g storax, 4 g balsam of Tolu, and 2 g aloe); for cold sores, cracked skin, and indolent ulcers 
(BIB).
• Malayans have used a reddish root extract to kill butteryfl larvaeP (arasa herbifera) (IHB).
• Malayans use benzoin for cracked feet and circumcisions (IHB).
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d ow Nsides (beNzoi N):
Class 1 (AHP).
Natural History (beNzoi N):
Fungi of the genus Pestalotia attack the tree. Termites quickly destroy the timber. Animals eat the 
seeds (DAD).
sto RAx (styr Ax officin Alis L.) ++ sty RACACeAe
Notes (storax ):
They sacrifice upon the tops of the mountains, and burn incense upon the hills, under oaks and 
poplars and elms, because the shadow thereof is good: therefore your daughters shall commit 
whoredom, and your spouses shall commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (KJV)
They sacrifice on the tops of the mountains, and make offerings upon the hills, under oak, poplar, 
and terebinth, because their shade is good. Therefore your daughters play the harlot, and your 
brides commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (RSV)
On the tops of the mountain they sacrifice and on the hills they make sacrificial smoke, under 
massive tree and storax tree and big tree because its shade is good. That is why your daughters 
commit fornication and your own daughters in law commit adultery.
Hosea 4:13 (NWT)
Of the three versions, only the NWT agrees with Zohary — that the poplar of Hosea 4:13 (KJV, 
RSV) is styrax, livneh in Hebrew. While the PH2 covers three species of the genus Styrax and one 
of the genus Liquidambar, few people can identify the resins of these trees, the product of com-
merce. Recent authorities maintain that the “incense” used in the service of the Tabernacle was a 
mixture, in definite proportions of frankincense, galbanum ( Ferula galbaniflua ), onycha (Styrax 
benzoin), and stacte S( tyrax officinalis ), and the use of any incense not composed of these four 
ingredients in the proper proportions was strictly forbidden (BIB). I certainly do not want to rock 
city hall.
EFS aggregates the common names for this andS tyrax benzoin, but I have included them only under 
Styrax benzoin. Few, if any, could today identify the plant by its resin, and not too many could positively 
identify even with ofl wers and fruits and foliage. Hence, I doubt we will ever be sure just which species 
were imported into the Holy Land and mentioned in the Bible, be it as poplar (balm) or storax. I will 
resist the temptation to lump the S. benzoin and S. officinalis . The USDA does not. They suggest the 
distribution of S. officinalis as Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey in western Asia, Albania, 
Greece (including Crete), Italy, and Yugoslavia in Europe. Zohary adds that this species occurs in Israel’s 
evergreen forest (maquis). It seems to have fewer reported activities and indications thanS tyrax benzoin. 
But it is the more likely candidate to be Hosea’s poplar (KJV, RSV) or styrax (NWT).
Commo N Names (storax ):
Abhar (Arab.; ZOH); Alibouefi r (Fr.; USN); Boe (Bom.; SKJ); Estoraque (Sp.; EFS); Libna (Arab.; 
ZOH); Livneh (Heb.; ZOH); Maiaa (Arab.; JLH); Mia (Arab.; JLH); Silajit (Beng.; SKJ); Storax 
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FIGURe .0 Storax (Styrax officinalis ).
(Eng.; JLH; NWT; USN); Storax Tree (Eng.; FAC); Styrax (Eng.; BIB); True Storax (Eng.; DEP); 
Usturak (Arab.; Bom.; DEP; SKJ); Nscn.
a Ctivities (storax ):
Antiseptic (f; EFS); Emmenagogue (f; HJP); Expectorant (f; EFS; SKJ); Piscicide (f; ZOH); Stimu-
lant (f; EFS; SKJ); Vulnerary (f; EFS).
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
iNdi Catio Ns (storax ):
Cold (f; HJP); Dermatosis (f; HJP); Fever (f; JHP); Hysteria (f; HJP); Infection (f; HJP); Pulmonosis 
(f; HJP); Venereal Disease (f; HJP).
d osages (storax ):
FNFF = !
The balsamic gum or resin is sometimes used as a condiment (FAC).
• Arabs use the resin in sesame oil for tumors (JLH).
• Asians suggest 1/2 to 10 grains internally as a stimulant (DEP).
• Lebanese combine resin with alcohol as antiseptic or disinfectant (HJP).
• Lebanese combine the resin with butter, honey, or olive oil as skin ointment (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest the diluted resin for venereal diseases (HJP)
d ow Nsides (storax ):
As of July 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed this species.
seA BLIte ( su Aed A spp.) ++ Che Nopo DIACeAe
Notes (s ea blite ):
There are so few ethnobotanical data on the many species of this genus (ten in Israel alone) that I 
have taken the generic approach here. Zohary lists two quotes of place names in 1 Chronicles that 
he thinks trace back to the Hebrew shahor, Ashhur (1 Chronicles 4:5) and Sheharaih (1 Chronicles 
8:26). Saline deserts are also mentioned three times as mlehah but nowhere is the plant mentioned 
by the plant’s name, although it is one of the most frequent components of this characteristic vegeta-
tion type (ZOH). Yemeni extract a black dye from stems of S. monoica mixed with henna (GHA). 
The KAB common names apply either to Suaeda fruticosa and/or Suaeda monoica. DEP entries 
apply to S. fruticosa, S. maritima, and S. nudiflora .
Commo N Names (s ea blite ):
Almajo (Sp.; KAB); Almajo Dulce (Sp.; KAB); Ashhur (Heb.; ZOH); Baggilana (Pun.; DEP; KAB); 
Bui (Delhi; WOI); Chotee Lanu (Hindi; Pun.; NAD; WOI); Choti Lani (Pun.; DEP); Common Indian 
Saltwort (Eng.; WOI); Dana (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Geria (Oriya; DEP; WOI); Ghobbejia Tarrmied 
(Malta; KAB); Hoettum (Tigre; KAB); Ila Kura (Tel.; DEP; WOI); Inkbos (Afrikan; KAB); Inkbush 
(Eng.; S. Afr.; KAB); Kaku (Arab.; GHA); Karuvumari; (Tam.; KAB); Khari Lani (Hindi; Sin.; DEP; 
WOI); Kharkhusa (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Khaskhasa (India; Pun.; DEP; KAB); Khreiza (Arab.; GHA); 
Kiray (Tam.; DEP); Koyyalakura (Tel.; KAB); Lana (Mar.; Pun.; DEP; WOI); Lana Lani (Guj.; Mar.; 
WOI); Lani (Kohlu; Pun.; Sharag; Sibi; DEP; KAB); Lano (Guj.; Mar.; WOI); Leonuk (Pun.; NAD); 
Lonia (Delhi; WOI); Lunak (Hindi; Pun.; DEP; KAB; NAD; WOI); Lunki (Raj.; WOI); Molleih 
(Arab.; GHA); Moras (Guj.; Mar.; WOI); Morasa (Bom.; Mar.; DEP; KAB; NAD); Nariumari (Tam.; 
WOI); Nunkhuri (Delhi; WOI); Phesaklane (Pun.; DEP; KAB); Rava Hada (Tel.; DEP); Rava Kada 
(Tel.; WOI); Righat (Jhalawan; Kalat; KAB); Rigilah (Arab.; GHA); Samai (Pun.; DEP); Sea Blite 
(Eng.; Malta; FAC; KAB); Shahor (Heb.; ZOH); Sheharaih (Heb.; ZOH); Shorag (Afg.; DEP; KAB); 
Shrubby Saltwort (Eng.; S. Afr.; KAB); Shrubby Seablite (Eng.; KAB); Sosa Fina de Andalucia (Sp.; 
KAB); Sosa Prima (Sp.; KAB); Spinazmai (Kila Saifulla; KAB); Suaid (Arab.; ZOH); Suejda (Malta; 
KAB); Suwaid (Arab.; GHA); Suweda (Arab.; ZOH); Suwwad (Arab.; GHA); Suwweid (Arab.; GHA); 
Tarteer (Arab.; GHA); Umari Nandi (S. Arcot; KAB); Uppukeerai (Tam.; WOI); Usak Lani (Pun.; 
DEP); Usaklana (Pun.; KAB); Ushaklan (Sin.; NAD); Ushuklani (Guj.; Sin.; DEP; KAB); Vellakeerai 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
FIGURe .0 Sea Blite (Suaeda). Source: KAB.
(Tam.; WOI); Veyi Kada (Tel.; DEP); White Glasswort (Eng.; Malta; KAB); Yella Kiray (Tam.; DEP); 
Zamai (Pun.; KAB); Zimeh (Pushtu; DEP; KAB; NAD); Zmai (Kila Saifulla; Sharig; KAB); Nscn.
a Ctivities (s ea blite ):
Emetic (f; KAB; NAD); Laxative (f; KAB); Vulnerary (f; KAB).
iNdi Catio Ns (s ea blite ):
Dyspnea (f; GHA); Constipation (f; KAB); Gingivosis (f; GHA); Headache (f; GHA); Hysteria (f; 
GHA); Nausea (f; GHA); Neurosis (f; GHA); Odontosis (f; GHA); Ophthalmia (f; GHA; KAB; 
NAD); Sore (f; KAB; NAD); Vertigo (f; GHA); Wound (f; KAB).
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d osages (s ea blite ):
FNFF = !
Speaking of S. maritima, the desalted leaves are used as a cooked vegetable; or the normally salty 
leaves are added to salads and soups to salt them. Young shoots also pickled. Green shoots univ-er
sally eaten by Asian Indians, especially during famines. (DEP; FAC). Asian Indians eat the green 
leaves of S. nudiflora (= fruticosa), a source of sajji (DEP).
• Arabians snuff the ash for dizziness, headache, hysteria, nausea, neurosis, and poor 
vision (GHA).
• Arabians use stem and leaf decoctions S(. aegyptiaca) in gargles for gum and tooth prob-
lems (GHA).
• Arabians use the stems of S. vermiculata to alleviate breathing difcfi ulties (GHA).
• Asian Indians suggest an oily application of the wooly growths of branch tips S(. fruti-
cosa) for the sores of camels (KAB).
• Pakistanis use the ash in making soap (WOI).
• Sindhis apply the leaves as a poultice in ophthalmia, and the leaf infusion as an emetic 
(DEP).
d ow Nsides (s ea blite ):
Said to induce a persistent black diarrhea, even death, in grazing sheep (KAB).
Natural History (s ea blite ):
Camels, goats, and sheep graze foliage of various species (DEP; WOI).
sALt C eDAR (tA mArix A phyll A (L.) h . KARst.) ++ t AMARICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Tamarix articulata Vahl
Notes (salt Cedar ):
Zohary notes that Bedouins planted tamarisk trees (e.g., in the Negev Desert) for their shade and 
soft branches. They are indigenous in the Aravah Valley. Although originally the Hebrew eshel 
applied to the tamarisk, later in history its meaning was broadened to tree. Because of the super-fi
cial resemblance to cedar, it is sometimes called cedar. The tamarisk was used in cleansing lepers 
and their houses. Of the 12 species of tamarisk native to Israel, the Nile tamarisk T(. nilotica) is 
possibly most common, growing in every deep wadi, especially near water and marshes (ZOH). 
HJP entries apply to Tamarix mannifera.
Commo N Names (salt Cedar ):
Abiekwas-Geelhout (Afrikan; KAB); Aslularmar (Arab.; KAB); Asrelei (Sin.; KAB); Asri (Sin.; 
KAB); Athal (Arab.; GHA); Athel Tamarisk (Eng.; FAC; USN); Athel-pine (Eng.; USN); Atl (Arab.; 
ZOH); Cedar (Eng.; ZOH); Dawee (Afrikan; KAB); Erashirisaru (Ap.; India; SKJ); Eshel (Heb.; 
ZOH); Etel (Arab.; BOU); Ethl (Arab.; ZOH); Ettashirisaru (Tel.; KAB); Ettaverusaru (Tel.; KAB); 
Faras (Pun.; KAB); Farash (India; Iran; Pun.; KAB; USN); Farwa (Pun.; KAB); Gagaz (P-ah
rod; KAB); Gaz (Sin.; KAB); Gazesurkh (Iran; KAB); Gazlau (Sin.; KAB); Ghwa (Pun.; Pushtu; 
KAB); Ghuz (Pun.; KAB); Ghwaz (Pushtu; KAB); Hatab Ahmar (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Khagal 
(Pun.; KAB); Kharbi (Pun.; SKJ); Kharlei (Pun.; KAB); Khora Gaz (Arab.; Helmand; Iran; FAC; 
KAB); Kirri (Bal.; Las Bela; KAB); Laljhav (Dec.; Guj.; Hindi; KAB; SKJ); Leaefl ss Tamarisk 
(Eng.; ZOH); Narlei (Pun.; KAB); Pharwan (Pun.; KAB); Raktajhav (Beng.; KAB; SKJ); Rukh 
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FIGURe .0 Salt Cedar (Tamarix aphylla). Source: Little & Wadsworth (1974).
(Pun.; KAB); Salt-cedar (Eng.; USN); Shakargaz (Pahrod; KAB); Siahgazz (Kharan; KAB); 
Sivappattuushavukku (Tam.; KAB); Sivappukottashavukku (Tam.; KAB); Sivappusirushavukku 
(Tam.; KAB); Tabrakat (Ber.; BOU); Takaout (Arab.; BOU); Tamaris (Fr.; USN); Tamarisk (Eng.; 
S. Afr.; KAB); Tamariske (Ger.; USN); Tamarix a galle (Fr.; BOU); Taray (Sp.; USN); Tarfa (Arab.; 
GHA); Tarfalahmar (Arab.; KAB); Tarfat Elmann (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Terfa (Arab.; Oman; GHA); 
Terfel (Arab.; Dho.; Oman; GHA); Ukhan (Pun.; KAB).
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a Ctivities (salt Cedar ):
Acaricide (f; BOU); Aphrodisiac (f; KAB); Astringent (f; BOU; KAB; SKJ); Pediculicide (f; BOU); 
Vulnerary (f; GHA).
iNdi Catio Ns (salt Cedar ):
Childbirth (f; GHA); Dermatosis (f; GHA; KAB; WOI); Eczema (f; GHA; KAB; SKJ; WOI); Edema 
(f; BOU); Enterosis (f; BOU); Gastrosis (f; BOU); Impotence (f; KAB); Labor (f; GHA); Leprosy (f; 
ZOH); Pain (f; BOU); Pediculosis (f; BOU); Sclerosis (f; JLH); Sore (f; GHA); Splenosis (f; BOU; JLH); 
Stomachache (f; BOU); Swelling (f; BOU); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; BOU); Wound (f; GHA).
d osages (salt Cedar ):
FNFF = !
A source of a sweet manna, eaten, for example, by the Tuareg with porridge or in beverages (FAC). 
Resin from tree also edible; salt excreted from leaves used to salt foods (GHA). Bedouin’s grazing 
herds are fed the foliage (ZOH).
• Asian Indians suggest the galls as astringent (KAB).
• Asian Indians combine the powdered bark with oil and kamala as an aphrodisiac (KAB).
• Baluchistani use bark for eczema and other skin disorders (GHA).
• Dhofari take tea of dried leaves to ease prolonged or difcfi ult labor (GHA).
• Lebanese priests believe that manna from Sinai (T. mannifera) was very healthful for 
children and gently laxative for adults (HJP).
• North Africans boil bark in vinegar and water as a pediculicide (BOU).
• North Africans take astringent gall infusion for enteritis and gastralgia (BOU).
• North Africans take shoot decoction for splenomegaly, with ginger for uteral problems 
(BOU).
• Omani apply dried leaves to sores and wounds (GHA).
• Saudi apply green shoots of some species of Tamarix to head for headache and fever 
(GHA).
• Yemeni use tea (of T. nilotica) to treat diarrhea (GHA).
Natural History (salt Cedar ):
This inhabitant of the hot deserts, very wasteful of water, excretes salts from glands in the leaves.
DANDeLIo N (tA r Ax Acum officin Ale G.h . WeBeR ex 
 WIGGeR F.) +++ Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Leontodon dens-leonis Lam.; Leontodon glaucescens M. Bieb.; Leontodon officinalis With.; Leont-
odon parvulum Wall.; Leontodon taraxacum L.; Leontodon vulgare Lamn.; Taraxacum dens-leo-
nis Desf.; Taraxacum eriopodum Schrank; Taraxacum vulgare Schrank; Taraxacum wallichii DC. 
fide BUR; DEP
Notes (d a Ndelio N):
The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened 
bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (KJV)
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In the second month on the fourteenth day in the evening they shall keep it; they shall eat it with 
unleavened bread and bitter herbs.
Numbers 9:11 (RSV)
In the second month on the fourteenth day between the two evenings, they should prepare it. 
Together with unfermented cakes and bitter greens they should eat it.
Numbers 9:11 (NWT)
Probably the children of Israel learned to eat bitter herbs from the Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians used 
to place the green herbs on the table, mixed with mustard, and then dunked their bread in the mixture. 
The Moldenke’s believed that Cichorium endivia, Cichorium intybus, Lactuca sativa, Nasturtium 
officinale , Rumex acetosella, and Taraxacum officinale were among the green herbs of the Bible. By 
contrast, local Israeli botanist Michael Zohary lists none of these in hiPsla nts of the Bible (ZOH), and 
only the watercress is listed as occurring in theF lora of Palestine. Zohary gfi ures instead a diminutive 
chicory and the poppy-leaved Reichardia (which looks like dandelion) as more promising candidates. 
Regarding bitter herbs, Zohary says, “Many plants, especially those belonging to the Mustard and 
Daisy families, are frequently collected and used as potherbs and salad plants” (ZOH).
Commo N Names (d a Ndelio N):
Achicoria (Sp.; JFM); Achicoria Amarga (Sp.; USN); Ackerzichorie (Ger.; KAB); Alface de Bao 
(Por.; AVP); Alface de Cao (Por.; JFM); Almiron (Sp.; KAB); Amargón (Sp.; KAB; USN); Apos-
temkraut (Ger.; KAB); Arnica (Ma.; JFM); Asnan el Saba’a (Arab.; AVP); Aspan Asad (Arab.; 
Syria; HJP); Augenmilch (Ger.; KAB); Baerenzahn (Ger.; KAB); Baram (Pun.; WOI); Baran; 
Hindi (Punj.; KAB); Barau (Hindi; WOI); Bathur (Bom.; Sin.; DEP; KAB; NAD); Bettpisser (Ger.; 
KAB); Bettzeiger (Ger.; KAB); Bissanliwurzel (Ger.; KAB); Bitterwort (Eng.; KAB); Blowball 
(Eng.; BUR); Blower (Eng.; KAB); Blowhard (Eng.; KAB); Brodawnik (Pol.; AVP); Buthur (Sin.; 
KAB; NAD); Butterblume (Ger.; HH2; KAB); Cais Tsearbhan (Irish.; KAB); Canker (Eng.; KAB); 
Cankerwort (Eng.; BUR; KAB); Capo de Frate (It.; HH2); Chicoree (Fr.; AVP); Chicoree Sauvage 
(Reunion; KAB); Chinita del Campo (Ma.; JFM); Chopine (Fr.; AVP; KAB); Cicueira Salvagga 
(Malta; KAB); Clock (Eng.; KAB); Cochet (Fr.; AVP); Common Dandelion (Eng.; USN); Con-
sueldo (Ma.; JFM); Couronne de Moine (Fr.; KAB); Crow Parsnip (Eng.; KAB); Dandelion (Eng.; 
USN); Dashel Flower (Eng.; KAB); Dent de Lion (Fr.; USN); Dente-de-leão (Port, KAB; USN); 
Dente di Leone (It.; Fr.; Malta; AVP; HH2; KAB); Dentelion (Eng.; KAB); Dents de lleo (Cat.; 
KAB); Diente de León (Sp.; USN); Diente de Perro (Sp.; JFM); Dindle (Eng.; KAB); Dini Mhendo 
(Tamang; NPM); Doon Head Clock (Eng.; BUR; KAB); Dudal (Hindi; Pun.; KAB; NAD); Dudh-
Batthal (Pun.; KAB; WOI); Dudhe Jhar (Nepal; NPM); Dudli (Hindi; Pun.; KAB; NAD; WOI); 
Dugdha Feni (Sanskrit;?); Dulal (Hindi; WOI); Eierblume (Ger.; KAB); Feldreis (Ger.; KAB); Flo-
rin d’or (Fr.; AVP); Florion d’Or (Fr.; HH2; KAB); Fortune Teller (Eng.; BUR; KAB); Gaddeliese 
(Ger.; KAB); Gemeiner Löwenzahn (Ger.; HH2); Gowan (Eng.; KAB); Groin de Porc (Fr.; AVP); 
Gulsagh (Kironi; KAB); Gyermeklancfu (Hun.; KAB); Habichtskraut (Ger.; KAB); Hand (Kas.; 
WOI); Handh (Kas.; MKK); Henbe (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Hendbe ‘Elt (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Hindiba’ 
Barri (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Horse Gowan (Eng.; BUR); Hundslattich (Ger.; KAB); Hundzahn (Ger.; 
KAB); Hyo Maran (Tamang; NPM); Irish Daisy (Eng.; BUR; HH2; KAB); Jamajunsha (Kas.; Lad.; 
MKK); Jungeblume (Ger.; KAB); Kaadu Seventhi (Kan.; WOI); Kamphul (Hindi; WOI); Kanphul 
(Pun.; KAB; WOI); Kara Hindiba (Tur.; AVP; EFS); Karnaphuli (Nepal; NPM); Kettenblume (Ger.; 
HH2); Khur Mangmang (Tibet; NPM); Khur Mong (Tibet; TIB); Khursa (Kas.; Lad.; MKK); Khuss 
Barri (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Kojate (Tibet; NPM); Kuhblume (Ger.; HH2; KAB); Kulattich (Ger.; 
KAB); Lagaina (Lanuedoc; KAB); Laiteron (Fr.; HH2); Laterneblume (Ger.; KAB); Latui de Chien 
(Fr.; KAB); Lechuga del Monte (Sp.; JFM); Lechuga Silvestre (Sp.; JFM); Lechuguilla (Sp.; JFM); 
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FIGURe . Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale ).
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Leituga (Mad.; JAD); Lejoustand (Serbia; AVP); Liondent (Fr.; KAB); Lion’s-tooth (Eng.; USN); 
Llitso d’asa (Cat.; KAB); Lovetan (Den.; KAB); Lowenzahn (Ger.; KAB; MAD); Luchten (Ger.; 
KAB); Luweland (Den.; AVP); Maelkebotte (Den.; KAB); Maistoechel (Ger.; KAB); Mas’acak (S-er
bia; AVP); Maskros (Swe.; KAB); Maskrosoor (Serbia; AVP); Milchadistel (Ger.; KAB); Milchr-o
edel (Ger.; KAB); Milchstoeckel (Ger.; KAB); Milk Gowan (Eng.; KAB); Mirame y No Me Toques 
(Sp.; JFM); Mistfinke (Ger.; KAB); Moenchsblume (Ger.; KAB); Moenchskopf (Ger.; KAB); Moisia 
(Dutch; EFS); Monkshead (Eng.; HH2); Monkshood (Eng.; KAB); Nedhap (Tamang; NPM); Neta 
Dha (Gurung; NPM); Oduvanchik (Rus.; KAB); Oduwantschiki (Rus.; HH2); One o’Clocks (Eng.; 
KAB); Paardenbloem (Dutch; EFS; HH2; KAB); Papadie (Rom.; KAB); Papankraut (Ger.; KAB); 
Papasita gainelor (Rom.; KAB); Papava Gumentse (Rus.; KAB); Pappenkruid (Fr.; AVP); Pathardi 
(Guj.; WOI); Pathri (Dec.; DEP; NAD; WOI); Peasant’s Clock (Eng.; KAB); Pfaffendistel (Ger.; 
HH2; KAB); Pfaffen-Öhrlein (Ger.; AVP; HH2; KAB); Pfaffenschnell (Ger.; KAB); Pfaffenstiel 
(Ger.; KAB); Pfeffer-Oeslein (Ger.; KAB); Pferdeblume (Ger.; HH2; KAB); Phuli Jhar (Nepal; 
NPM); Pisciacane (Malta; KAB); Piscialleto (It.; KAB); Piss-abed (Eng.; AVP; KAB); Pissenlit 
(Fr.; Haiti; Reunion; AVP; HH2; KAB); Pissenlit Vulgaire (Fr.; USN); Pissolet (Lanuedoc; KAB); 
Pitachumpki (Beng.; WOI); Pixallits (Cat.; KAB); Priests’ Crown (Eng.; BUR; KAB); Puffball 
(Eng.; BUR); Pu Gong Yeng (Pin.; DAA); P’u Kung Ying (Chinese; EFS; KAB); Pusteblume (Ger.; 
HH2); Radam (Pun.; DEP; KAB; WOI); Radicchiella (It. KAB); Rasuk (Lad.; DEP; KAB); Rasuke 
(Lad.; WOI); Ringelblume (Ger.; HH2); Salada de Toupeira (Fr.; AVP); Salade de Taupe (Fr.; AVP; 
KAB); Saumelke (Ger.; KAB); Saustok (Ger.; KAB); Scherkraut (Ger.; KAB); Schweineroesl (Ger.; 
KAB); Schwiblume (Ger.; KAB); Shag (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Shamukei (Hindi; Pun.; KAB; NAD; 
WOI); Smirnio (It.; KAB); Sofofi ne (It.; EFS; HH2; KAB); Sommerdorn (Ger.; KAB); Sonnenwir -
bel (Ger.; KAB); Stink Davie (Eng.; KAB); Swine Snout (Eng.; BUR; KAB); Swini Miecz (Pol.; 
AVP); Tarakhshagun (Arab.; KAB); Tarassacio (Malta; KAB); Taraxaco (It.; Por.; AVP; HH2; 
KAB); Taraxacon (Sp.; AVP); Tarazacon (Sp.; KAB); Tarkhas Kun (Iran; KAB); Tete de Moine 
(Fr.; KAB); Teufelsrippen (Ger.; KAB); Tiefstand (Ger.; KAB); Time Table (Eng.; KAB); Tuki 
Phul (Nepal; NPM; SUW); Undarkarni (Mar.; WOI); Undrachekan (Kon.; NAD); Weglattich (Ger.; 
KAB); Wiesenlattich (Ger.; HH2; KAB); Witch Gowan (Eng.; HH2); Wolowe Oczy (Pol.; AVP); 
Xawiizi (Hocak; WIN); Xicoina de Burro (Cat.; KAB); Yamaghikha (Lad.; KAB; WOI); Yellow 
Gowan (Eng.; BUR); Zunehmkraut (Ger.; KAB).
a Ctivities (d a Ndelio N):
Allergenic (1; CAN); Alpha-glucosidase Inhibitor (1; X15704495); Alterative (f; CRC); Antidote 
(f; AKT; TIB); Antiedemic (f1; CAN); Antiinafl mmatory (1; CAN; SHT); Antioxidant (1; CRC; 
X15543940); Antirheumatic (1; CAN); Antiseptic (1; CRC; FAD); Antispasmodic (SHT); Antitumor 
(1; CAN); Aperient (f; NPM; SUW); Aperitif (2; KOM; PIP); Apoptotic (1; X14687655); Aquaretic 
(SHT); Astringent (f; PED); Bactericide (1; CRC; WOI); Bidfi ogenic (1; AKT; X15567259); Bitter 
(1; APA; PED; SHT; SUW); Candidicide (1; CRC; FAD); Carminative (2; APA; KOM); Cholagogue 
(f12; BIB; KOM; PH2; SHT; WAM); Cholekinetic (SHT); Choleretic (f12; APA; KOM; SHT; VAD); 
COX-2 Inhibitor (1; X15543940); Cytotoxic (1; X14687655); Demulcent (f; FAD); Deobstruent (f; 
BUR); Depurative (f; CRC; JFM; VAD); Detoxicant (f; AKT); Diaphoretic (f; KAP); Digestive (f; 
APA; SKY); Diuretic (f12; AKT; APA; HH3; KOM; NPM; SUW; VAD; WAM); Hepatotonic (f1; 
CAN; NAD; PED); Hypoglycemic (1; CAN; CRC; JAC7:405; X15704495); IL-1alpha Inducer (1; 
X14687655); Immunostimulant (1; JAC7:405); iNOS Inhibitor (1; X15543940); Insulinogenic (1; 
X14750205); Intoxicant (f; BIB); Lactagogue (f; CRC; LMP; NMH; PED; PH2); Laxative (f1; APA; 
BIB; CAN; SUW; VAD; WAM); Litholytic; (f1; PED); Natriuretic (1; JAD); Orexigenic (f12; AKT; 
BGB; JFM; KOM; VAD); Pancreaprotective (1; X15641154); Phototoxic (1; CRC); Prebiotic (1; 
AKT; FNF); Saluretic (12; BGB; HH3; PH2); Secretogogue (f1; PH2; X14750205); Sialogogue (1; 
APA); Stimulant (f; CRC); Stomachic (f1; APA; BIB; CRC; PED); Sudoric fi (f; CRC); TNF-alpha 
Inducer (1; X14687655); Tonic (f; BGB; CRC; NPM; SUW).
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iNdi Catio Ns (d a Ndelio N):
Abscess (f; CRC; MAD); Acne (f; VAD); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Ague (f; BIB); Alactea (f; LMP; PH2); 
Alcoholism (f; SKY); Alzheimer’s (1; FNF); Anemia (f1; AAH; DEM; JFM; WAM); Anorexia (12; 
APA; KOM; PH2; PIP; VAD); Arthrosis (f; BIB); Backache (f; DEM); Bacteria (1; WOI); Biliary 
Dyskinesia (2; PIP); Biliousness (f; BIB); Bladderstones (2; KOM); Boil (f; CRC; LMP); Bronchosis 
(f12; APA; BIB; LAF); Bruise (f; BIB; CRC); Cachexia (f; NAD); Cancer (f; CRC); Cancer, bla-d
der (f; JLH); Cancer, bowel (f; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; CRC; JLH); Cancer, liver (f; JLH); Cancer, 
spleen (f; JLH); Caries (f; CRC; LMP); Cardiopathy (f; APA; BIB); Catarrh (f; BIB; CRC); Cellulite 
(1; FT71:S73); Chill (f; HJP); Cholecystosis (2; BGB; CRC; HH3; KOM; PH2); Cirrhosis (SKYf;); 
Cold (1; APA); Colic (1; PH2); Congestion (1; PH2); Conjunctivosis (f; AAH; AKT); Constipation 
(f1; FAD; SKY; FT71:S73); Consumption (f; BIB); Cough (f; MAD); Cramp (f; DEM); Cystosis (1; 
WAM); Dermatosis (f; APA; BGB; KAP; KOM; PH2); Diabetes (f1; BIB; CRC; JFM; KOM; MAD; 
PH2; X15704495; X14750205); Dropsy (f1; BGB; BIB; DEM; KAP; MAD); Dysentery (f; AKT); 
Dyskinesia (f1; VAD); Dysmenorrhea (f; DEM); Dyspepsia (f12; APA; KAP; KOM; PH2; PIP; 
VAD); Dyspnea (f; HJP); Eczema (f; CRC; HH2; KOM; PH2; VAD); Fever (f1; AKT; BIB; MAD); 
Flatulence (f12; BIB; KOM); Flu (f; AKT); Fracture (f; MKK); Furuncle (f; VAD); Gallstone (f; AKT; 
APA; CAN; MKK; PH2); Gas (2; APA; PH2); Gastrosis (f; BGB; APA; CRC; NPM); Gonorrhea 
(f; BIB); Gout (f; CRC; KOM; PH2); Gravel (f1; BGB; BIB HH2); Headache (f; HJP; MKK); Heart 
(f; CRC); Heartburn (f; BGB; CRC; SKY); Hemorrhoid (f; CRC; KOM; MKK; PH2); Hepatosis 
(f12; JFM; KAP; HH3; KOM; PH2; SUW; WAM); Herpes (f; VAD); High Blood Pressure (1; CRC; 
VAD); Hypochondria (f; MAD); Impetigo (f; BUR); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f; AKT; APA); 
Inafl mmation (f1; BIB; PH2); Insomnia (f; BIB); Itch (f; BUR; CRC; LMP); Jaundice (f1; CAN; 
CRC; HJP; MAD; PH2); Kidneystone (2; KOM; PH2; X7860196); Liver Spots (f; DEM); Malaria (f; 
BIB); Mastosis (f; APA; PH2); Mucososis (f; MAD); Nephrosis (f1; BGB; BIB; DEM; KAB; PH2; 
SUW); Neurosis (f; DEM; HJP)); Obesity (f; APA; FAD); Oliguria (1; CAN; VAD); Osteoporosis 
(1; FNF); Pain (1; BGB; CEC; DEM; MAD); Pancreatitis (1; X15641154); Phthisis (f; JEB79:57); 
PMS (f; APA); Pneumonia (2; AYL; LAF); Psoriasis (f; VAD); Pulmonosis (f; DEM); Pyelosis (f1; 
VAD); Respirosis (2; APA; LAF); Rheumatism (f; APA; BGB; PHR); Scirrhus (f; JLH); Sclerosis (f; 
JLH); Scrofula (f; CRC; LMP); Scurvy (f1; BIB); Snakebite (f; CRC); Sores (1; APA; CRC); Sple-
nosis (f; AKT; BGB; BUR); Stitch (f; MAD); Stomachache (f; AAH; DEM); Stone (f12; BIB; PHR; 
PH2; SHT; VAD); Swelling (f; DEM); Thrush (f; AAH); Toothache (f; AAH; DEM); Tuberculosis 
(f1; BIB; MAD; PH2; WOI); Tumor (f; JLH); Ulcer (f; CRC); Urethritis (f1; VAD); Urolithiasis (f1; 
VAD); UTI (f12 KOM; PH2; SHT; VAD); Uterosis (f; BUR); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Vertigo (f; 
MKK); Vomiting (f; AKT); Wart (f; CRC); Wound (f; BIB); Yeast (f1; AAH; CRC).
d osages (d a Ndelio N):
FNFF = !!
Food farmacy; tender leaves valued as potherb; Winnebago make wine from the ofl wers when some-
one marries. Dandelion is sometimes eaten raw in salads, but often blanched like endive and used as 
a green; frequently cooked with salt pork or bacon to enhance the afl vor. Roots are sometimes pick-
led. Ground roasted roots used for dandelion coffee, and sometimes mixed with real coffee. Dried 
leaves are an ingredient in many digestive or diet drinks and herb beers (BIB; NPM; WIN). 0.5 oz 
dry leaf/cup water (APA); 1–3 tsp powdered root/cup water (APA); 3–5 g dry root 3× /day (APA); 
1–2 tsp tincture to 3 ×/day (APA); 1 Tbsp dandelion juice morning and evening (APA); 4–10 g dry 
leaf, as tea, 3× /day (CAN); 4–10 ml liquid leaf extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3× /day (CAN); 2–8 g 
dry root, as tea, 3× /day (CAN); 5–10 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% alcohol) 3× /day (CAN); 4–10 ml 
dandelion juice (CAN; PNC; SKY); 0.5–1 g powdered root (KAP); 28–56 ml root decoction (KAP); 
three 510-mg capsules 3 ×/day (NH); 2 tsp root juice 3 ×/day for stomach (NPM); 1/4–1/2 cup fresh 
root (PED); 6–12 g dry root (PED); 9 g dry root:45 ml alcohol/45 ml water (PED); 1–2 tsp (for tea) 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
to 3–4 tsp (for decoction) cut herb/150 ml water (PH2.). 4–10 g dry leaf 3 ×/day; 1–2 tsp root/cup/ 
morning and evening; 3–4 g powdered root (PIP); 10–15 drops root tincture (PIP); 2–8 ml liquid 
extract (PNC); 3–4 g/day (SHT); 2–5 ml leaf tincture3×/day (SKY).
• Asian Indians suggest 10 to 15 grains root as hepatic stimulant (NAD).
• Asian Indians, suggestive of Carter’s Little Liver Pills, recommend 1 to 2 oz root (ufl id 
extract or decoction) with podophyllin (a bit dangerous in my opinion) for dyspepsia, 
hepatitis, and jaundice (NAD).
• British regard this universally as a diuretic, but also use for colds, coughs, respirosis, and 
warts (AAH).
• Irish have even more uses for dandelion than British, adding boils, consumption, cuts, 
dermatosis, diabetes, fractures, hepatosis, nervousness, sore eyes, sprains, swellings, and 
thrush (AAH).
• Irish, because of its many “lion’s teeth,” believe it good for toothache (AAH).
• Italians apply dandelions to warts (X15664457).
• Lebanese extract the root in wine as a laxative or purgative, depending on the strength. 
Noting that “medical usage of dandelion came to western civilization through the Arabs,” 
Philips says that gypsies use the root infusion as a depurative, and laxative, for the liver, 
rheumatism and sciatica, the raw leaf for a spring tonic, and the leaf tea for heavy breat- h
ing and kidney ailments (HJP).
• Limerick citizenry believe that eating a leaf with red midvein is tonic for a woman, white 
vein tonic for a man (AAH).
• Nepali suggest 2 tsp root juice 3 × /day for gastrosis (NPM).
d ow Nsides (d a Ndelio N):
Class 2d (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages 
(PH2). Commission E reports contraindications: biliary obstruction, empyema of gallbladder, ileus; 
adverse effects include gastric complaints and ulcers (AEH; CAN; SKY). Other contraindications 
reported include biliary inafl mmation (AEH). Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson (1996) caution that 
the sesquiterpene lactones are allergenic and may cause dermatosis. May interefere with diuretic and 
hypoglycemic therapies (CAN). “ [H]erbs with diuretic properties, such as juniper and dandelion, 
can cause elevations in blood levels of lithium” (D’epiro, 1997). Not for use with acute gallbladder 
problems (WAM). Use in cholelithiasis only under a doctor’s supervision (PIP). Surprisingly, Jacobs 
and Burlage suggest that the root causes “mental excitement, vertigo, headache, nausea, colic, -fre
quent urination, and gastric irritation” (BUR). Blumenthal et al. (1998) caution that, “As with all 
drugs containing bitter substances, discomfort due to gastric hyperacidity may occur” (KOM). Do 
I need to write out this caveat for all the salubrious bitter herbs of the Bible? Warning: may cause 
hyperacidity and gastric distress!
Natural History (d a Ndelio N):
Birds like the seeds and pigs devour the whole plant. Goats eat the leaves, but sheep, cattle, and 
horses do not care for it. Omur and Handa (2005) demonstrated a priority of color over scent during 
ofl wer visitation by adult Vanessa indica butterflies. Most ofl wer visitors innately prefer a particu -
lar color and scent, and use them as cues for ofl wer recognition and selection. Of colors, V. indica 
showed a color preference for yellow and blue. Aromatically, they seemed to prefer benzaldehyde, 
acetophenone, and (E+Z)-nerolidol. But butterflies preferred odorless yellow models to scented 
purple models. V. indica depends primarily on color and secondarily on scent during ofl wer visita-
tion (X15688217).
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extra Cts (d a Ndelio N):
LD50 herb = 28,800 ipr mus (CAN); LD50 root = 36,800 ipr mus (CAN). The leaves have a higher 
Vitamin A content (14,000 IU/100g) than carrots (11,000 IU/100g). Coumestrol is estrogenic. Flavo-
noids antiinafl mmatory; increase urine ofl w. Inulin and mucilage sooth digestive tract, absorb tox -
ins, and regulate intestinal ofl ra through prebiosis (help friendly ofl ra thrive and inhibit unfriendly 
bacteria) and relieve muscle spasm. (PED). PH2 says the amaroids (bitter compounds) in dandelion 
are cholagogue (I agree) and secretolytic (I disagree; I think they are secretogogue rather than sec- re
tolytic; PH2 also says the drug is “secretion-stimulating”). Tillotson (AKT) notes that clinically the 
leaf is a more effective diuretic than the root and a safer alternative to Lasix. Onal et al. (2005) 
found anti-glucosidase activity, suggesting antidiabetic potential, in three biblical herbs: dandelion, 
myrtle, and stinging nettle. Agents that inhibit alpha-glucosidase can be useful oral hypoglycemics 
(X15704495). Proestos et al. (2005) checked the species for afl vonoids and phenolics and their ant-i
oxidant and antimicrobial activity, finding circa 30 ppm caffeic acid, 20 ppm ferulic acid, eriod-ic
tyol, and 4 ppm (-)-epicatechin in dandelion (X15713039). Seo et al. (2005b) showed that dandelion 
protects against cholecystokinin-induced acute pancreatitis in rats. At 10 mg/kg orally, dandelion 
signicafi ntly decreased the pancreatic weight/body weight ratio in CCK octapeptide-induced acute 
pancreatitis, and IL-6 and TNF-alpha decreased, suggesting a protective effect against induced -pan
creatitis (X15641154). Czech scientists showed that dandelion root tea stimulateid n vitro growth of 
14 strains of bidfi obacteria, the oligofructans providing an important source of carbon and energy 
(X15567259). Hu and Kitts (2004) found that luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside from dandelion 
ofl wer suppress iNOS and COX-2 at concentrations lower than 20 µM. The ethyl acetate fraction of 
dandelion ofl wer extract contains 10% luteolin and luteolin-7-O-glucoside (X15543940). Hussain 
et al. (2004) demonstrated that dandelion increased insulin secretion, but at rather high dosage (40 
µg/ml) (X14750205).
sANDARAC (t etr Aclinis A rticul At A (vA h L) MAst .) + CUpRess ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Callitris articulata (Vahl) Murb.; Callitris quadrivalvis Vent.; Cupressus articulata (Vahl) J. 
Forbes; Thuja articulata Vahl fide CJE; USN
Notes (sa Ndara C):
The merchandise of gold, and silver, and precious stones, and of pearls, and fine linen, and pur -
ple, and silk, and scarlet, and all thyine wood, and all manner vessels of ivory, and all manner 
vessels of most precious wood, and of brass, and iron, and marble.
Revelation 18:12 (KJV)
[C]argo of gold, silver, jewels and pearls, fine linen, purple, silk and scarlet, all kinds of scented 
wood, all articles of ivory, all articles of costly wood, bronze, iron and marble.
Revelation 18:12 (RSV)
A full stock of gold, and silver and precious stone and pearls and fine linen and purple and silk 
and scarlet, and everything in scented wood, and every sort of ivory object, and every sort of 
object out of most precious wood and of copper and of iron and of marble.
Revelation 18:12 (NWT)
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Only in the KJV and only once do I find thyine. I wonder if Zohary should have been working with 
the KJV instead of the RSV, if he, too, would have considered including this species in his book .
Although it is not listed as native to Israel, it is said to be indigenous to northern Africa (Algeria, 
Morocco, Tunisia), Sicily; Malta, and Spain. The passage above is talking about imports, so it is not 
necessary that it be indigenous to Israel or Egypt. The next stanza lists cinnamon, frankincense, 
myrrh, even salves, among the cargo as well. Certainly, like other members of this family, it has 
scented wood, as do so many other arid land species. I do not know why the KJV translated this as 
“thyine” instead of “scented wood.”
Commo N Names (sa Ndara C):
Afrikanischer Sandarac (Ger.; HH3); Alerce (Eng.; CJE); Amelzi (Ber.; BOU); Amkouk (Ber.; 
BOU); Ar’ar (Arab.; BOU); Ar’ar Berboush (Arab.; BOU); Ar’ar el Eibel (Arab.; BOU); Arartree 
(Eng.; CJE; USN); Cyprès de l’Atlas (Fr.; USN); Gharghar (Arab.; CJE); Gliederzypresse (Ger.; 
HH3); Gum Juniper (Eng.; HH3); Irhkri (Ber.; BOU); Irz (Ber.; BOU); Juniper Gum Tree (Eng.; 
BOU); Marokkanischer Sandarac (Ger.; HH3); Mediterranean Sanda-rCacypress (Eng.; USN); 
Moigador Sandarak (Ger.; HH3); Sandarac (Eng.; BIB; HH3; USB); Sandarac Gum Tree (Eng.; 
CJE); Sandaraco (Sp.; HH3); Sandarakbaum (Ger.; HH3; USN); Sandarakharz (Ger.; HH3); S-an
daraque (Fr.; HH3); Sandarus (Arab.; BOU); Shagaret el Hayat (Arab.; BOU); Tarout (Ber.; BOU); 
Tazout (Ber.; BOU); Thuia a la Sandaraque (Fr.; BOU); Thuia Articulé (Fr.; BOU); Thuja de Ba-rba
rie (Fr.; USN); Thyine (Eng.; BIB); Tifizza (Ber.; BOU); Tiranrat (Ber.; BOU); Tirarar (Ber.; BOU); 
Tuya Articulada (Sp.; USN); Vernix (Fr.; BOU); Nscn.
a Ctivities (sa Ndara C):
Abortifacient (f; BIB); Apoptotic (1; X10697574); Bactericide (f1; HH3; PH2); Cytotoxic (1; 
X10697574).
iNdi Catio Ns (sa Ndara C):
Bacteria (f1; HH3; PH2); Cancer (f1; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; JLH; X10697574); Cancer, ovary (f1; 
JLH; X10697574); Carcinoma (f; JLH); Dermatosis (f; BIB; BOU); Diabetes (f; X9324004); Diarrhea 
(f; HH3; PH2); Edema (f; PH2); Fever (f; HH3; PH2); Gout (f; PH2); Hemorrhoid (f; DAW); Infection 
(f1; HH3; PH2); Mastosis (1; X10697574); Melanoma (1; X10697574); Migraine (f; BIB); Neck (f; BIB; 
BOU); Pain (f; BIB; BOU); Rheumatism (f; DAW; PH2); Sunburn (f; BIB; BOU); Swelling (f; PH2).
d osages (sa Ndara C):
FNFF = X
• Egyptians suggest the plant for diarrhea, gout, and rheumatism (DAW).
• North Africans suggest a leaf cataplasm for insolation, migraine, and headache (BOU).
• North Africans use tar from old trees for skin ailments (BOU).
d ow Nsides (sa Ndara C):
No health hazards with proper administration of designated therapeutic dosages (PH2) (but PH2 
designates no dosage!; JAD).
extra Cts (sa Ndara C):
The essential oil induced apoptosis in human melanoma, breast, and ovarian cancer cell lines. 
Melanoma, breast, and ovarian cancer cells gave IC50 values of circa 80 µg/ml. The authors discuss 
the advantage of a mixture of monoterpenes over a single component (X10697574).
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BeAN CApeR (t etr Aen A dumos A (Bo Iss .) 
 BeIeR & t h ULIN) + ZyGophy LLACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Zygophyllum dumosum Boiss.
Notes (bea N Caper ):
And they removed from Marah, and came unto Elim: and in Elim were twelve fountains of water, 
and threescore and ten palm trees; and they pitched there.
Numbers 33:9 (KJV)
And they set out from Marah, and came to Elim; at Elim there were twelve springs of water and 
seventy palm trees, and they encamped there.
Numbers 33:9 (RSV)
Then they pulled away from Marah, and came to Elim. Now in Elim there were twelve springs of 
water and seventy palm trees. So they camped there.
Numbers 33:9 (NWT)
Noting that this evergreen xerophytic shrub ofl urishes over miles of the Israeli and Sinai deserts, 
Zohary notes that the inhabitants must have known it well, but equates it to the place name Elim, 
which shows up about a dozen times in the KJV, six times in Ruth, three times in Exodus, three 
in Numbers, and once in Isaiah. Persevering through rainless years on the desert, it can have more 
than 300 annual rings, scoring those years in which rains fell. They could be much older, as in the 
rainless years there are no growth rings. I suppose Zohary selected this of the vfi e (Zygophyllum) 
species reported in the Flora of Palestine as it is the only conspicuously shrubby species. The other 
perennials are uncommon at best.
• Perennials or dwarf perennial shrubs: leaves two-foliolate:
• —Very common dwarf shrub; fruits with five broad wings — Z. dumosum
• Perennials but not conspicuously shrubby; fruit wingless but sometimes five-lobed:
• — Leaves flat; fruit 2–3 cm long — Z. fabago
• — Leaves succulent, fruits much shorter:
- • Adults glabrous; pedicels longer than flowers — Z. coccineum
- • Adults hairy; pedicels shorter than flowers — Z. album
• Prostate annuals; leaves simple — Z. simplex
The USDA recognizes Tetraena as the correct designation for this Holy Land species, but most of 
my ofl ras still call the other Zygophyllum. One website suggests that this species might be found 
on the Shroud of Turin (http://www.kensmen.com/catholic/marygardens.html). Another notes that: 
The Shroud of Turin, to the naked eye, is a negative image of a man with folded hands (linen 14 feet, 
3 inches long and 3 feet, 7 inches wide). The shroud bears the image of a man with wounds similar 
to those of Jesus. Wrapped in red silk, the shroud is kept in a silver chest in the Chapel of the Holy 
Shroud in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy since 1578. It is unquestionably old. 
It surfaced in 1357 in Lirey, France. Some carbon dating (1988) suggests that the shroud dates back 
only to 1260–1390. But the debate goes on. Either Carbon-14 dating is inaccurate or the shroud is a 
fake (says the website). Here we also read, regarding establishing the shroud’s provenance, that the 
bean caper is most signicafi nt. Max Frei identiefi d pollen grains of this species on adhesive tapes 
he studied. The northernmost limits of this species coincide with the line between Jericho and the 
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 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
sea-level marker on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho. Because Zygophyllum dumosum grows only 
in Israel, Jordan, and Sinai, its appearance helps to definitively limit the shroud’s place of origin 
(source: http://www.tombofjesus.com/forums/lovfi ersion/index.php?t26.html).
Commo N Names (bea N Caper ):
Bean Caper (Eng.; ZOH); Elim (Heb.; ZOH); Illam Arabic (Eng.; ZOH); Qillab (Arab.; GEP); Nscn.
a Ctivities (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
Anthelmintic (f; KAB); Antiseptic (f; BOU); Antispasmodic (f; DAW); Depurative (f; DAW); Hemo-
stat (f; BOU); Hypotensive (f; BOU); Poison (f; DAW); Vermifuge (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
Abscess (f; BOU); Asthma (f; BOU); Bleeding (f; BOU); Boil (f; BOU); Cramp (f; DAW); Dermato-
sis (f; BOU); Diabetes (f; BOU); Eczema (f; BOU); Gout (f; BOU); High Blood Pressure (f; BOU); 
Infection (f; BOU); Leucoma (f; KAB; WOI); Ophthalmia (f; WOI); Rheumatism (f; BOU); Stiff-
ness (f; UPW); Worm (f; BOU; WOI).
d osages (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
FNFF = !
Facciola says fruits of Z. fabago, also called bean caper, are pickled and used as a substitute for 
capers (FAC). Tanaka says of Z. album: dried tips of ofl wer clusters have the pleasant smell of tea; 
of Z. coccineum, Arabs use the seeds like black pepper; of Z. fabago, ofl wers buds used as spice; of 
Z. simplex, seeds used as food.
• Arabs, calling it balbal, bawwal, kammun karmani, and rotrayth; usZe . coccineum for 
asthma, diabetes, gout, high blood pressure, rheumatism, and worms (BOU).
• Berbers calling it aggaya, Arabs berraya; use leaf tea as antiseptic, applying dry leaf 
powder as a hemostat, or applying to abscesses, boils, and eczema (BOU).
• Mali citizens pound the leaves and poultice them on to stiff areas (UPW).
d ow Nsides (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
Described as poison.
Natural History (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
Leaves browsed by camels and donkeys, but without enthusiasm (UPW).
extra Cts (g eNeri C t etrae Na):
Some species may contain harmine alkaloids.
sh AGGy sp ARRo WWo Rt ( t hymel AeA hirsut A 
(L.) eNDL.) x thy MeLAeACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Passerina hirsuta L.
Notes (s Haggy s parrowwort ):
The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, 
with their staves. And from the wilderness they went to Mattanah.
Numbers 21:18 (KJV)
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Catalog of “Faith-Based” Farmaceuticals 
A well, princes dug it, the nobles of the people excavated it, with a commander’s staff, with their 
own staffs. Then from the wilderness on to Mattanah
Numbers 21:18 (NWT)
Like Zohary, I am really stretching the point to include this one. But it is nice to have a member 
of a poisonous but anticancer plant family, the Thymelaeaceae, in this version of my Bible book. 
PubMed was amusing when I typed in Passerina, prompting me that there were more abstracts 
(hundreds on passerine birds). There was only one title for a plant species, and no abstract. I started 
going through my other Holy Land books; nothing on Passerina hirsuta. But then I stumbled onto 
Thymelaea hirsuta, a synonym preferred over Passerina hirsuta, in the illustrated book Medicinal 
Plants of North Africa by Loufty Boulos (BOU). What Boulos had to say about it jibed nicely 
with what Zohary had said, under the other name. Then I find in the Flora of Palestine (FP2) that 
Zohary, too, had called it Thymelaea hirsuta in that book. Here he says it is one of the most com-
mon shrubs in the Mediterranean coastal plain and also in the deserts. Bedouins use it for making 
rope (FP2). Justifying its inclusion, Zohary mentions that in the Aramaic version of the Pentateuch, 
Mattanah is translated as Matnan, a desert locality, perhaps identical with the Arabic mitnan. “Such 
indirect identicatfi ion, which permits this important species to be included in the ofl ra of the Bible, 
is supported by the fact that matnan or mitnan frequents dry wadis and other desert habitats and is 
so called in modern Hebrew” (ZOH).
Commo N Names (s Haggy s parrowwort ):
Matnan (Arab.; Aramaic; ZOH); Methnan (Arab.; Heb.; BOU; ZOH); Methnan Akhdar (Arab.; 
BOU); Metnan (Arab.; BOU); Mitnan (Arab.; ZOH); Passerine (Fr.; BOU); Shaggy Sparrowwort 
(Eng.; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (s Haggy s parrowwort ):
Anthelmintic (f1; BOU); Cathartic (f1; BOU); Expectorant (f; BOU); Hydragogue (f1; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (s Haggy s parrowwort ):
Constipation (f; BOU); Dandruff (f; BOU); Worm (f1; BOU).
d osages (s Haggy s parrowwort ):
FNFF = X.
• Algerians use the leaf decoction as a dandruff shampoo (BOU).
• Chinese use a Chinese species for cancer; anticancer activity reported in other species 
(JLH).
• North Africans consider the leaves anthelmintic, cathartic, expectorant, and hydragogue 
(BOU).
FeNUGReeK (t rigonell A foenum -gr Aecum L.) +++ FABACeAe
Notes (FeNugreek ):
We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the 
leeks, and the onions, and the garlick: But our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside 
this manna, before our eyes.
Numbers 11:5–6. (KJV)
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We remember the fish we ate in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers, the melons, the leeks, the 
onions, and the garlic; but now our strength is dried up, and there is nothing at all but this manna 
to look at.
Numbers 11:5–6 (RSV)
How we remember the fish that we used to eat in Egypt for nothing, the cucumbers and the water 
melons, and the leeks and the onions, and the garlic; But now our soul is dried away. Our eyes are 
on nothing at all except the manna.
Numbers 11:5–6 (NWT)
Some scholars consider the fenugreek more likely than Allium porrum to be the leek of the Bible. This 
is not, however, included by Zohary in hisP lants of the Bible (ZOH). Coincidentally, fenugreek shares 
many medicinal properties with the leek. Zohary in his ofl ra does mention that it is widely cultivated 
and “subspontaneous” in Palestine, although it probably originated in southwestern Asia (FP2).
Commo N Names (FeNugreek ):
Al Harba (Mali; UPW); Alforvas (Por.; EFS); Alholva (Sp.; Spain; EFS; VAD); Alolva (Sp.; KAB); 
Asaraara (Mun.; KAB); Asumodhagam (Sin.; KAB; WOI); Bahurpani (Sanskrit; KAB); Bah-u
patriki (Sanskrit; KAB); Bhaji (Guj.; KAB); Bockhornsklover (Swe.; TAD); Bockshorn (Ger.; EFS; 
KAB); Bockshornklee (Ger.; MAD); Boukeras (Greek; KAB); Boyotu (Tur.; EFS); Bukkekorn 
(Den.; EFS); Cemen otu (Tur.; EB54:155); Cenigrechs (Cat.; KAB); Chandrika (Sanskrit; KAB; 
WOI); Dipani (Sanskrit; KAB); Ervinha (Por.; EFS); Fenacho (Por.; EFS); Fenegriek (Dutch; 
KAB); Fenegre (Lan..; KAB); Fenegriek (Por.; EFS); Fenigrekova Trava (Rus.; KAB); Feno Grego 
(Por.; EFS); Fenogreco (Sp.; KAB); Fenugrec (Fr.; EFS); Fenugrechs (Cat.; KAB); Fenugreek (Eng.; 
CR2; KAB); Fenugrek (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Fiengreco (It.; KAB); Fieno Greco (It.; Malta; EFS; 
KAB); Fienu (Malta; KAB); Finegreitze (Ger.; KAB); Finmaregretjen (Ger.; KAB); Foin Grec (Fr.; 
KAB); Gandhabija (Sanskrit; KAB); Gandhaphala (Sanskrit; KAB); Gorog Lepkeszeg (Hun.; EFS); 
Graine Joyeux (Fr.; KAB); Greek Clover (Eng.; USN); Greek Hay (Eng.; KAB; USN); Gretskaya 
Sochevitsa (Rus.; KAB); Griechische Heu (Ger.; KAB); Griechische Heusamen (Ger.; EFS); Grieks 
Graszaad (Por.; EFS); Haenugraeb (Beng.; KAB); Halba (Malaya; EFS); Halna Kalabat (Malaya; 
TAN); Hawmar (Arab.; BOU); Helba (Arab.; Mali; GHA; UPW); Helbek (Egypt; KAB); Heno 
Griego (Sp.; EFS); Hilba (Arab.; GHA); Holba (Alg.; KAB); Hoornklaver (Dutch; TAD); Hornklee 
(Ger.; EFS); Houlba (Morocco; KAB); Hulabaha (Arab.; NAD); Hulba (Arab.; EFS; KAB); Hu Lu 
Ba (Pin.; DAA); Hu Lu Pa (China; KAB); Jyoti (Sanskrit; KAB); Kairavi (Sanskrit; KAB); Kelabat 
(Malaya; IHB); Koroha (Jap.; TAD; TAN); K’u Tou (China; EFS); Kunchika (Sanskrit; KAB); Ma- n
tha (Sanskrit; KAB); Mathi (Sin.; KAB); Medhika (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Menk-Palle (Kan.; WOI); 
Mente (Kan.; KAB); Mentepalle (Kan.; KAB); Mentesoffu (Kan.; KAB); Mentesoppu (Kan.; WOI); 
Menthe (Kan.; NAD); Menthya (Kan.; KAB); Mentikura (Tel.; KAB); Mentulu (Tel.; KAB; NAD); 
Methai (Sri.; KAB); Methi (Beng.; Guj.; Hindi; Nepal; Sanskrit; Sin.; Urdu; NAD; KAB; SUW); 
Methika (Sanskrit; KAB) Methini (Guj.; Sanskrit; KAB); Methishah (Beng.; KAB); Methi-Shak 
(Beng.; WOI); Methri (Pun.; KAB); Metthi (Tam.; KON); Methun (Pun.; KAB); Misrapushpa (San-
skrit; KAB); Munindraka (Sanskrit; KAB); Muthi (Hindu; KAB); Pagitnik (Rus.; KAB); Pazh-it
nik (Rus.; TAD); Penantazi (Burma; KAB); Pitabija (Sanskrit; KAB); Saine Graine (Fr.; KAB); 
Sainegrain (Fr.; KAB); Schabbzieberklee (Ger.; TAD); Senegrain (Fr.; KAB); Senegre (Lan.; 
KAB); Sennegrain (Fr.; BOU; KAB); Shamli (Afg; KAB); Shamlid (Iran; KAB); Shamlit (Iran; 
KAB); Shamlita (Iran; EFS; NAD); Shamliz (Iran; KAB); Shanbalid (Iran; KAB); Siebengezeit 
(Ger.; KAB); Tamr hindi (Arab.; BOU); Tidfi as (Ber.; BOU); Toksfi t (Mali; UPW); Tilis Boukeras 
(Greek; KAB); Treugolka (Rus.; KAB); Uluhal (Sin.; KAB); Uluva (Mal.; Sin.; Tam.; KAB; NAD); 
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FIGURe . Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum).
 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Uluvaarisi (Sri.; KAB); Vallari (Sanskrit; KAB); Vendayam (Sri.; Tam.; NAD); Vedhani (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Vendayam (Tam.; KAB); Ventayam (Mal.; Tam.; KAB); Venthiam (Mal.; KAB).
a Ctivities (FeNugreek ):
Analeptic (f; BOU); Analgesic (f1; MAD; X15374601); Anthelmintic (f; HHB); Antiadhesion (1; 
FNF; YAH); Antiaggregant (f; X11310527); Antianemic (f1; VAD); Antiatherosclerotic (1; BGB); 
Anticystitic (1; FNF; YAH); Antidiabetic (f1; BGB; PNC); Antidiuretic (1; CAN); Antihyperlipe-
demic (1; BGB); Antihypertensive (1; CAN); Antiinafl mmatory (f12; KOM; X15374601); Antiisch -
emic (1; X16205934); Antineoplastic (f1; PR15:257); Antinociceptive (1; TAD; X15374601); 
Antioxidant (1; X15678722); Antiseptic (12; KOM; VAD); Antispasmodic (f1; PED; PNC); Anti-
tumor (f1; PNC); Antiviral (f; DAA); Aperient (f; NAD); Aphrodisiac (f; BOU; CRC; HHB; KAB; 
SPI; SUW); Astringent (f; CRC; PED); Cardiotonic (1; APA; CAN); Carminative (f; APA; CRC; 
GHA; SUW; WOI); Caspase-3 Inhibitor (1; X16205934); Chemopreventive (1; X15936223); Chola-
gogue (f; BGB); Contraceptive (f; BOW); Demulcent (f12; CAN; PNC); Digestive (f; APA; VAD); 
Diuretic (f1; APA; CAN; CRC); Ecbolic (f; CRC); Emmenagogue (f1; CRC; FNF; KAB); Emollient 
(f12; APA; BOU; CAN; PH2; PNC); Estrogenic (1; JAD); Expectorant (f; CAN; CRC; SPI); Feb-
rifuge (1; X15374601); Hepatoprotective (f1; VAD); Hydragogue (1; PH2); Hyperemic (2; KOM); 
Hypocholesterolemic (2; BGB; BRU; CRC; PNC), Hypoglycemic (f12; BRU; CAN; PHR; PH2; 
SKY; X15738612); Hypolipemic (f; VAD); Hypotriglyceridemic (1; BGB); Immunostimulant (1; 
PR15:257); Insectifuge (1; GHA; UPW; WOI); Lactagogue (f1; CRC; JAD; PHR; PH2; WOI); Lax-a
tive (f12; BOU; PNC; VAD); Lipogenic (f; BOU); Lipolytic (1; BRU; PH2; PNC); Mastogenic (f1; 
FNF; HAD); Mucilaginous (f1; PED); Myorelaxant (1; PNC); Nematicide (1; PR15:538); Orexigenic 
(12; APA; CAN; GHA; PH2; VAD); Oxytocic (1; PNC); Parturient (f; BGB); Propecic (f; MAD; 
NAD); Protease Inhibitor (1; HH2); Retinoprotectant (1; X16205934); Secretolytic (2; KOM); Sper-
micide (1; CRC); Steroid Precursor (1; JAD); Stimulant (f; BOU); Tonic (f; BOU; CRC; PED; WOI); 
Ureopoeitic (f; NAD); Uterotonic (f1; APA; CAN; PED); Vermifuge (1; CRC; PR15:538); Vulnerary 
(f1; CAN; PHR; TAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (FeNugreek ):
Abscess (f; VAD; WOI); Acne (f; VAD); Adenopathy (f; CRC; HHB); Aging (f; BOW); Alactea 
(f1; PH2; WOI); Allergy (f; PED); Alopecia (1; APA; KAP; MAD); Anemia (f1; BOU; GMH; SPI; 
VAD); Anorexia (f12; APA; CAN; KOM; PH2; JAC7:405); Aposteme (f; JLH); Arthrosis (1; KOM); 
Atherosclerosis (1; BGB; SKY); Backache (f; BOW); Bacteria (1; WOI; X15331344); Blepharosis 
(f; VAD); Boil (f; BGB; GMH; KAP); Bronchosis (f; APA; BOU; GHA; PH2); Burn (f; CRC; IHB); 
Calculus (1; APA); Cancer (f1; APA); Cancer, abdomen (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, bladder (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; FNF; JLH; X15936223); Cancer, cervix (f1; BOW); Cancer, colon (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, eye (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gland (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, groin (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, intestine (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, kidney (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, parotid (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, rectum (f1; FNF; JLH; MAD); Cancer, spleen (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, testes (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; 
FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uvula (f1; FNF; JLH); Carbuncle (f; GMH; 
KAP); Cardiopathy (f1; HJP); Catarrh (f; PH2); Cellulitis (f; BOW); Cervicosis (f; BOW); Chafing 
(f; BIB); Chickenpox (1; DAA); Childbirth (f; BGB; BPW; GHA); Chilblain (f; CRC); Childbirth 
(f; BOU); Cholecystosis (f; CRC); Colic (f; GHA; KAP); Colitis (f; PH2); Conjunctivosis (f; VAD); 
Constipation (f1; VAD); Cough (f; APA; GHA; PED; PH2); Constipation (f1; SKY; SPI); Cystosis 
(f1; FNF; JLH; SKJ); Debility (f; MAD); Dermatosis (f12; APA; BOU; CRC; PHR; PH2); Diabetes 
(f12; APA; BRU; CAN; CRC; X15738612), Diarrhea (f1; APA; CRC; KAP); Dropsy (f; NAD); Dys-
entery (f; HHB; KAB; SUW); Dysgeuzia (f; KAB); Dysmenorrhea (f; BGB); Dyspepsia (f12; APA; 
CAN; PHR); Dystrophy (f; UPW); Eczema (f1; BGB; PHR; PH2; VAD); Edema (f; BGB; SKJ); 
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Enteralgia (f; APA; CRC); Edema (f; BOW); Enterosis (f; BGB; BOU; PH2; WOI); Exhaustion (f; 
MAD); Fever (f1; APA; BOU; CRC; PH2; X15374601); Fistula (f; CRC); Fracture (f; HJP); Furun-
culosis (f; BGB; HHB; PHR; VAD), Gas (f1; APA); Gastrosis (f; APA; BGB; BOU; CAN; GMH); 
Gonorrhea (f; UPW); Gout (f; BGB; CAN; CRC; GMH); Hay Fever (f; PED); Helicobacter (1; 
X15331344); Hemorrhoid (f; MAD; NAD); Hepatosis (f; CRC; JLH; KAP); Hernia (f; APA; BGB; 
CRC; PH2); High Blood Pressure (f1; CAN; HJP), High Cholesterol (2; APA; BRU; CAN; SKY); 
High Triglycerides (1; BGB; SKY); Hyperlipidemia (1; BGB); Impotence (f; APA; CRC; PH2); 
Impotence (f; DAA); Infection (1; APA; WOI; X15331344); Inafl mmation (f12; APA; BRU; KOM; 
PH2; X15374601);  Itch (f; BOU); Ischemia (1; X16205934); Kidney stone (1; JEB26:249); Labor 
(f1; APA); Leprosy (f; UPW); Leukorrhea (f; KAP); Lymphadenitis (f; BGB; CAN); Mastosis (f; 
JLH); Muscular Dystrophy (f; UPW); Myalgia (f; BGB; CAN); Nematode (1; PR15:538); Nephrosis 
(f; APA; CRC; JLH); Neuralgia (f; APA; CRC); Neurasthenia (f; BOW; GMH; NAD); Ophthalmia 
(f; JLH; VAD); Orchosis (f; JLH); Osteomyelitis (f; HHB; MAD); Oxaluria (1; APA); Pain (f1; 
HJP; PH2; TAD; X15374601); Parotosis (f; JLH); Pharyngosis (f; VAD); PMS (f; BGB); Proctosis 
(f; JLH; MAD); Rachitis (f; MAD); Respirosis (f; APA; PH2); Retinosis (1; X16205934); Rheuma-
tism (f; APA; CRC); Rickets (f; NAD); Sciatica (f; CRC); Scrofula (f; GMH; HHB); Smallpox (1; 
DAA; KAB; KAP; SUW); Sore (f; APA; BGB; MAD; PH2); Sore Throat (f1; APA; CRC; MAD); 
Spermatorrhea (f; BOW); Splenosis (f; HHB; KAP); Splenomegaly (f; BOU; CRC; KAB); Sprain (f; 
GHA); Stomatosis (f; APA); Stone (1; JEB26:249); Swelling (f; HHB; KAB; PHR); Syndrome-X (1; 
SYN); Syphilis (f; SKJ); Tonsilosis (f; BOU); Tuberculosis (f; APA; CRC; HHB; MAD; SPI); Tumor 
(f; CRC); Typhoid (f; HJP); Ulcer (f1; APA; PNC; X15331344); Ulcus cruris (f; HHB); Uterosis (f; 
BOU; JLH; NAD); Vaginosis (f; BGB; NAD; VAD); Venereal Disease (f; SKJ); Virus (1; DAA); 
Vomiting (f; PH2); Worm (1; PR15:538); Wound (f; BGB; HHB).
d osages (FeNugreek ):
FNFF = !!
Leaves and pods eaten as spice and vegetable; seeds and leaves used to make tea; seeds used to 
adulterate or flavor coffee; to make articfi ial maple syrup flavoring; ground seeds used in curry 
powder; sprouted seed braised in oil and eaten with parboiled cardoon; Yemeni add seeds to 
gravies and soups; sprouts important in Near Eastern lamb stews flavored with honey. Europeans 
add seed to hay, especially old hay, to make it more savory to the animals. Seeds are used as an 
adulterant in or substitute for coffee. Fenugreek also has wide use in the Middle and Near East 
today. According to Philips, the fenugreek is almost as popular in Lebanon today as the peanut 
is in America as a snack. In Beirut, they make a mush from the green seed after soaking, form-
ing a fenugreek “milkshake” (FAC, GHA; HJP; TAN; EB54:155). Lydia Pinkham’s Vegetable 
Compound contained 12 oz fenugreek seed, 8 oz unicorn root (Aletris), and 6 oz each of life root 
(Senecio), black cohosh (Cimicifuga), and pleurisy root (Asclepias) in enough alcohol to make 
100 pints of compound. One Tbsp mashed seed/8 oz water, up to 3 ×/day as gargle (APA); 1–6 g 
seed, 3 ×/day (CAN); 50 g powdered seed with 1/4 l water (HH2). One 620-mg capsule 2–3× /day 
(NH); 1/4–1/2 cup seed (PED); 6–12 g dry seed (PED); 9 g dry seed, 6.3 g/day (MAD).  5–90 g 
seed/day (SKY).
• Arabians use seeds boiled with dry dates and figs for bronchosis and cough (GHA).
• Arabians give seeds with boiled water and egg to new mothers for 7 days after birth 
(GHA).
• Iranians infuse the seed for menorrhagia (BIB).
• Lebanese take fenugreek “milkshake” in Lebanon for hypertension (HJP).
• Lebanese use as a poultice, and for diabetes, dyspepsia, fever, fractures, heart trouble, 
lung problems, and typhoid, using the root more often than the herb for pain and rheu-
matism (HJP).
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• Middle Easterners respect fenugreek as both preventive and panacea (HJP).
• North Africans use seed ofl ur boiled with saltpeter and vinegar for splenomegaly (BOU).
d ow Nsides (FeNugreek ):
Class 2b (AHP, 1997). Health hazards or side effects following the proper administration of desi-g
nated therapeutic dosages are not known (PH2). Contraindicated in pregnancy (f; PH2); Comm-is
sion E reports no contraindications or interactions for oral use of the seed. Adverse skin reactions to 
repeated external use (AEH). An idiosyncratic gastroenterosis was blamed on fenugreek in LRNP 
(July 1987). Commission E reports no contraindications or interactions for oral use of the seed. 
Adverse effects: skin reactions to repeated external use (AEH). One micromastic female com-
plained of mastogenic activity following ingestion of fenugreek sprouts. Newall, Anderson, and 
Phillipson (1996) caution that because of its oxytoxic and uterine stimulant action sin , vitro, its use 
in pregnancy and lactation is to be avoided. May interfere with anticoagulant, blood sugar, -hor
monal, and/or MAOI therapies. High mucilaginous/bfi er content may interfere with absorption of 
other drugs. Because all herbs, spices, and food plants, like drugs, contain pharmacologically active 
ingredients, it seems it could go without saying that “the presence of pharmacologically active co-n
stituents would suggest that excessive ingestion is inadvisable” (CAN).
extra Cts (FeNugreek ):
Treating rats with seed for 4 weeks signicafi ntly decreased the quantity of calcium oxalate deposited 
in the kidneys, supporting Saudi folklore (JEB26:249). Leaf extract antinociceptive at 1000–2000 
mg/kg ipr, but the LD50 was circa 4000 mg/kg ipr (X9406901). Alcoholic seed extract LD50 = 5000 
mg/kg orl rat, 2000 der rbt (CAN); oxytocic; uterotonic. Trigonelline antihypertensive, antiinafl m -
matory, diuretic, hypoglycemic (CAN); converted to niacin and other pyridines and pyrroles when 
cooked (PED). Methanol-soluble fraction showed high (>92%) nematicidal activity (PR15:538).
Whe At ( t riticum A estivum L.) +++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Triticum sativum Lam.; Triticum vulgare Vill.; Triticum spelta L.; and, although not synonymous, 
closely related durum wheat, Triticum durum, and emmer, Triticum dicoccum
Notes (w Heat ):
And he slept and dreamed the second time: and, behold, seven ears of corn came up upon one 
stalk, rank and good.
Genesis 41:5 (KJV)
And he fell asleep and dreamed a second time; and behold, seven ears of grain, plump and good, 
were growing on one stalk.
Genesis 41:5 (RSV)
However he went back to sleep and dreamed a second time; and here there were seven ears of 
grain, coming up on one stalk, fat and good.
Genesis 41:5 (NWT)
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FIGURe . Wheat (Triticum aestivum). Source: BIB.
The biblical term “corn” is synonymous with grain; it does not refer to Indian maize, but usually 
to wheat, the most common cereal. Corn in those days often included as a mixture peas, beans, 
lentils, cumin, barley, millet, and spelt. Egypt was the chief granary of the Roman empire. As late 
as 1952, Moldenke and Moldenke say, “Even today Arabia imports all its wheat from Egypt, and 
the caravans which leave Egypt for the Red Sea are laden with precious wheat.” In my first biblical 
book (BIB), I acceded to the Moldenkes and gfi ured that wheats (Triticum aestivum) and spelts 
8202_C001.indd   469 11/12/07   2:52:46 PM
0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
(Triticum spelta) were what was intended in the biblical passages on corn and wheat. As so often, 
Israeli botanist Michael Zohary rather refutes those possibilities. Yes, it was wheat, but tetraploid 
durum wheat, Triticum durum, and emmer, Triticum dicoccum, rather than Tricitum aestivum or 
Triticum spelta. The latter do not even grow in Israel (ZOH). So what? From a medicinal point 
of view, they are pretty much equally good or bad (if you have celiac). Zohary adds that the two 
tetraploids were abundantly cultivated in Israel and vicinity, the durum wheat still dominant in 
Israel agriculture. Not only were these free wheats (free meaning without hull) important in bread 
(although rich in gluten), but also offered to God in tribute as, for example, the Showbread wheat 
(Hebrew hittah), probably included in the general terms bar (Genesis 41:49), dagan (Numbers 
18:27), and kamah (Judges 15:5), as well as avur, carmel, geresh, and omer, scattered throughout 
the Old Testament. Zohary concluded that the ancestral species waTsr iticum dicoccoides, also 
native to Israel. “Domestication of wheat … took place about 8000 years ago in one or more of the 
most primitive agricultural villages of the Assyrian mountains (Jarmo in Iraq), and probably in the 
Land of Israel as wel.” (ZOH). 
Commo N Names (w Heat ):
Ble (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS); Ble Ordinaire (Fr.; USN); Bread Wheat (Eng.; USN); Bugday (Tur.; 
EFS); Chhow (Newari; NPM); Cherbi (Sunwar; NPM); Civitella (It.; EFS); Cluster Wheat (Eng.; 
USN); Common Wheat (Eng.; Ocn.; AH2); Corn (Eng.; AVP; BIB); Formento (It.; AVP); Froment 
(Fr.; AVP; EFS; USN); Frumento (It.; AVP); Gahu (Bom.; Mah.; Kon.; NAD); Gahum (Mar.; WOI); 
Gahumg (Mar.; WOI); Gam (Beng.; NAD; WOI); Gahun (Bhojpuri; Chepang; Danuwar; Gurung; 
Magar; Mooshar; Nepal; Tharu; NPM); Ganam (Afg.; KAB); Gandam (Afg.; Iran; EFS; KAB); 
Gandham (Hindi; WOI); Gawn (Guj.; WOI); Gehu (Guj.; NAD); Gehun (Hindu; Nwp. EFS; KAB; 
NAD); Gendum (Mal.; WOI); Getreide (Ger.; AVP); Ghavum (Guj.; WOI); Giun (Beng.; Hindi; 
WOI); Godamba (Mal.; WOI); Godhuma (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD); Godi (Kan.; NAD); Godumai (Tam.; 
WOI); Godumay (Tam.; NAD); Godumbyarisi (Tam.; WOI); Godumulu (Tel.; NAD); Gom (Beng.; 
WOI); Goodhumalu (Tel.; NAD); Govum (Guj.; WOI); Grano (It.; AVP); Grano Grosso (It.; EFS); 
Gro (Tibet; NPM; TIB); Hintah (Arab.; EFS; NAD); Hsiao Mai (China; EFS); Huede (Den.; AVP); 
Hvete (Swe.; AVP); Kakyo (Lepcha; NPM); Kameh (Arab.; AVP); Kanak (Hindi; WOI); Kanik (Sin.; 
NAD); Ko Mugi (Japan; USN); Korn (Ger.; AVP); Kotanpam (Mal.; WOI); Kotampum (Mal.; NAD); 
Kwa (Tamang; NPM); Lumcha (Rai; NPM); Marzuolo (It.; EFS); Oun (Tur.; AVP); Pscheniza (Rus.; 
AVP); Pszenica (Pol.; AVP); Saatweizen (Ger.; USN); Si (Limbu; NPM); Ta (Sherpa; NPM); Tarw 
(Dutch; AVP); Tarwe (Dutch; EFS); Trigo (Por.; Sp.; AVP; ROE); Trigo Blandeal (Sp.; USN); Trigo 
Candeal (Ger.; EFS); Trigo Chamoro (Sp.; EFS); Trigo Commun (Por.; AVP); Waizen (Ger.; AVP); 
Weisen (Ger.; AVP); Weizen (Ger.; EFS; USN); Wheat (Eng.; Scn.; AH2; CR2); Xiao Mai (Pin.; 
DAA); Yava (Sanskrit; EFS; NAD).
a Ctivities (w Heat ):
Antibilious (f; BIB); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; VAD); Antiseptic (f; BIB); Antivinous (f; BIB); Aph -
rodisiac (f; KAB); Apopotic (1; X12681494); Bulking (1; SHT); Demulcent (f; BIB); Discutient (f; 
BIB); Emollient (f; BIB; ROE); Hypocalcemic (1; VAD); Hypocholesterolemic (1; VAD); Hypogly-
cemic (1; VAD); Hypolipemic (1; VAD); Lactagogue (f; ROE); Laxative (2; BGB; PH2; KAB; SHT); 
Lipolytic (1; PH2); Orexigenic (f; KAB); Peristaltic (1; PH2); Refrigerant (f; TIB); Sedative (f; BIB); 
Vulnerary (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (w Heat ):
Abscess (f; ROE); Acne (f; ROE); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Aegilops (f; PH2); Aposteme (f; JLH); 
Arteriosclerosis (f; VAD); Arthrosis (f; JLH); Biliousness (f; KAB); Bleeding (f; ROE); Burn 
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(f; BIB); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (f1; BIB; JLH); Cancer, abdomen (f1; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, colon (f1; JLH); Cancer, foot (f1; JLH); Cancer, joint (f1; JLH); Cancer, parotid (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, sinax (f1; JLH); Cancer, skin (f1; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; JLH); Cancer, testicle 
(f1; JLH); Cancer, tonsil (f1; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; BIB); Childbirth (f; 
ROE); Colitis (2; BGB; SHT); Condyloma (f; PH2); Constipation (f12; BGB; BIB; PH2; SHT); 
Corn (f; JLH); Cramp (f; ROE); Dermatosis (f1; PH2; ROE; VAD); Diabetes (f; VAD); Diarrhea 
(f; BIB; ROE); Diverticulitis (12; BIB; SHT; VAD); Dysentery (f; BIB); Ecchymosis (f; BIB); 
Enuresis (f; ROE); Epistaxis (f; BIB); Fever (f; BIB; ROE); Flu (f; ROE); Flux (f; BIB); Fracture 
(f; BIB; ROE); Gonorrhea (f; ROE); Gravel (f; BIB); Hematuria (f; BIB); Hemoptysis (f; BIB); 
Hemorrhage (f; BIB); Hemorrhoid (f; ROE); IBS (12; BGB; VAD); Impotence (f; KAB); Inconti-
nence (f; BIB); Induration (f; JLH); Inflammation (f1; PH2; VAD); Itch (f; PH2); Leprosy (f; BIB); 
Leukorrhea (f; BIB); Mastosis (f; JLH); Metrorrhagia (f; BIB); Myalgia (f1; VAD); Neurasthenia 
(f; BIB); Night sweat (f; BIB); Obesity (f; VAD); Odontosis (f; ROE); Orchosis (f; JLH); Osteosis 
(f; BIB; ROE); Pain (f; JLH; ROE; VAD); Pimple (f; ROE); Scald (f; BIB); Smallpox (f; BIB); Sore 
(f; JLH; ROE); Sprain (f; ROE); Sting (f; BIB); Stone (f1; VAD); Sunstroke (f; BIB), Swelling (f; 
BIB); Syphilis (f; BIB); Tonsilosis (f; JLH); Tuberculosis (f; BIB; KAB; ROE); Ulcer (f; JLH); 
Urolithiosis (f1; VAD); Venereal Disease (f; BIB); Wart (f; JLH; ROE); Whitlow Cancer (f; JLH); 
Wound (f; BIB).
d osages (w Heat ):
FNFF =!!!
15 g bran 2 ×/day (SHT); 15–40 g bran 1–2 ×/day (PH2).
• Algerians use ofl ur for diarrhea, fractures, metrorrhagia, and syphilis, the bran for sco-r
pion stings.
• Ayurvedics consider the seed antibilious, aphrodisiac, laxative, orexigenic, and tonic 
(KAB).
• Chinese use roasted grains for sweating, especially in women with tuberculosis (KAB).
• Lebanese recommend the bran for bones, constipation, and antiseptic dressing, “claiming 
it was empirical penicillin” (HJP).
• Spaniards suggest the bran (salvado) and/or ofl ur as demulcent, laxative, hypocalcemic, 
hypocholesterolemic, hypoglycemic, hypolipemic, satiating, and useful for arthrosis, 
bruises, catarrh, dermatosis, hematomas, myalgia, and tonsilitis (VAD).
d ow Nsides (w Heat ):
None at proper dosage (PH2). Bulking agents should not be taken by those with stenotic lesions of 
the GI tract. May lead to bowel obstruction if ufl id intake is inadequate. Do not take bulking agents 
when lying down or at bedtime. Do not use with antiperistaltics (such as, for exasmple, loperamide) 
(SHT).
Natural History (w Heat ):
Wheats are attacked by many fungi and other organisms. Some cultivars are resistant to the various 
rusts, smuts, and virus diseases. The most important fungal diseases of wheats are the following. 
Extension agents should be consulted concerning diseases in an area before growing wheat. Also, 
cultivars should be selected for growing that are resistant to such diseases. Fungal diseases of wheat 
include Rusts (Stem or Black rust, Puccinia graiminis f. sp. tritici; Leaf or Brown rust, P. recondita; 
Stripe or Yellow rust, P. glumarum); Smuts (Bunt or Covered smut, Tilletia caries and T. foetida; 
Dwarf Loose smut, Ustilago tritici); Mildews (Downy mildew, Sclerospora macrospora; Powdery 
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mildew, Erysiphe graminis f. sp. tritici); Root rots (Common root rot, Helminthosporium spp. and 
Fusarium spp.; Take-all root rot, Ophiobolus graminis; Browning root rot, Pythium spp.); Foot rots 
(Eye spot, Cercosporella herpotrichoides; Snow mold, Fusarium spp.); Blights and Scabs (Head 
blight or scab, Fusarium spp.; Rhizoctonia blight, Rhizoctonia spp.; Typhula blight, Typhula spp.; 
Anthracose, Colletotrichum graminicola; Kernel smudge, Helminthosporium spp., Alternaria spp.); 
Blotches (Glume blotch, Septoria nodorum; Leaf blotch, S. tritici); Speckled leaf disease, Lepto-
sphaeria avenaria f. sp. triticea; Ergot, Claviceps purpurea. Diseases caused by bacteria include 
the following: Pseudomonas atrofaciens (Basal glume rot or Bacterial black-tip) andX anthomonas 
transluscens f. sp. undulosa (Black shaff). Diseases caused by viruses include the following: Wheat 
mosaic, Wheat streak mosaic, Wheat striate mosaic, and Yellow dwarf. Insect pests encountered in 
various areas include English grain aphid, the most common aphid affecting wheat, attacking the 
heads and being very damaging when populations become high prior to the late-dough stage. Other 
insects and cutworms, darkling beetles, hessian yfl , and salt marsh caterpillars may cause damage 
during the seedling stage. A great number of species of nematodes have been isolated from wheats 
in various parts of the world. Where nematodes are a problem, the agricultural agent should be co-n
sulted (HOE).
extra Cts (w Heat ):
Nystrom et al. (2005) note that steryl ferulates run 300–390 ppm in wheat bran, constituting 20–
25% of total sterols. Known to lower LDL cholesterol, steryl ferulates also have antiinafl mma-
tory, antioxidant, antiradicular, and antitumor activities. If metabolized more effectively than rice 
counterparts, steryl ferulates of wheat and rye may have more benetfi s than gamma-oryzanol. 
Alk(en)ylresorcinols, folates, lignans, phytosterols, and tocopherols tend to be localized in the 
outer parts of the kernel, especially the bran (X15796586). For seed, nut, and whole grain lo-v
ers, Phillips et al. analyzed the phytosterols in wheat germ, some such phytosterols medicinally 
important (X16302759). Delta-5-avenasterol, 161 ppm; delta-7-avenasterol, 133 ppm; campestanol, 
127 ppm; campesterol, 787 ppm; phytosterols, 4130 ppm; poriferasta -7,25-dienol, 135 ppm; sitosta-
nol, 69 ppm; beta-sitosterol, 2286 ppm; stigmasterol, 37 ppm; and delta-7 -stigmastenol, 116 ppm 
(X16302759).
t ULIp (t ulip A spp.) + LILIACeAe
Notes (g eNeri C t ulip ):
The flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the 
turtle is heard in our land.
Song of Solomon 2:12 (KJV)
The flowers appear on the earth, the time of singing has come, and the voice of the turtledove is 
heard in our land.
Song of Solomon 2:12 (RSV)
Blossoms themselves have appeared in the land, the very time of vine trimming, and the voice of 
the turtle dove itself has been heard in our land.
Song of Solomon 2:12 (NWT)
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FIGURe . Tulip (Tulipa sp.).
Zohary offers that the mountain tulip (Tulipa montana Lindl.), with its wide array of colors, is prob-
ably of the Hebrew nitzanin (Arabic, nissan), the group of ofl wers or blossoms mentioned in Can -
ticles. Zohary adds that even in Iraq, these groups of blossoms are recognized, as perhaps we here 
speak of our spring ofl wers, which do not bloom coincidentally but rather sequentially, In Iraq and 
the Holy Land, it is a group of sequential red ofl wers, beginning with the crown anemone and ending 
in the common poppy, today, as in biblical time. So we have three slightly different views of biblical 
phenology above. Of course there are close to 100 species of tulip, and nobody, not even Zohary, 
is sure that Tulipa montana, indeed any tulip, was intended in this passage. But he implies that the 
mountain tulip and/or other Israeli species have been involved in the evolved horticultural tulip.
Commo N Names (mou Ntai N t ulip ):
Mountain Tulip (Eng.; ZOH); Nissan (Arabic; ZOH); Nitzanin (Heb.; ZOH); Nscn.
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a Ctivities (g eNeri C t ulip ):
Allergenic (1; WOI); Alterative (f; DAW); Antibiotic (1; WOI); Antiseptic (1; WOI); Bacteristat 
(1; WOI); Cardiotoxic (1; WOI); Depurative (f; DAW); DNA-Synthesis Inhibitor (1; X3592627); 
Fungicide (1; X4850341); Hemagglutinin (1; X3595592); Mitogenic (1; X1814629); Mutagenic (1; 
X3088443); Poison (f; DAW); Tonic (f; DAW); Vasculoprotective (1; X10190195).
iNdi Catio Ns (g eNeri C t ulip ):
Abscess (f; DAW); Bacillus (1; WOI); Bacteria (1; WOI); Bite (f; DAW); Bronchosis (f; HHB); Bubo 
(f; DAW); Cancer (f; DAW; JLH); Cancer, breast (f; DAW; JLH); Cancer, lung (f; DAW; JLH); 
Cancer, stomach (f; DAW; JLH); Fungus (1; X4850341); Gastrosis (f; DAW); Infection (1; WOI); 
Mastosis (f; DAW); Mucosis (f; HHB); Mycosis (1; X4850341); Pulmonosis (f; DAW; JLH); Scrofula 
(f; DAW); Struma (f; DAW); Urogenitosis (f; DAW; JLH); Varicosity (1; X10190195).
d osages (g eNeri C t ulip ):
FNFF = !
Facciola mentions only the ofl wers, tasting like beans or peas, eaten as a garnish in salads, or 
consumed with chicken or tuna salad, cottage cheese, fruit sorbets, mixed vegetables, or mousses. 
Although viewed as poisonous, bulbs are eaten as food during times of scarcity (WOI); bulbs not 
mentioned by Facciola (FAC).
CAtt AIL (t yph A spp.) +++ typh ACeAe
Notes (Cattail ):
And they smote him on the head with a reed, and did spit upon him, and bowing their knees 
worshipped him.
Mark 15:19 (KJV)
And they struck his head with a reed, and spat upon him, and they knelt down in homage to him.
Mark 15:19 (RSV)
Also they would hit him on the head with a reed and spit upon him, and, bending their knees, they 
would do obeissance to him.
Mark 15:19 (NWT)
I am once again taking the generic approach with Typha, but most of the entries are for Middle 
Eastern or tropical species. Zohary hints that the Hebrew suf often represents a collective word for 
aquatic plants, like reeds, rushes, and water weeds; but Exodus 3:3 and Isaiah 19:6 can be translated 
directly to Typha, T. australis being the most common species in Israel. Typha dominates many of 
the ditches and tributaries of the Nile in lower Egypt. BOU and GHA references below apply to T. 
domingensis, JLH to T. angustifolia, AVP and EGG to both.
Many old paintings depicting Jesus’s mock trial, picture him with the cattail in his hand as 
a scepter. The leaves are plaited into such articles as ropes, winnowing trays, mats, and also are 
employed as caulking. The silky ofl rets of spikes are used for stuffing and tinder. Ashes are some -
times used as a salt substitute. Fruiting spikes with oil serve for illumination. The pollen was used 
during emergency as an absorbent in surgery.
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FIGURe . Cattail (Typha sp).
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Commo N Names (Cattail ):
Akaioud (Ber.; BOU); Barda (Arab.; GHA); Bardi (Arab.; BOU); Batbat (Tur.; EB51:195); Berdi 
(Arab.; BOU); Bout (Arab.; BOU); Candle Wick (Eng.; BUR; EAS); Capim de Esteira (Por.; AVP); 
Cat-O-Nine-Tails (Eng.; EAS); Cattail (Eng.; TAN); Cooper’s Reed (Eng.; BUR); Cossack Aspar-a
gus (Eng.; EAS); Cumbungi (?; FAC); Deis (Arab.; BOU); Enea (Dr.; Peru; Sp.; AVP; EGG); Eneas 
(Pr.; AVP); Erva de Esteira (Por.; AVP); Espandaña (Chile; JLH); Flag Tule (Eng.; BUR); Grand 
Jonc (Haiti; AVP); Great Reed Mace (Eng.; AAH; BUR); Gros Jonc (Haiti; AHL); Hagla (?; FAC); 
Himegama (Japan; TAN); Huaricolla (Peru; Sp.; EGG); Jonc (Haiti; AHL); Junco (Dr.; AHL; AVP); 
Ksohi (Baby’s coat) (Hocak; WIN); Léche (His.; AHL); Macios (Cuba; AVP); Marsh Beetle (Eng.; 
EAS); Massette (Fr.; BOU); Massette des Étangs (Fr.; BOU); Nataf (Arab.; Yemen; GHA); Pun (?; 
FAC); Reed (Eng.; BIB); Reed Mace (Eng.; TAN); Riche (His.; AHL); Roseau (Fr.; BOU); Small 
Bulrush (Eng.; BOU); Tababuia (Por.; AVP); Taboa (Por.; AVP); Tabu (Por.; AVP); Tabua (Por.; 
AVP; TAN); Tabuda (Ber.; BOU); Taheli (Ber.; BOU); Totora (Arg.; Chile; Peru; EGG; JLH); Tupai 
(Egypt; ZOH); Ugin (Ber.; BOU); Wicihu (Leaves mat) (Hocak; WIN).
a Ctivities (Cattail ):
Antiaggregant (f; DAW); Antiinafl mmatory (f; DEM); Antiseptic (1; DEM); Aphrodisiac (f; AHL; 
KAB; EB29:7); Astringent (1; BIB; EB29:20); Cicatrizant (f; EGG); Circulostimulant (f; ZUL); 
Cyanogenic (1; BIB); Depurative (f; ZUL); Detersive (f; EB29:20); Diuretic (f1; AHL; BIB; WBB; 
ZUL; EB29:20); Emetic (f; DEM; EB29:24); Febrifuge (f; EB29:7); Hemostat (f1; BIB; EB29:20); 
Lactagogue (f; DAW); Litholytic (f; DEM); Orexigenic (f; UPW); Poison (f; DAW; EB29:24); Purga-
tive (f; EB29:24); Refrigerant (f; DAW); Sedative (f; DAW); Sterilizant (f; EB31:305); Stimulant (f; 
EB29:20); Suppurative (f; DAW); Uterocontractant (f; ZUL); Uterotonic (f; EB29:20); Vermifuge (f; 
DAW); Vulnerary (f; DAW).
iNdi Catio Ns (Cattail ):
Amenorrhea (f; DAW); Anodyne (f; DAW); Anorexia (f; UPW); Bite (f; EB29:7); Bleeding (1; BIB; 
EB29:20); Boil (f; DEM); Bruise (f; DAW); Burn (f; BUR; DEM; GHA; EB29:20); Cancer (f; DEM); 
Carbuncle (f; DEM); Chafing (f; DEM); Childbirth (f; DAW; ZUL); Circulosis (f; ZUL); Cramp (f; 
DEM); Cyanogenic (f1; EB30:400); Cyst (f; DEM); Cystosis (f; ZUL); Dermatosis (f; DEM); Diar-
rhea (f; DEM; ZUL; EB29:20); Dropsy (f; EB29:20); Dysentery (f; KAB; WOI; EB29:20); Dysuria 
(f; EB29:20); Ecchymosis (f; DAW); Enterosis (f; BUR; DAW; DEM); Epilepsy (f; AAH; BIB; 
EB29:7; EB24:265); Epistaxis (f; DAW); Erysipelas (f; FEL; EB29:7); Fever (f; EB29:7); Gastrosis 
(f; BUR; DEM); Gonorrhea (f; DEM; FEL; WOI; EB29:20); Gravel (f; DEM); Hematemesis (f; 
DAW); Hematochezia (f; DAW; EB29:20); Hematuria (f; DAW); Hemoptysis (f; DAW); Hemorrhoid 
(f; DAW); Impotence (f; DAW; EB29:20); Infection (f; DEM); Infertility (f; ZUL); Inafl mmation (f; 
DEM; EB29:20); Insanity (f; EB29:7); Kidney stone (f; DEM); Leprosy (f; DEM); Leucorrhea (f; 
DAW); Madness (f; BIB EB24:265); Mastosis (f; DAW; DEM); Measles (f; KAB; WOI; EB29:20); 
Metrorrhagia (f; DAW; ZUL); Metroxenia (f; DAW); Mucososis (f; BUR); Nephrosis (f; ZUL); Oph-
thalmia (f; FEL; KAB; EB29:20); Pain (f; DAW); Pertussis (f; DEM); Proctosis (f; EB29:7); Scald 
(f; DEM); Smallpox (f; DEM); Snakebite (f; EB29:7); Sore (f; DEM; KAB; EB29:20); Splenosis (f; 
KAB); Sprain (f; ZUL); Stone (f; DEM); Strangury (f; KAB); Swelling (f; DAW; FEL); Thrush (f; 
EB29:7; EB29:20); Toothache (f; AAH); Tumor (f; BIB; FEL; EB29:20); Ulcer (f; DAW); Urethro-
sis (f; ZUL); Uterosis (f; EB29:20); Vaginosis (f; DAW); Venereal Disease (f; BUR; DAW; DEM); 
Worm (f; DAW); Wound (f1; BIB; DAW; KAB; EB29:20); Yeast (f; EB29:7). Very few of these folk 
uses have proven out, but I would not hesitate to try any for any of these indications, if nothing else 
were available. Many folk medicines prove to have good phytochemical rationales when analyzed.
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d osages (g eNeri C Catail ):
FNFF = 1
Facciola lists vfi e edible species of Typha. Young shoots, inofl rescence, tender leaves, and rhizomes 
are eaten in various ways. Flowers and anthers are made into a sweetmeat. The sweet and soft 
marrow of the immature spike is considered a delicacy. Pollen is used to make bread or porridge. 
My first bag of cattail pollen, when taken indoors, resulted in the window pane being clouded with 
thousands of thrips (BIB; EAS; FAC).
• Arabians apply dried crushed flowers to cool or soothe burns (GHA).
• Chileans use decoction of T. angustifolia roots to wash tumors (JLH).
• Gaelic’s, calling the plant what translates to “fairy wives’ spindle,” gathered the plant on a m-id
summer midnight wrapping it in a shroud, to prevent epilepsy and all other diseases (AAH).
• Hispaniolans suggest the root is aphrodisiac.
• Irish somehow use the plant for toothache (AAH).
• North Africans apply ashes of the rhizome to wounds to stop bleeding (BOU).
• Peruvians treat burns with hairs from the flower spikes (EGG)
• Peruvians make a cicatrizant pomade from cattail charcoal with oil (EGG).
• Peruvians use the buds as astringent and diuretic (EGG).
Natural History (g eNeri C Cattail ):
Most cattails are partially or entirely self-fertilized. Their own pollen sheds from above. A sp-i
der (Clubiona riparia) uses the leaf tip for both nursery and coffin. This sac spider folds down 
the leaf tip to make an enclosure fastened and lined with silk. Inside, it deposits its egg sac and 
simply remains there, dying inside its cage. The first meal of its young will be the mother’s body. 
Sap-sucking leaf feeders include about a dozen species of aphids. The cattail borer moth Be(llura 
obliqua) mines downward in the leaf, eating out the transverse partitions and finally exiting through 
a hole at the end of its mine. Later, it bores into the stem. Related species include the white-tailed 
diver (B. gortynoides), the pickerelweed borer (B. densa), and the oblong sedge borer (Archanara 
oblonga). The smartweed caterpillar (Acronicta oblinita) feeds on the leaves. Some insects feed 
only on and in the ofl wer and seed spikes. Larvae include Dicymolomia julianalis, a pyralid moth, 
which later bores into the stem. A neat, bite-sized chunk from a brown seed spike may indicate 
the white-veined dagger moth caterpillar, also called Henry’s marsh moth S(imyra henrici); later, 
the tufted caterpillar makes a vertically aligned cocoon in a folded leaf. Syrphid flies may cluster 
head downward on the male spike (aphid eaters). Small, brownish adult cattail moths Li(mnaecia 
phragmitella, also called the shy cosmet, a cosmopterygid) laying eggs on maturing female spikes. 
A dying cattail stem may signal that a stalk borer fed in the leaves or seed spike. Other common 
borers include snout beetles such as Sphenophorus pertinax, a billbug; and Suphisellus puncticol-
lis, a burrowing water beetle. Red-winged blackbirds have nested in my cattail bog for years now. 
In cold weather, they may forage on the batons, probably more seeking large caterpillars or grubs 
rather than small seed. (Eastman estimates 220,000 seeds per spike. A single seed may produce a 
rhizomal growth some 10 feet in diameter with a hundred clonal shoots.) Few birds really eat the 
seed. Martin et al. list teal, geese, and sandpipers, gulf coast blue geese sometimes having as much 
as 25 to 50% seed and/or rootstocks. Teal may sometimes have more than a thousand seeds in their 
gut. Attesting to the intelligence of birds, Eastman speculates that bluejays have learned to cache 
corn grains in old cattail sausage tied together by silk of caterpillar, keeping their corn in relatively 
“dry storage” that way. Painted turtles eat the seeds and stems. Muskrats often dislodge the plants as 
they feed on cattail, its primary food. Many muskrats will attract the muskrat predator, mink (EAS; 
MZN). I once caught a mink’s foot in one of my traps — no longer do I trap.
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Boost your immune system and think positively if you study long in the cattail swamps. There 
can be signicafi nt midsummer populations of the cattail mosquito ( Coquillettidia), the chief vector 
of eastern equine encephalitis. Larvae overwinter attached to roots of cattails and other aquatic 
plants. Adults get the virus from birds (which are unaffected) and transmit the virus when they bite 
humans and horses (EAS). (Sounds too much like the bird u fl coming soon from Asia; Echinacea, 
elderberry, and garlic, here I come!). The cucumber mosaic virus has been reported from Typha 
angustifolia, the wheat streak mosiac from T. latifolia. Among the fungus diseases on Typha latifo-
lia are Cladosporium, Cryptomela typhae, Didymosphaeria typhae, Gloeosporium sp., Guignardia 
sp., Hendersonia typhae, Heterosporium maculatum, Hymenopsis hydrophila, Leptosphaeria spp., 
Leptothyrium typhina, Lophodermium typhinum, Mycosphaerella typhae, Ophiobolus sp., Phoma 
orthosticha, Phyllosticta typhina, Pleospora typhae, Pythiogeton autossytum, Pythium helicoides, 
Sclerotium hydrophilum, Scolecotrichum typhae, Stagonospora typhoidearum, and Typhula latis-
sima. The nematode Meloidogyne sp. is also reported (HOE).
h AIRy eLM (u lmus c Anescens MeLv.) ++ ULMAC eAe
Notes (Hairy elm ):
He heweth him down cedars, and taketh the cypress and the oak, which he strengtheneth for 
himself among the trees of the forest: he planteth an ash, and the rain doth nourish it.
Isaiah 44:14 (KJV)
He cuts down cedars; or he chooses a holm tree or an oak and lets it grow strong among the trees 
of the forest; he plants a cedar and the rain nourishes it.
Isaiah 44:14 (RSV)
There is one whose business is to cut down cedars; and he takes a certain species of tree, even a 
massive tree, and he lets it become strong for himself among the trees of the forest. He planted the 
laurel tree, and the pouring rain itself keeps making it get big.
Isaiah 44:14 (NWT)
For linguistic and ecological reasons, Zohary criticizes the translations of the Hebrew wordvs e-
geshem yegadel as “and the rain nourishes it” as thematically unfounded and illogical. He says 
geshem must also be a species of tree — one of the five species contained in the quoted passage.
This is the only elm species mentioned by Zohary, along shady creeks in Lower Galilee, Mt. 
Carmel, and Samaria, and Zohary suggests that this species is among those vfi e trees (FP1; ZOH). 
So, as a fan of slippery elm, I include this nearly empty entry for Ulmus canescens, efl shing it out 
with a generic entry, including data below for several elm species, but mostly slippery elm data for 
U. campestris (BOU and JNP), VAD for U. carpinifolia. None of the activities and indications have 
thus far been reported for the Israeli species — to the best of my knowledge.
Commo N Names (Hairy elm ):
Hairy Elm (Eng.; ZOH); Geshem (Heb.; ZOH); Neshem (Arabic; ZOH); Nscn.
a Ctivities (g eNeri C elm ):
Antioxidant (1; CRC); Antiseptic (f; CRC); Antitussive (f1; CAN); Astringent (f1; APA; PED; 
WAM); Demulcent (f12; APA; PH2; PNC; WAM); Depurative (f; DEM); Diuretic (f; CRC; EFS; 
GMH); Emollient (f1; CRC; PH2; PNC); Expectorant (f; CRC; GMH; PED); Febrifuge (f; EFS); 
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Laxative (f; CRC; DEM); Stimulant (f; EFS); Sudoric fi (f; EFS); Tonic (f; EFS); Vermifuge (f; CRC); 
Vulnerary (f; CRC; GMH; PED).
iNdi Catio Ns (g eNeri C elm ):
Abscesses (f; CAN; FAD); Adenopathy (f; CRC; DEM; PH2); Bleeding (f; CEB; DEM); Blepharosis 
(f; VAD); Boils (f1; APA; CRC; GMH; PNC); Bronchosis (f; CRC); Bruise (f; FEL); Burn (f1; APA; 
FAD; GMH; PH2; WAM); Cancer (f; CRC; FEL; JLH); Carcinoma (f; CRC); Cardiopathy (f; GMH); 
Caries (f; CRC); Catarrh (f; CRC; DEM; GMH); Chilblain (f; CEB); Childbirth (f; CRC; DEM); 
Cholera (f; CEB); Cold (f; SKY); Cold Sore (1; APA); Colitis (f1; APA; CAN; CRC; GMH); Conjunc-
tivosis (f; CRC; DEM); Constipation (f; CRC); Corneosis (f; VAD); Cough (12; APA; FAD; HHB; 
WAM); Cramp (f; CEB; CRC); Crohn’s Disease (1; SKY); Cuts (f; FAD); Cystosis (f1; GMH; WAM); 
Dermatosis (f1; APA; PH2; PNC; VAD; WAM); Diarrhea (f1; APA; CAN; FAD); Diverticulosis 
(1; FNF); Duodenosis (f; PH2); Dysentery (f; CRC; FAD); Dyspepsia (f1; FAD); Dysuria (f; CRC); 
Eczema (f; CRC); Enterosis (12; APA; CEB; GMH); Erysipelas (f; FEL); Esophagitis (2; APA); Felon 
(f; CRC; JLH); Fever (f; CRC; DAW); Fistula (f; FEL); Fracture (f; CRC; DEM); Gangrene (f; CRC); 
Gastrosis (12; APA; GMH; PHR; PH2; SKY); Gleet (f; FEL); Gonorrhea (f; DEM); Gout (f; CRC; 
HH2; PH2); Heartburn (f; DEM; JAH2(2):45); Hemoptisis (f; CEB; GMH); Hemorrhoid (f; CEB); 
Herpes (f; CRC; FEL); Infection (f; CEB); Inafl mmation (12; APA; CEB; WAM); Itch (f; VAD); 
Labor (f; DEM); Leprosy (f; HJP); Mastosis (f; DEM); Mucososis (f; CRC); Nephrosis (f; DEM; 
FEL); Ophthalmia (f; DEM); Parotosis (f; FEL); Periodontosis (f; VAD); Pharyngosis (f12; APA; 
VAD); Pleurisy (f; CRC; FAD; GMH); Proctosis (f; FEL); Pruritis (f; VAD); Pulmonosis (f; CRC; 
DEM); Quinsy (f; DEM); Rheumatism (f; CRC; HH2; PH2); Scurvy (f1; DAW; FNF); Sore (f1; APA; 
FEL); Sore Throat (f12; APA; FAD; FEL; VAD; WAM); Stomach Distress (f1; FAD; PNC); Stoma-
tosis (f12; APA; VAD); Strangury (f; FEL); Swelling (f; CEB; HHB); Synovitis (f; GMH); Syphilis 
(f; CRC; FEL); Tapeworm (f; CRC); Tenesmus (f; FEL); Toothache (f; CRC; GMH); Tuberculosis (f; 
CRC; DEM; GMH); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Typhoid (f; CRC; GMH; HJP); Ulcers (f1; APA; CAN; 
FAD); UTI (f; CRC; GMH); Vaginosis (f; VAD); Venereal Disease (f; CEB; CRC; DEM; FEL); Virus 
(f; FEL); Whitlow (f; CRC; JLH); Worm (f; CRC); Wound (f1; APA; PHR; PH2; WAM).
d osages (g eNeri C elm ):
FNFF = !
Oral tradition suggests that Washington’s troops survived in midwinter with the inner bark of sli-p
pery elm (JAD). Facciola states that native Americans cooked it with buffalo fat, giving afl vor 
and preventing rancidity (sounds like deep fried “elmbark chips” instead of potato chips); Kiowa 
Indians brewed it into a nutritive tea. Used as a meal for breading sfi h. Also used to fortify health 
beverages like smoothies (DEM; FAC), 1–3 tsp powdered herb/cup water/1–3 ×/day (APA); two 
340-mg capsules as needed (APA); 4 g powdered bark in 500 ml decoction, 3 ×/day (CAN); 5 ml 
liquid extract (1:1 in 60% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 4–16 ml 1:8 powdered bark decoction 3 ×/day 
(CAN; HHB); 3 Tbsp inner bark/cup water (FAD); 1 oz powdered bark/pint water (FEL); 0.5–2 g 
powdered bark/cup, 2–3 ×/day; two 340–500-mg capsules as needed (JAD); 1/4–1/2 cup fresh bark 
(PED); 2–4 tsp dry bark (PED); 3 tsp dry bark/4 cups boiling water (PED); 1–2 g bark in tea 3–4 
×/day (SKY); 5 ml tincture 3 ×/day (SKY).
• Lebanese use the bark of U. campestris as we use slippery elm to make a slimy beverage, 
with pungent plants, for colds, dermatosis, dysentery, lungs, and throat (HJP).
• North Africans consider the bark of U. campestris as astringent, diuretic, emollient, 
resolvent, stimulant, and sudoric (fi BOU).
• Spaniards use bark of U. carpinifolia rather like we use slippery elm, internally for diar-
rhea and externally for blepharitis, corneal ulcers, dermatosis, erythema, inafl mmation, 
itch, periodontosis, pharyngitis, pruritis, sores, and vaginitis (VAD).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Nett Le (u rtic A dioic A L.) +++ URt ICACeAe
Notes (Nettle ):
Therefore as I live, saith the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, Surely Moab shall be as Sodom, 
and the children of Ammon as Gomorrah, even the breeding of nettles, and saltpits, and a per-
petual desolation: the residue of my people shall spoil them, and the remnant of my people shall 
possess them.
Zephaniah 2:9 (KJV)
“Therefore, as I live,” says the LORD of hosts, the God of Israel, “Moab shall become like Sodom, 
and the Ammonites like Gomor’rah, a land possessed by nettles and salt pits, and a waste for ever. 
The remnant of my people shall plunder them, and the survivors of my nation shall possess them.”
Zephaniah 2:9 (RSV)
“Therefore, as I am alive,” is the utterance of Jehovah of armies, the God of Israel, “Mo’ab 
herself will become just like Sodom, and the sons of Ammon like Gomor’rah, a place possessed 
by nettles and a salt pit, and a desolate waste, even to time indefinite. The remaining ones of my 
people will plunder them, and the remnant of my nation will take possession of them.”
Zephaniah 2:9 (NWT)
Yes, it is nettles in all three versions I have on hand (KJV, RSV, and NWT). So they all agree that 
it is nettles. As to which species, lacking voucher specimens, I cannot outguess Michael Zohary, 
Israeli botanist, who tends to rule out the nettle I know best, Urtica dioica, questionably reported 
from Jericho. He speculates that it is one of the Israeli species he reports in the Flora of Palestine.
• Stipules, 2 on each node (each of 1 connate pair), green:
• — Pistillate racemes globular, long stalked; leaves ovate. tp 7 cm wideU: . pilulifera
• — Bisexual racemes spicate; leaves narrower, lanceolate to ovateU: . urens
• Stipules, 4 on each node, membranous:
• — Annuals no more than 50 cm tall; staminate rhachis winged: U. dubia
• — Perennials 70 to 100 cm tall; staminate rhachis wingless: U. hulensis
Allen and Hatefi ld say that no plants, except perhaps dandelion, dock, and elder, are as important 
medicinally as the nettle in the British Isles. Such feelings may underline the rhyme: “Three nettles 
in May keeps all diseases away” (AAH). MAD entries may apply as well to Urtica urens, the 
smaller dog nettle. Ditto for EFS entries. I doubt that many of the narrators, scribes, or translators 
of the Bible recognized the intricate differences among the nettles, the Urtica dioica, or the four 
closely related species cited by Zohary (HP1). So I suggest that the Zohary names cited below could 
apply to any of the species here mentioned. The North African names are similarly merged, but 
were referred to as U. urens (Small Nettle) or U. pilulifera (Roman Nettle).
Commo N Names (Nettle ):
Acalphye (?; JLH); Akalyphe (?; JLH); Andjira (Arab.; BOU); Azekdon (Ber.; BOU); Bent-en-
Nar (Arab.; BOU); Bichu (India; EFS); Bichhu booti (Hindi; ?); Big String Nettle (Eng.; EAS); 
Bobatsi (Suso; KAB); Bou Khsas (Arab.; BOU); Bou Zeqdouf (Arab.; BOU); Braennaetsla (Swe.; 
KAB); Brandnekel (Afrikan; KAB); Brandnetel (Dutch; EFS); Brennessel (Ger.; EFS; MAD); Brier 
(Eng.; BIB; ZOH); Canada Nettle (Eng.; BUR); Caslán (Hun.; EFS); Chule (Sunwar; NPM); Chutle 
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FIGURe . Nettle (Urtica dioica).
(Magar; NPM); Cincar (Tur.; EB51:195); Cizlagan (Tur.; EB54:155); Common Nettle (Eng.; BUR); 
Dhyo (Magar; NPM); Dicirgin (Tur.; EB49:406); Dirik (Tur.; EB51:195); Estelkraut (Ger.; KAB); 
Gijirtken (Tur.; EB51:195); Great Stinging Nettle (Eng.; BUR); Groot Brandenetel (Dutch; KAB); 
Harrous (Ber.; BOU); Harul (Heb.; ZOH); Horreig (Arab.; Isr.; ZOH); Horreiq (Arab.; BOU); Hsieh 
Tzu Ts’ao (China; EFS); Hyo (Magar; NPM); Iherriquet (Ber.; BOU); Imereksin (Ber.; BOU); 
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Imezri (Ber.; BOU); Isirgan (Tur.; EFS; EB49:406); Isirgan otu (Tur.; EB54:155); Jhaduk (Sherpa; 
NPM); Jincari (Tur.; EB49:406); Kajyang (Lepcha; NPM); Ketskan (Baskir; KAB); Kirtken (K-ir
ghiz; KAB); Krapiva (Rus.; KAB); Naetle (?; JLH); Neantog (Ire.; KAB); Nebat-en-Nar (Arab.; 
BOU); Naughty Man’s Plaything (Eng.; EAS); Nelau (Chepang; NPM); Nesslyn (JLH); Nettle 
(Eng.; CR2; TAN); Nhyakan (Newari; NPM); Nockainen (Fin.; KAB); Ortica Maggiore (It.; KAB); 
Orticone (It.; EFS); Ortie (Fr.; EFS); Ortiga Grossa (Cat.; KAB); Ortiga Maior (Por.; KAB); Ortiga 
Mayor (Sp.; KAB); Ortuge (Fr.; KAB); Pokrzywa (Pol.; KAB); Polo (Gurung; Tamang; NPM); 
Pulu (Gurung; NPM); Qorreis (Arab.; BOU); Satu (Tibet; NPM); Seravim (Heb.; ZOH); Sha’ar el 
‘Agouz (Arab.; BOU); Sikya (Limbu; NPM); Sirpad (Heb.; ZOH); Sisna (Tharu; NPM); Sisnu (Bho-
jpuri; Danuwar; Nepal; NPM; SUW); Soi (Kas.; MKK); Singing nettle (Eng.; TAN); Sorbei (Arab.; 
Egypt; ZOH); Stor Broendenelde (Den.; KAB); Stor Naelde (Den.; EFS); Syak (Sherpa; NPM); Tall 
Nettle (Eng.; EAS); T’an Ma (China; EFS); Tezzount (Ber.; BOU); Timezrit (Ber.; BOU); Urtigão 
(Por.; EFS); Urzica (Rom.; KAB); Za chhag (Tibet; NPM); Zwa (Tibet; NPM).
a Ctivities (Nettle ):
Analgesic (f1; CAN; DEM; PH2; X15013182); Anesthetic (f1; PH2); Anthelmintic (f; CRC; KAB; 
NPM; SUW); Antiadrenaline (1; FAD); Antiaging (f; NP9(2):10); Antiallergic (f1; MAB); Antiar-o
matase (1; SHT); Antiarthritic (f1; PH2); Antiasthmatic (; fl CRC; DAW; NPM); Anticancer (f1; 
JLH; MAB); Anticomplementary (1; HH3); Anticonvulsant (1; CAN); Antiedemic (f1; FT68:387; 
MAB); Antiexudative (1; HH3); Antihemorrhagic (f; CAN); Antihistaminic (1; WAM); AntiHIV (1; 
PH2); Antihidrotic (f; MAD); Antihyperglycemic (1; FT74:677); Antiinafl mmatory (f1; FT68:387; 
MAB; PH2; X11962753); Antileukotriene (1; PP2); Antioxidant (1; X15013182); Antiperoxidant 
(1; X15013182); Antiproliferant (1; NP9(2):10); Antiprostatitic (2; KOM; MAB); Antiradicular (1; 
X15013182); Antirheumatic (f12; MAB; PH2; X11950004); Antiseptic (f1; BUR; CRC; PED); Anti-
spasmodic (f; PED); Antitumor (f1; PED); Antiulcer (1; X15013182); Antiviral (1; MAB; FT68:387); 
Aphrodisiac (f; MAD); Aquaretic (1; SHT); Aromatase Inhibitor (1; HH3); Astringent (f1; CRC; 
MAB; PNC; SUW); Bactericide (1; FAD; MAB; WOI); Bitter (f; PED); Bradycardic (1; CAN; 
FT74:677); Choleretic (f; NP9(2):10); CNS Depressant (1; FAD); CVI (f1; APA; BGB); Cycloox-
ygenase Inhibitor (1; MAB; PH2); Cytotoxic (1; MAB); Depurative (f; BIB; FAD; MAB; PED); 
Diuretic (f12; CRC; PHR; PH2; PNC; SUW; NP9(2):10); Elastase Inhibitor (1; MAB); Emmena-
gogue (f; APA; CRC; EFS; KAB; PED; SUW); Expectorant (f; MAD; PED); Fungicide (1; HH3; 
MAB); Hematogenic (f1; EFS; FAD; PH2; WAM); Hemostat (f1; CAN; MAB; MAD; PED); Hepa-
totonic (f; BRU; NP9(2):10); Histaminic (1; FNF); Hyperglycemic (1; APA; CAN); Hypoglycemic 
(f1; CAN; PNC; FT74:677; NP9(2):10; EB49:406); Hypotensive (f1; CAN; NP9(2):10); FT74:677); 
Hypothermic (f1; CAN); Immunosupressant (1; X11950004); Impotence (f; TGP); Insecticide (f; 
NPM); Insectifuge (f; AAH); Insulinogenic (1; NP9(2):10); Interferonigenic (1; CAN); Lactagogue 
(f1; APA; CRC; HAD; MAD; NMH); Laxative (f; BGB); 5-Lipoxygenase Inhibitor (1; MAB; PH2); 
Litholytic (f12; MAD; NP9(2):10); Mastogenic (1; HAD); Metal Chelator (1; X15013182); Meta-l
loproteinase Inhibitor (1; NP9(2):10; X11962753); Mitogenic (f; FAD); Myorelaxant (f; BGB); Natr-i
uretic (1; FT74:677); Pancreatonic (1; FNF); Purgative (f; EFS); Rubefacient (f; CRC); Stimulant (f; 
EFS); Tonic (f; MAB; PNC); Uterotonic (1; APA; CAN); Vasoconstrictor (f; BIB; CRC); Vasorela-x
ant (1; NP9(2):10); Vermifuge (f; BGB; CRC; PED); Vulnerary (f; MAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (Nettle ):
Acne (f; BGB; FEL); Adenoma (1; BGB; SHT); Adenopathy (f; BIB; JLH); Ague (f; DEM; MAB); 
Alactia (f; CRC; MAD); Allergy (f1; BGB; HH3; MAB; WAM); Alopecia (f; APA; WOI); Ameno-r
rhea (f; KAB); Anemia (f1; CRC; FAD; WAM); Arthrosis (f12; DEM; FAD; MAB; PH2; NP9(2):10; 
X10911825; X11962753; X11950004); Asthma (f1; CRC; DAW; MAB; NPM); Ataxia (f; DEM); Bil-
iousness (f; NPM); Bladder stones (f12; PHR; PH2; NP9(2):10); Bleeding (f1; CRC; DEM; FEL); 
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Boil (f; NPM); BPH (root) (12; BGB; KOM; MAB; PH2; NP9(2):10); Bronchosis (f1; CRC; MAB; 
PED); Bug bites (1; MAB); Burns (f1; BGB; CRC; MAB); Cachexia (f; KAB); Calculus (f; CRC); 
Cancer (f; CRC; FAD); Cancer, breast (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, ear (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, feet (f1; 
JLH); Cancer, lung (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, mouth (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, prostate (f1; NP9(2):10; 
X15254411); Cancer, rib (f; JLH); Cancer, spleen (f1; CRC; JLH); Cancer, stomach (f1; CRC; JLH); 
Cancer, womb (f1; CRC; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; AAH); Carcinoma (f; BIB); Caries (f; NPM); Catarrh 
(f; WOI); Childbirth (f; DEM); Cholangitis (f; CRC); Cholecystosis (f; CRC; FAD; MAB; WOI); 
Cholera (f; FEL); Cold (f; AAH; CEB; NPM); Colic (f; CRC); Colitis (f; FEL; MAB); Conges-
tion (f; APA); Constipation (f; CRC; WOI); Consumption (f1; BUR; MAB; SUW); Corn (f; AAH); 
Cough (f; AAH; NPM); Cramp (f; AAH; MAD); CVI (1; BGB); Cystosis (f; FEL); Dandruff (f; PH2; 
WOI); Dermatosis (f1; BGB; CAN; MAB; FT74:677); Diabetes (f1; CRC; MAD; PH2; FT74:677; 
EB49:406); Diarrhea (f1; BGB; BUR; FAD; FEL; MAB); Dislocation (f; NPM); Dropsy (f; AAH; 
BGB; CRC); Dysentery (f1; BUR; CRC; FAD; MAB); Dysmenorrhea (f; BGB; APA; MAD; PED); 
Dyspepsia (f; DEM; MAD); Dyspnea (f; CRC; KAB); Dysuria (2; KOM; PHR; PH2; SHT); Eczema 
(f; BGB; CAN; MAB; MAD); Edema (f; CRC; PH2); Endothelioma (f; BIB; JLH); Enterosis (f; 
FEL); Epilepsy (f; AAH); Epistaxis (f1; AAH; BGB; CAN; KAB; MAB); Epithelioma (f; BIB; JLH); 
Erysipelas (f; CRC); Erythema (f; CRC); Escherichia (1; WOI); Exanthema (f; MAD); Fever (f1; 
CAN; CEB; NPM); Flu (f; PH2); Fungus (f; AAH); Gastrosis (f; CRC); Goiter (1; MAB); Gonor-
rhea (f; BIB; CRC); Gout (f1; FAD; MAB; PH2; NP9(2):10); Gravel (f12; BGB; BUR; KOM; MAD; 
PHR); Hayfever (2; APA; MAB); Headache (f; AAH; CRC); Hematemesis (f; CEB); Hematuria 
(f; SUW); Hemoptysis (f; CRC); Hemorrhage (f1; PNC; FT74:677); Hemorrhoids (f; AAH; BGB; 
DEM; PED); Hepatosis (f; HH3); Herpes (f; BGB; X15814267); HIV (1; PH2); High Blood Pressure 
(f1; CAN; NP9(2):10; FT74:677); Hives (f; DEM); Hoarseness (f; CEB); Impotence (f; CEB); Infec-
tion (f; AAH); Inafl mmation (f1; BGB; CRC; PH2; X11962753); Itch (f; DEM); Jaundice (f; BUR; 
CRC; KAB; PED; SUW); Kidney stones (f12; APA; PHR; PH2; NP9(2):10); Lethargy (f; KAB); 
Leukorrhea (f; CRC; MAD); Malaria (f; BIB; CEB; CRC; KAB); Melaena (1; CAN); Menorrhagia 
(f; SUW); Mycosis (f; AAH); Myocardiopathy (1; BGB); Myosis (f; MAB); Nephrosis (f; BUR; 
CRC; FEL; HH3; PED; SUW); Neuralgia (f; APA; BIB; CRC); Nocturia (1; MAB); Obesity (f; BUR; 
CEB); Ophthalmia (f; AAH); Orchosis (f; CEB); Osteoarthrosis (f1; MAB); Osteoporosis (1; JAD); 
Otosis (f; MAD); Pain (f12; BUR; EB49:406; NP9(2):10; X10911825; X15013182); Palsy (f; CEB; 
CRC; KAB); Paralysis (f; BUR; CRC); Parotitis (f; AAH; BUB; JLH); Parturition (f; APA; BGB); 
Pertussis (f; BIB; CRC); Pharyngosis (f; MAB); Pimple (f; AAH); Pleurisy (f; BGB; CEB); Pollaki-
suria (1; BGB); Polyp (f; BIB; JLH); Pregnancy (f; SKY); Prostatosis (12; PH2; SHT; X15045190); 
Puerperium (f; NPM); Pulmonosis (f; CEB); Rash (f; AAH); Rheumatism (f12; FAD; KOM; PHR; 
PH2; NP9(2):10; EB51:195; X10911825; X11962753); Rhinosis (1; BGB; HH3; MAB); Ringworm (f; 
AAH); Sarcoma (f; BIB; JLH); Sciatica (f1; CRC; KAB; MAB); Seborrhea (f1; BRU); Shigella (1; 
WOI); Shingle (f; AAH); Snakebite (f; EB49:406); Sore (f; CEB); Sore Throat (f; CRC); Splenosis (f; 
CRC; FAD; JLH); Sprain (f; APA; SKJ); Sting (f; CRC); Stitch (f; MAD); Stomachache (f; DEM); 
Stomatosis (f; MAB); Stone (f12; KOM; MAD; PHR; PH2; SHT); Swelling (f; AAH; BIB; DEM); 
Tendinitis (f; APA); Toothache (f; CEB); Tuberculosis (f; CRC; KAB); Tumor (f; CRC; JLH); Ulcer 
(1; X15013182); Uremia (f; BIB); Urticaria (f1; MAB); Uterorosis (f; BGB; APA; CAN; KAB); UTI 
(2; PHR; KOM; PH2; SHT); Uvulosis (f; CEB); Vaginosis (f; APA); Venereal Disease (f; BIB; CRC); 
Vertigo (f; BIB; CRC); Virus (1; PH2); Worm (f; AAH; BGB; NPM); Wound (f; MAB; NPM).
d osages (Nettle ):
FNFF = !!!
Greens widely eaten, but only after cooking disarms the sting. Some make nettle pudding, adding 
broccoli, leeks, and rice. Some make nettle beer; British wrap their Cornish Yarg cheese in nettle 
leaves; leaf juice serves as rennet; dried leaves (they lose their sting in drying) used to make herb 
tea. In Scotland, nettles are combined with leeks or onions, broccoli or cabbage, and rice, boiled 
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in a muslin bag and served with butter or gravy. Nettle beer and nettle tea are made by some 
people. Dried nettles can be fed to livestock and poultry, but few animals will eat the living plants 
(BIB; FAC; TAN; EB54:155). 3–4 tsp (4–6 g) shoot or leaf in 150 ml boiling water cooled, 3–4 
×/day(APA; MAD); 4–6 g/day root (APA); 3–4 tsp (circa 4 g) shoot/cup water/severa×l /day (APA); 
2–4 g dry herb, or in tea, 3 ×/day (CAN); 3–4 ml liquid herb extract (1:1 in 25% ethanol) 3 ×/day 
(CAN); 2–6 ml root tincture (1:5 in 45% ethanol) 3 ×/day (CAN); 8–12 g herb; 4–6 g root (KOM); 
8–12 g dry herb/day (MAB); 9 g/day leaf for arthrosis (MAB); 4–6 g/day dry root (MAB); 3–6 
ml/day ufl id herb extract (1:2) (MAB); 4–9 ml/day ufl id root extract (1:2) (MAB); 3–6 ml/day ufl id 
herb extract (1:2) (MAB); 3–6 g/day root or 600–1200 mg/day 5:1 extract for BPH (MAB); 7–14 
ml/day herb tincture (1:2) (MAB); 125 g juice (MAD); 3–4 tsp (circa 4.8 g) herb in hot tea (MAD); 
4–6 g root/day; one or two 475-mg capsules 2 to 3 ×/day; one 450-mg StX capsules 2 ×/day (NH); 
3–6 g dry leaf (PED); 4.5 g dry leaf:22 ml alcohol/23 ml water (PED); 2.5–5 ml liquid herb extract 
(PNC); 8–12 g dry herb/day (SHT); 4–6 g powdered root/cup water (WIC).
• Algerians mix powdered nettles with powdered jasmine for gonorrhea (BIB).
• Carolinans suggest the root for consumption, diarrhea, dysentery, gravel, hemorrhoids, 
jaundice, nephrosis, and pain (BUR).
• Czechs poultice the herb onto cancers (JLH).
• Devonshire locals use nettle top tea for urticaria (KAB).
• French use nettle roots steeped in vinegar for tumors of the feet and spleen, steeped in 
honey for tumors in lungs or ribs (JLH).
• Irish drink nettle tea to clear measle rash (AAH).
• Italians use stinging nettle (and elderberry and parietaria) for herpes zoster 
(X15814267).
• Russians self-urticate to energize tired muscles (KAB).
• Russians use for cholangitis, cholecystitis, constipation, dysmenorrhea, hepatitis, and 
jaundice (CRC; HJP).
• Herb decoction taken for cold, cough, rheumatism, and stomachache (EB51:195).
• Nettle roots crushed with vinegar for swellings of the feet or spleen (CEB).
• Nettle juice as a mouthwash for swollen uvula (CEB).
• Nettle juice boiled lightly with sugar; 2 oz taken orally for bleeding piles (CEB).
• Nettle seed with honey (or nettle juice) for cold, cough, gastrosis, orchosis, and swellings 
(CEB).
• 1 Tbsp seeds with jam or honey for impotence (CEB, where we read that nettle seeds in 
wine excite to games of love).
• Seed (and flower) tincture 1 tsp 3–4 ×/day for ague and malaria (CEB).
• Seeds boiled in wine for orchosis (CEB).
• Seeds crushed in honey for pustules on the lung, side ache, and swelling of the ribs (CEB).
• “Seed of Nettle stirreth up lust, especially drunk with Cute (thickened must) …” (Gerarde 
as quoted in CEB).
• 12 to 15 seeds, 3 ×/dayfor goiter (or bigneck) (CEB).
d ow Nsides (Nettle ):
Class 1 (AHP, 1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages 
(PH2). None known for herb; rare GI upsets for roots (KOM). Herbage contraindicated in ufl id 
retention due to reduced cardiac or renal activity, rarely causing allergic reactions (PHR). Adverse 
effects of root: mild GI complaints (occasionally) (AEH). Occasional mild GI complaints after root 
ingestion. The urtication can be painful and lon-glasting, in some inducing a black-and-blue reac-
tion. No fatalities are reported in the United States. Newall, Anderson, and Phillipson (1996) ca- u
tion amines are an irritant. Because it is a reputed abortifacient and to affect the menstrual cycle, 
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its use in pregnancy and lactation should be avoided. May interfere with blood pressure, CNS, and 
diabetes medications (CAN). Being a nettle fan, I had never heard of it before and was reluctant 
when my friend Vic said the root tea almost did him in. It is almost as if he read the book, “Co-n
sumption of nettle tea has caused gastric irritation, a burning sensation of the skin, oedema, and 
oliguria” (CAN). Not for use in severely allergic patients, especially those with tendency toward 
anaphylaxis (WAM). Schulz et al. (1998) report on more than 4000 patients taking 600 to 1200 mg 
extract/day for 6 months. Only 35 showed side effects, 0.65% GI complaints, 9 (0.19%) dermato-
sis, and 2 (>0.05%) reporting hyperhidrosis (SHT). No contraindications are stated (SHT). Varro 
Tyler cautions against self-medication with BPH. Whenever treating BPH, a practitioner should 
be involved. Baseline levels of PSA should be established before considering an herbal treatment 
(JAD). Even JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) admits that there is no hard 
proof for any intervention in BPH; because hospitals kill 200,000 Americans a year, and prostate 
cancer fewer than 50,000, I will opt for nettle tea, pomegranate juice, sitosterol-rich nuts, especially 
pumpkin seed, and selenium-rich Brazil nuts as the foods of choice for prostate protection.
extra Cts (Nettle ):
Analgesic; Anticonvulsant; Bradycardic; CNS Depressant; Hemostatic; Hyperglycemic (PNC; 
FT68:387); Hypoglycemic (FT68:387); Hypotensive; Hypothermic; Pancreatonic (FT68:387); 
LD50 = 3625 mg/kg ipr mus (CAN FT68:387). Infusion LD50 = 1929 mg/kg ivn rat. HOH extract 
LD50 = 1721 mg/kg ivn rat. The tea was well tolerated at levels of 1310 mg/kg orally (Bombardelli 
and Morazzoni, 1997). LD50 infusion = 1310 orl rat (MAB); (9Z-11E)-13-Hydroxy-9,11-octadeca-
dienoic acid, 14 octacosanol, oleanolic acid, secoisolariciresinol, and ursolic acid are listed as weak 
to moderate aromatase inhibitors found in the methanolic root extract. Aromatase is a key enzyme 
in steroid hormone metabolism, and its inhibition may partially explain the activity of the roots 
in BPH. The polysaccharide fraction of the aqueous root extract show prolonged antiedemic and 
antiinafl mmatory activity (40 mg/kg orl rat). Ethanolic extract also inhibits elastase, a destru-c
tive enzyme in the inafl mmatory process (IC50 = 68 µg/ml). The isolectin, abundant in the roots, 
may contribute to the antiinafl mmatory and antiprostatic activity of the extracts. Aqueous extracts 
inhibit dose dependently (0.6–10 mg/ml the binding of dihydrotestosterone to SHBG with specic fi
receptors on human prostatic membranes). The alcoholic extract, isolectin, and stigmast-4-en-3-
+ +
one were inactive. At concentrations of 0.1 mg/ml, some root extracts inhibited Na, K -ATPases 
+ +
27.6 to 81.5%. Stigmast-4-en-3-one, stigmasterol, and campesterol inhibited Na, K -ATPases 23 
to 67% at concentrations of 1 to 1000 µM. Such inhibition may inufl ence prostate cell metabolism 
and growth (Bombardelli and Morazzoni, 1997). Root polysaccharide extracts anticompleme-n
tary (IC50 = 50 µg/ml HH3). Strange that an herb should inject so many neuroactive compounds 
— acetylcholine, choline, formic acid, histamine, leukotrienes, serotonin (PH2) — into unsuspect-
ing grazers. Talk about splitting hairs; Hager’s Handbuch (1998) says that each hair of U. dioica 
contains 0.1 to 0.2 µg acetylcholine; 0.01 µg histamine; and 5 ng serotonin, while hairs oUf . urens 
contain 53 ng acetylcholine, 5 ng histamine, and, if I translate correctly, circa 0.15 pg leukotriene-
B4; 0.3 pg leukotriene C4 + D4. Earlier, Madaus reported secretin (MAD), but I do not think that is 
the same as the secretin being studied in autism. I assume that there is also some choline involved. 
One overindulgent physician speculated on one of my Amazonian tours that the histamine injected 
by the nettle sting generated an antihistaminic reaction, some of which went to the sting and some 
to arthritic hot spots.
vet Ive R (v etiveri A ziz Anioides (L.) NAsh ex sMALL ) +++ po ACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Andropogon muricatus Retz.; Andropogon squarrosus Cooke; Andropogon zizanioides Urb.; Veti-
veria odorata Virey
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FIGURe . Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides).
Notes (v etiver ):
Dan also and Javan going to and fro occupied in thy fairs: bright iron, cassia, and calamus, were 
in thy market.
Ezekiel 27:19 (KJV)
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[A]nd wine from Uzal they exchanged for your wares; wrought iron, cassia, and calamus were 
bartered for your merchandise.
Ezekiel 27:19 (RSV)
Vedan and Javan from Uzal — for your stores they gave. Iron in wrought works, cassia and cane 
— for your articles of exchange they proved to be.
Ezekiel 27:19 (NWT)
Whether I was right in suggesting vetiver for this biblical calamus or cane, an association not v-en
tured by any of my major sources, it seems to have been an aromatic cane-like vetiver, imported 
from afar, as the cassia in the same passage. Cassia could have been imported from the Indian 
subcontinent; so could vetiver; and so could Acorus calamus. Moldenke and Moldenke (BIB) ident-i
efi d it with the obscure binomial Andropogon aromaticus Roxb., which some authors have equated 
with Vetiveria, others with Andropogon (Cymbopogon) schoenanthus L, one of the “lemon-grass” 
assemblage; they also suggested Andropogon muricatus, now considered a synonym of vetiver. 
Zohary identiefi s it with Cymbopogon. Suggestions that it might be the calamus of today A( corus 
calamus) have generally been rejected. Acorus calamus did not apparently occur in biblical Pale-s
tine (ZOH), and was less likely to have been imported than the lemon-grass or vetiver, to either of 
which the alternative translation “sweet cane” seems more appropriate. Oil of vetiver is described 
as one of the most valuable and most important perfumers’ raw materials, widely used in perfumes, 
cosmetics, and for the scenting of soaps. In Hispaniola, the plant is cultivated as a medicinal and 
aromatic tea material. It serves for making awnings, bags, baskets, fans, mats, pillows, sachets, 
screens, and sunshades, and is used for thatch in Haiti. Young leaves, not being too aromatic, may 
serve as fodder (BIB).
Although originally from India, vetiver is a major money crop in Haiti, but is probably more 
important for holding the soil there. Although one hears a lot about it, as of Groundhog Day 2005, 
there were fewer than 20 abstracts on it on PubMed. But by June 15, 2005, Wilde et al. had described 
phytoextraction of lead from firing range soil with vetiver (X15964059). (Mark Dafforn, who for 
decades has been interested in vetiver, has passed on some common names tidbits that I would like 
to share. I have included as personal communications from Mark Dafforn, in this account only, with 
PER.)
Commo N Names (v etiver ):
Abhaya (Sanskrit; KAB); Aga Wanga (Indonesia); Akar wangi (Malaya; EFS; IHB); Akar Wangu 
(Malaya); Amranalam (Sanskrit; NAD); Amrinala (Sanskrit; KAB); Anias de Moras (Pamp); An-
wunga-ro-gban (Sierra Leone; Temne); Arabian Kuss-Kuss (Eng.; EFS); Arabischer Kostus (Ger.; 
EFS); Avdaha (Sanskrit; KAB); Avurugaddiveru (Tel.; KAB); Babin (Bambara); Bala (Hindi; S-an
skrit; KAB); Balah (Hindi; KAB); Barewali (Sierra Leone; Susu); Baul de Pobre (Pr.; PER); Bena 
(Hindi; KAB; WOI); Bhanavalo (Kon.; NAD); Bikhiwala (Iran); Birni (Sadani; KAB); Birnijono 
(Mun.); Botha Grass (Eng.; TAN); Capia (Arg.; Que.; PER); Capim de Boma (Por.; UPW); Capim 
Vetiver (Por.; UPW); Chiendent des Indes (Fr.; EFS); Chiendent Orient (Fr.; UPW); Chor’dor’de 
(Nig.; Fulani); Cockroach Grass (Eng.; JFM); Costus arabique (Fr.; EFS); Cus-Cus (Creole; Fr.; 
Haiti; EFS; VOD); Cuscus (Eng.; UK); Cuscus grass (Eng.; EFS); Dahaharana (Sanskrit; KAB); 
Dimi (Fulani); Diri (Songhai); Faeg (Laos; Thai); Gandhadhya (Sanskrit; KAB); Ganrar (Hindi; 
KAB); Giron (Bis); Grama de la India (Sp.; PER); Haripriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Ilamichamver (Tam.; 
KAB); Ilib (Phil. [Pamp.]); Indragupta (Sanskrit; KAB); Ivarancusa (Ger.; EFS); Izkhir (Arab.; 
KAB); Jalamoda (Sanskrit; KAB); Jalavasa (Sanskrit; KAB); Janur (Sunda; IHB); Jema (Hausa); 
Jhoor (India; SKJ); Kaadu (Kan.; WOI); Kaadu Karidappasajje Hallu (Kan.; WOI); Kabenis (Sierra 
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Leone; Temne; UPW); Kale (Sierra Leone; Susu; UPW); Kamare (Sarakolle); Kansh (Nepal; SUW); 
Karidappasajje Halu (Kannada); Katayana (Sanskrit; KAB); Khas (Ganrar; Iran; Urdu); Khas Bena 
(Hindi; NAD); Khas-Khas (Beng.; Hindi; India; Iran; Mar.; Nepal; EFS; KAB); Khiskhus (Eng.; 
UK); Khus-Khus grass (Eng.; EFS); Kieli (Fulani); Koosa (Eng.; UK); Kulikarili (Ghana); Kulk-a
dere (Gurma); Kuruvaeru (Tel.; WOI); Kuruveeru (Tel.; WOI); Kusu Kusu (Malaya; IHB); Laama-n
che (Kan.; WOI); Laghubhaya (Sanskrit; KAB); Lamajjaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Lamajjakumuveru 
(Tel.; KAB); Laraseta (Indonesia); Lara S_tu (Java; IHB); Larawèstu (Java; IHB); Lavancha (Kan.; 
KAB); Magic Grass (Cameroon); Miracle Grass (Thai); Miyamoe (Burma; KAB); Mora (Phil. [Bik, 
Bis]); Moras (Phil. [Bik, Bis; Tag]); Moro (Pi.; Tag.; KAB) Mottenwurzel (Ger.; EFS); Muda (Cebu); 
Mudivala (Kan.; NAD); Naga Setu (Malaya; IHB); Nalada (Sanskrit; KAB); Nara Setu (Malaya; 
IHB); Nara Wastu (Malaya; Sumatra; Sunda; IHB); Narawasta (Sul; Sunda; IHB); Ngoko Ba (B-am
bara); Ngongon (Bambara); Ngongonari (Nig.; Fulani); Onei (Ganrar; Hindi; KAB); Pacholi (Pr.; 
PER); Pachuli (Peru; Por.; Sp.; EGG); Pallol (Fulani); Panni (Ganrar; Hindi; Pun.; KAB; NAD); 
Pindi (Sierra Leone; Mende); Raiz de Moras (Sp.); Ramaccham (Mal.; Mys.; WOI); Ramacheha-m
ver (Mal.; KAB); Ranapriya (Sanskrit; KAB); Rambhu (Sanskrit; KAB); Rarawèstu (Java; IHB); 
Reshira (Sanskrit; KAB); Rimodas (Phil.; Bis); Rimora (Phil.; Sbl); Rimoras (Phil.; Bik); Rou-
doum (Mossi); Rumput Wangi (Malaya; IHB); Saivandera (Sinh; KAB); Samagandhika (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Savandramul (Sin.; KAB); Seenk (India; SKJ); Sembam (Sen.; Tuk.); Sep (Sen.; Wolof); 
Sevya (Sanskrit; KAB); Shishira (Sanskrit; KAB); Shitamulaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Sirom (Mun.; 
Sant.; KAB); Sirum (Mun.; KAB); Sirum jono (Mun.; KAB); So’dornde (Nig.; Fulani); So’mayo 
(Nig.; Fulani); Sugandhimula (Sanskrit; KAB; WOI); Sumare (Mandinga; Sierra Leone; UPW); 
Swarankusa (Den.; EFS); Tiep (Sen.; Wolof); Tin (Oudh; KAB); Toul (Sen.; Falor); Tropical Sweet 
Grass (Eng.; JFM); Ucira (India; JLH); Usa (Sumatra; IHB); Usar (Indonesia; Sumatra; Sunda; 
IHB); Useeur (Sumatra; IHB); Usheera (Sanskrit; EFS); Ushira (Ayu.; Sanskrit; KAB; AH2); Usir 
(Arab.; KAB); Usira (India; JLH); Vairina (India; JLH); Vala (Cutch; India; Mar.; EFS; KAB; 
NAD); Valo (Guj.; NAD); Vattiveeru (Kan.; Tel.; KAB; WOI); Veeranam (Sanskrit; NAD); Vetive 
(Creole; Haiti; VOD); Vetiver (Eng.; Dutch; Tam.; AH2; EFS); Vettiveelu (Tel.; WOI); Vettiveeru 
(Tel.; WOI); Vettiveeru (Kan.; Mys.; Tel.); Vettiver (Tam.; WOI); Vettiveru (Mal.; WOI); Vetivert 
(Eng.; EFS); Vettiveru (Mysore; KAB); Vidavaliveru (Tel.; KAB); Vilhalver (Tam.); Vira (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Virabhadra (Sanskrit; KAB); Virana (Sanskrit; KAB); Viranam (Tam.); Virataru (Sanskrit; 
KAB); Vitanamulaka (Sanskrit; KAB); Vitivergras (Ger.; EFS); Xiang Geng Sao (China); Yesero 
mekelakeya (Eth.); Zacate Violeta (Sal.; PER); Zemako (Nig.; Fulani).
a Ctivities (v etiver ):
Abortifacient (f; HOC; UPW; ZUL); Alexeretic (f; KAB); Analgesic (f; HOC; JFM; VOD); Anthe-l
mintic (1; ZUL); Antifeedant (1; X12558100); Antiinafl mmatory (f; MAF; MHK; NAD); Antiseptic 
(f1; MAF; JAR12:83; X10438227); Antispasmodic (f; EFS; NAD); Astringent (f; KAB); Bactericide 
(1; X10438227); Cardiotonic (f; NAD); Carminative (f; JFM; WOI); Cerebrotonic (f; NAD); Dia-
phoretic (f; EFS; JFM; MAF; SUW; WOI); Diuretic (f; EFS); Emetic (1; MAF); Emmenagogue (f; 
AHL; EFS; KAB; SUW); Febrifuge (f; AHL; SUW; UPW); Fungicide (1; ZUL; JAR12:83); Hypo-
glycemic (1; MAF); Insecticide (f; VOD); Insectifuge (f1; JFM; MAF; ZUL; X12558100); Litholytic 
(f; IHB); Pulifuge (f; MAF); Refrigerant (f; EFS; SUW; WOI); Sedative (f; MAF; KAB); Stomachic 
(f; EFS; KAB; SUW); Stimulant (f; AHL; SKJ; SUW); Termitifuge (1; X12558100); Tonic (f; EFS; 
KAB; SUW); Tranquilizer (f; MAF).
iNdi Catio Ns (v etiver ):
Amenorrhea (f; KAB); Asthma (f; ZUL); Bacteria (f1; MAF; X10438227); Biliousness (f; IHB; 
KAB); Bladderstones (f; IHB); Boils (f; MAF; SKJ); Bugbite (f; MAF); Burns (f; MAF; SKJ); Can-
cer (f; UPW); Cardiopathy (f; NAD); Cerebrosis (f; KAB); Chlamydia (f; MAF); Cholera (f; MAF; 
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MHK; NAD); Colic (f; WOI); Dandruff (1; JAR12:83); Dermatosis (f1; EGG; MAF; JAR12:83); 
Diabetes (1; MAF); Eczema (f; MAF); Enterosis (f; HOC; VOD); Epilepsy (f; SKJ); Fever (f; JFM; 
KAB; MAF); Flu (f; JFM; UPW; ZUL); Fungus (f1; MAF; JAR12:83); Gas (f; WOI); Gastrosis (f; 
IHB; MAF); Halitosis (f; KAB); Hangover (f1; JAD); Headache (f; JFM; KAB; NAD); Hemat-o
sis (f; KAB); Hepatosis (f; AHL); Infection (f1; MAF; JAR12:83); Inafl mmation (f; MAF; MHK); 
Insomnia (f; MAF); Lumbago (f; WOI); Malaria (f; MAF; SKJ; ZUL); Mycosis (f1; EGG; MAF; 
JAR12:83); Nausea (f; MHK); Nesseria (f; MAF); Neuralgia (f; HOC; JFM); Neurosis (f; MAF); 
Odontosis (f; MAF); Pain (f; MAF; VOD); Palpitation (f; NAD); Parasite (f; VOD); PID (f; MAF); 
Pleurisy (f; JFM; UPW; ZUL); Puerperium (f; IHB); Rheumatism (f; JFM; WOI); Septicemia (f; 
MAF); Snakebite (f; SKJ); Spermatorrhea (f; KAB); Sprain (f; WOI); Staphylococcus (f1; MAF; 
X10438227); Stings (f; SKJ); Stomatosis (f; MAF; SKJ); Toothache (f; MAF); Trichophyton (1; 
JAR12:83); UTI (f; MAF); Vomiting (f; WOI); Yellow Fever (f; UPW).
d osages (v etiver ):
FNFF = ?
Khus essence and khus water used in India for afl voring sherberts, syrup sweets, and fruit drinks. 
Vetiver extracts added to canned asparagus to enhance the afl vor (FAC). “Root yields an essential 
oil used in sherberts” (TAN). Grass used in cigarettes (NAD). Used in Australian barbecued rat 
recipe: “Fatten the rat on vetiver roots and marinate the meat in its young shoots” (Mark Dafforn, 
personal communication, 2006). 3.9 g powdered herb boiled in 50 ml water for UTIs and malaria 
(MAF). Chew 2 g root up to 4 ×/day for toothache (MAF). Two minims essence for nausea of 
cholera.
• Asian Indians suggest (but I do not) smoking the herb with benzoin for headache (NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest vetiver roots with those of sunofl wer (American) and Marsilea for 
malaria (SKJ).
• Asian Indians use the roots on abdominal tumors (JLH; UPW).
• Ayurvedics consider the root alexiteric, antibilious, astringent, depurative, and stomachic, 
suggesting it for burning sensations, fever, halitosis, strangury, and thirst (KAB).
• Americans anecdotally report that vetiver tea does wonders for tequila hangovers (Mark 
Dafforn, personal communication, 2006).
• Malayans failed in planting vetiver acreage to repel mosquitoes (UPW); they apply as 
perfume.
• Mauritians use root as abortifacient (UPW).
• Nigerians use the root in water puricatfi ion (UPW).
• Peruvians suggest the decoction or tincture topically for dermatoses (e.g., fungal infe-c
tions) (EGG).
• Philippinos use roots in gastrosis, and as a litholytic in bladder stones (IHB).
• Puerto Ricans use root tea as analgesic, carminative, stomachic, sudoricfi , for headache, 
neuralgia, and rheumatism (JFM).
• Trinidadans use the tea for fever, flu, pleurisy, and yellow fever (JFM; UPW).
• Unani consider the bitter root cardiotonic, cerebrotonic, depurative, soporicfi , using for 
headache, palpitations, and spermatorrhea (KAB; NAD).
d ow Nsides (v etiver ):
Class 2b. Abortifacient emmenagogue/uterine stimulant (AHP). Not for pregnant women, neonates, or 
children under 12 years old. Monitor blood sugar if taking for diabetes (MAF). “To date no side effect 
of adverse reaction has been registered apart from cases of nausea due to overdose” (MAF, 2002).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
LAURest INUs (v iburnum tinus L.) + CApRIFo LIACeAe
Notes (l auresti Nus ):
I will plant in the wilderness the cedar, the shittah tree, and the myrtle, and the oil tree; I will set 
in the desert the fir tree, and the pine, and the box tree together.
Isaiah 41:19 (KJV)
I will put in the wilderness the cedar, the acacia, the myrtle, and the olive; I will set in the desert 
the cypress, the plane and the pine together.
Isaiah 41:19 (RSV)
In the wilderness I shall set the cedar tree, the acacia, and the myrtle, and the oil tree. In the 
desert plain I shall place the juniper tree, the ash and the cypress at the same time.
Isaiah 41:19 (NWT)
The glory of Lebanon shall come unto thee, the fir tree, the pine tree, and the box together, to 
beautify the place of my sanctuary; and I will make the place of my feet glorious.
Isaiah 60:13 (KJV)
The glory of Lebanon shall come to you, the cypress, the plane, and the pine, to beautify the place 
of my sanctuary; and I will make the place of my feet glorious.
Isaiah 60:13 (RSV)
To you the very glory of Lebanon will come, the juniper tree, the ash tree and the cypress at the 
same time, in order to beautify the place of my sanctuary; and I shall glorify the very place of 
my feet.
Isaiah 60:13 (NWT)
The King James version calls it box (which suggests Buxus to most American botanists), the 
Revised Standard version calls ipt lane (which suggests Platanus to most American botanists), and 
the New World Translation calls ita sh (which suggests Fraxinus to most American botanists). But 
Israeli botanist Michael Zohary says that onlyV iburnum tinus has the slightest linguistic support to 
represent the Hebrew tidhar in the two Isaiah passages. He is basing this on the Aramaic translation 
of the Targum Yonathan, which renders tidhar asm ornian, which is cognate with the Arabicm urran. 
Murran is the only Arabic name forV iburnum tinus. Having only one indication for this interesting 
Mediterranean species, I resort once more to the generic approach. Except for the dropsy indication, 
all the activities and indications below are listed for other species of the big genuVs iburnum (e.g., 
those followed by VAD are from MediterraneanV . lantana or North American V. prunifolium).
Commo N Names (l auresti Nus ):
Ash (Eng.; NWT); Box (Eng.; KJV); Laurestinus (Eng.; ZOH); Mornian (Aramaic; ZOH); Murran 
(Arab.; ZOH); Plane (Eng.; KJV); Tidhar (Heb.; ZOH); Nscn.
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a Ctivities (o t Her v ibur Nums ):
Alterative (f; BUR); Analgesic (f1; VAD); Antiabortive (f; FEL; TOM); Anticonvulsive (f; DEM); 
Antidiarrheic (f1; APA; PNC); Antiinafl mmatory (f; VAD); Antiseptic (f1; VAD); Antispasmodic 
(f1; DEM; EFS; FAD; FEL; LAF; PH2; VAD); Astringent (f1; APA; BUR; FEL; VAD); Cardio-
tonic (1; VAD); Cicatrizant (f; VAD); Cyanogenic (1; EB30:400); Diaphoretic (f; DEM); Diuretic 
(f; BUR; FEL; LAF); Emetic (f; FEL); Febrifuge (f1; VAD); Hemostat (f; VAD); Hypotensive (f; 
VAD); Nervine (f; APA; BUR; EFS; FAD; FEL); Sedative (f1; APA; EFS; FAD; VAD); Tonic (f; 
FEL; LAF); Uterorelaxant (f1; APA; BUR; FAD; LAF); Uterotonic (f; EFS; FAD; FEL); Venotonic 
(f1; VAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (o t Her v ibur Nums ):
Abortion (f; FEL; HH3); Ague (f; DEM); Alcoholism (f; FEL); Ameba (f; WOI); Amenorrhea (f; FEL); 
Arthrosis (f; TOM); Asthma (f1; APA; EFS; FAD; HOC; VAD); Bleeding (f; FEL); Blepharosis (f; 
VAD); Cancer (f; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; FEL); Childbirth (f; DAW); Chorea (f; FEL); Colic (f; FEL); 
Congestion (f; FEL); Conjunctivosis (f; VAD); Convulsions (f; DEM); Corneal Abrasians (f; VAD); 
Cramp (f1; APA; DEM; EFS; FAD; FEL); Dermatosis (f1; APA; FEL; LAF; PNC; VAD); Dropsy (f; 
DAW); Dysentery (f; FEL); Dysmenorrhea (f1; APA; FAD; HH3; LAF; PH2; TOM; VAD); Eczema 
(f1; VAD); Fever (f1; APA); Enterosis (f1; APA); Epilepsy (f; FEL); Erythema (f; VAD); Female Ails 
(f; DEM); Fever (f; DAW); Glossosis (f; DEM); Headache (f1; APA); Hemorrhoid (f1; VAD); Hic-
cup (f; FEL); High Blood Pressure (f1; VAD); Hot Flash (f; TOM); Hysteria (f; EFS; FEL; TOM); 
Infection (f; DAW); Inafl mmation (f; FEL; VAD); Insomnia (f1; APA; EFS; FAD); Intermittent Clau -
dication (f; FEL; JAD); Itch (f; VAD); Jaundice (f; FEL); Lethargy (f; LAF); Malaria (f; DAW); 
Menorrhagia (f; FEL); Miscarriage (f; APA; FAD; LAF); Ophthalmia (f; BUR; FEL); Pain (f1; APA); 
Palpitation (f; FEL); Paralysis (f; FEL); Parturition (f; DEM; FAD); Periodontosis (f; VAD); Phary-n
gosis (f1; VAD); Phlebitis (f1; VAD); Rheumatism (f; TOM); Singultus (f; FEL); Smallpox (f; DEM); 
Sore (f; WOI); Spasm (f; WOI); Stomatosis (f1; VAD); Tumor (f; JLH); Uterosis (f; FEL); Uterrhagia 
(f; APA); Vaginosis (f; VAD); Varicosity (f1; VAD); Water Retention (f; LAF).
d osages (o t Her v ibur Nums )
FNFF = !
Fruits sometimes edible out of hand, more often dried as “raisins,” or in beverages, jams, jellies, 
and sauces (FAC; TAN). 2 tsp dry bark/cup water (APA); up to 2 tsp/tincture 3 ×/day (APA); 2–5 g 
powdered bark (HH3). 1–2 g powdered bark (PNC); 2–8 ml bark elixir (PNC); 4–8 ml liquid bark 
extract (PNC).
d ow Nsides (o t Her v ibur Nums ):
Class 2d. Kidney stone patients should use only with caution because of oxalates (AHP, 1997). No 
health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic dosages (PH2) (PH2 designates no 
specic fi quantiefi d dosage, JAD). HH3 notes that there is a CNS-depressant outcome of overdose. 
In animals, it takes some 5 to 7 g scu to cause cardiac arrest (HH3).
FABA BeAN (v ici A fAbA L.) ++ FABACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Faba vulgaris Moench.
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FIGURe . Faba Bean (Vicia faba).
Notes (Faba bea N):
Brought beds, and basons, and earthen vessels, and wheat, and barley, and flour, and parched 
corn, and beans, and lentiles, and parched pulse, And honey, and butter, and sheep, and cheese of 
kine, for David, and for the people that were with him, to eat: for they said, The people is hungry, 
and weary, and thirsty, in the wilderness.
2 Samuel 17:28- 9 (KJV)
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brought beds, basins, and earthen vessels, wheat, barley, meal, parched grain, beans and lentils, 
honey and curds and sheep and cheese from the herd, for David and the people with him to eat; 
for they said, “The people are hungry and weary and thirsty in the wilderness.”
2 Samuel 17:28- 9 (RSV)
[brought] beds and basins, and potter’s vessels, and wheat and barley and flour and roasted 
grain, and broad beans and lentils, and parched grain and honey and butter and sheep and curds 
of cattle they brought forward for David and the people to eat; for they said, “The people are 
hungry and tired and thirsty in the wilderness.”
2 Samuel 17:28–29 (NWT)
Take thou also unto thee wheat, and barley, and beans, and lentiles, and millet and fitches, and 
put them in one vessel, and make thee bread thereof, according to the number of the days that 
thou shalt lie upon thy side, three hundred and ninety days shalt thou eat thereof.
Ezekiel 4:9 (KJV)
And you, take wheat and barley, beans and lentils, millet and spelt, and put them into a single 
vessel, and make bread of them. During the number of days that you lie upon your side, three 
hundred and ninety days, you shall eat it.
Ezekiel 4:9 (RSV)
And as for you, take for yourself wheat and barley, and broad beans and lentils, and millet and 
spelt, and you must put them in one utensil, and make them into bread for you, for the number of 
days that you are lying upon your side, three hundred and ninety days you shall eat it.
Ezekiel 4:9 (NWT)
So ancient is this vegetable that is recorded by Pliny. Even today, broadbeans are cultivated in 
biblical countries, especially Egypt, because of their many uses, not only as vegetable, and pulse, 
but also as breadstuff. Beans have been found in the Neolithic of Jericho, where they are cu-lti
vated to this day. According to Zohary, the plant is nowhere found in the wild, suggesting that 
the wild ancestor is extinct. In ancient days, beans were used in collecting votes from the people; 
a white bean signifying approval of the measure proposed; a black one meaning condemnation. 
Magistrates were elected by casting beans; maybe that is where we got the term “bean-counters” 
(BIB; ZOH).
Commo N Names (Faba bea N):
Aboaun (Ber.; BOU); Anhuri (Hindi; WOI); Bakala (Nepal; NPM); Bakila (Iran; EFS); Bakla 
(Hindi; Kum.; Tur. DEP; EFS; WOI); Bakla Sem (Delhi; WOI); Bakula (Newari; NPM); Baquela 
(Arabic; BOU); Bean of History (Eng.; WOI); Bean of the Bible (Eng.; WOI); Bell Bean (Eng.; 
USN); Bondbona (Sw.; EFS); Broad Bean (Eng.; Jam.; AVP; BOU; LEG); Buffbohne (Ger.; EFS); 
Can Dou (Pin.; DAA); Chas Tang (Pun.; Sutlej; DEP; WOI); Chas Tang Raiun (Him.; WOI); Djilla 
(Ber.; BOU); Duivenbohn (Dutch; EFS); Faba (Eng.; Sp.); Faba (It.; Por.; EFS); Faba bean (Eng.; 
CR2); Fava Bean (Eng.; CR2; LEG); Faveiro (Por.; EFS); Feldbohne (Ger.; EFS); Feve (Fr.; BOU); 
Feve Cultivee (Fr.; BOU); Feve de Marais (Fr.; BOU; EFS); Feve des Champs (Fr.; EFS); Feverolle 
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(Fr.; BOU); Foul (Arabic; BOU); Foul Hashadi (Arabic; BOU); Garden Bean (Eng.; NPM); Haba 
(Peru; Sp.; Trin.; AVP; EFS; EGG); Habas (Asa.; ROE); Habichuela (Sp.; EFS); Hende Matar (Mun.; 
WOI); Hestebonne (Den.; EFS); Horsebean (Eng.; LEG); Hu Tou (China; EFS); Kabli Bakla (Pun.; 
WOI); Kadu Huralikayee (Kan.; WOI); Kaian (Kas.; DEP); Kala Matar (Hindi; WOI); Karafasulye 
(Tur.; EB49:406); Katun (Kas.; WOI); Lipta (Peru; EGG; SOU); Mattz Rewari (Pun.; WOI); Mon 
Sran (Tibet; NPM); Nakshan (Ladak; DEP; WOI); Paardenbohn (Dutch; EFS); Pferdebohne (Ger.; 
EFS); Pois Blanc (Haiti; AVP); Pol (Heb.; ZOH); Raj Rawam (Pun.; Urdu; WOI); Rgya Sran (Tibet.; 
TIB); Saubohne (Ger.; EFS); Scotch Bean (f; NPM); Tick Bean (Eng.; LEG); Toinbohn (Dutch; 
EFS); T’san Tou (China; EFS); White Bean (Pr.; AVP); Windsor Bean (Eng.; LEG).
a Ctivities (Faba bea N):
Anodyne (f; BOU); Antialcoholic (12; HAD); Antiangiogenic (1; FNF); Antidote (f; BIB); Antiparki-n
sonian (12; FNF); Antispasmodic (f; BOU); Aphrodisiac (f1; BIB; FNF); Astringent (f; TIB); Chola-
gogue (f; BOU); Cyanogenic (f; BIB); Dopaminergic (2; HAD); Diuretic (1; BIB); Estrogenic (12; BIB; 
HAD; WOI); Expectorant (f; BIB; TIB); Fungicide (1; X12817478); Hemolytic (1; PHR); Hypertensive 
(1; PH2); Litholytic (f; TIB); Mitogenic (1; X12817478); Mucolytic (f; TIB); Natriuretic (1; FNF); Noo-
tropic (f; SOU); Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitor (1; X12817478; Stomachic (f; BIB); Tonic (f; BIB).
iNdi Catio Ns (Faba bea N):
Abscess (f; EB49:406); ADD (1; FNF); Addiction (1; FNF); Adenopathy (f; JLH); Asthma (f; SOU); 
Boil (f; SOU); Bronchosis (1; FNF); Burns (f; PHR); Callus (f; JLH); Cancer (1; FNF); Cancer, 
bladder (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, breast (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, eyes (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, eyelid 
(1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, foot (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, gland (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver (1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, parotid (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, penis (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, spleen (1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, stomach (1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, testes (1; FNF; JLH); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; PHR; 
PH2); Cramp (f; BOU); Cystosis (f; JLH); Dermatosis (f; PHR; PH2); Drunkenness (2; BIB; FNF); 
Encephalitis (1; FNF); Felon (f; JLH); Flu (f; ROE); Fungus (1; WOI); Gastrosis (f; BOU; JLH); 
Hepatosis (f; JLH); Impotence (1; BIB; FNF); Induration (f; JLH); Leukemia (1; FNF); Mastosis 
(f; JLH); Melanoma (1; FNF); Mycosis (1; WOI); Nephrosis (f; BOU; PHR; PH2); Ophthalmia (f; 
JLH); Orchosis (f; JLH); Osteoporosis (1; FNF); Pain (f; BOU); Parkinson’s (12; FNF); Pneumonia 
(f; BIB); Pulmonosis (f; BIB); Sclerosis (f; BIB); Smoking (1; FNF); Sore (f; EB49:406); Splenosis (f; 
BOU; JLH); Stomachache (f; BOU); Stomatosis (f; BIB); Swellings (f; BIB; JLH); Tumors (1; BIB), 
Urogenitosis (f; PH2); Wart (f; BIB; JLH; PH2); Wen (f; JLH).
d osages (Faba bea N):
FNFF = !!!
In biblical times, broad beans, THE biblical beans, and their meal were made into bread, even as 
today in the biblical world. They are boiled and eaten also. Elsewhere they are cultivated as a -veg
etable and used green or dried, fresh or canned, and for stock feed. Broadbean has been considered 
a meat extender or substitute and as a skim-milk substitute. Sometimes grown for green manure, but 
more generally for stock feed. Large-seeded cultivars are used as a vegetable, and frequently grown 
as a home-garden crop for canning. Roasted seeds are eaten like peanuts in India. Beans are fed to 
horses and the stalks are given to camels. I once calculated that it would take a pound of faba beans, 
or a couple ounces of the sprouts, to give a physiological dose of L-dopa. The sprouts are also better 
sources of daidzein and genistein.
• North Africans nibble two parched seeds early in the morning for stomach pain (BOU).
• Iranians claim the shoots can rouse a drunkard from stupor (BIB).
• Turks apply heated leaves to abscesses (EB49:406).
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d ow Nsides (Faba bea N):
Inhaling pollen or ingesting seeds may cause favism, an especially severe hemolytic anemia, an inhe-r
ited enzymatic decfi iency (glucose-6-phosphate-dehydrogenase) occasional among Mediterranean 
people (Greeks, Italians, Semitics). Injected intravenously in rabbits, broadbean extracts have produced 
hemoglobinuria and death (POB). Overdosage, especially in genetically susceptible individuals, can 
rapidly lead to diarrhea, queasiness, vertigo, and vomiting. In more severe cases, anuria, fever, hem-o
globinuria, icterus, and/or oliguria occur. Following ingestion and digestion, pyrimidine derivatives in 
high doses can cause hemolysis (PHR). L-Dopa may cause a rise in blood pressure (PHR). -LDopa is 
contraindicated if you have heart, liver, lung, kidney, or thyroid problems; glaucoma; or are taking v-ita
min B , antidepressants (especially MAOIs), or antipsychotic drugs. L-Dopa may activate malignant 
6
melanomas, which, however, can be checked by 100 mg/day coumarin, found in the tonka bean.
Natural History (Faba bea N):
One study concluded that bees increase seed production by 15 to 20%. Honeybees were estimated 
to account for 80% of cross-pollination, bumblebees less than 20%, and wild bees less than 1%. A 
closed-ofl wer phenotype (recessive to normal) exists which lacks the typical scent and is avoided 
by bees (Poulsen, 1977). Many fungi attack broadbeans, depending on the area where they grow. 
The following have been reported on broadbeans: Alternaria brassicae var. phaseoli, A. tenuis, A. 
tenuissima, Ascochyta boltshauseri, A. fabae, A. pinodella, A. pinodes A. pisi (A. viciae), Asper-
gillus niger, Botrytis cinera, B. fabae, Cercospora fabae, C. viciae, C. zonata, Cladosporium 
cladosporioides, C. herbarum, C. pisi, Clonostachys araucariae, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, 
Corticium rolfsii, C. solani, Cunninghamella echinulata, Deplosporium album, Dothiorella fabae, 
Erysiphe pisi, E. polygoni, many species of Fusarium, Gibberella fujikuroi, G. saubinettii, Gloeo-
sporium viciae, Helicobasidium purpureum, Leveillula taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Mela-
nospora papilata, Mycospharaella pinodes, Nectria anisophylla, Olpidium viciae, Peronospora 
fabae, P. lagerheimee, P. pisi, P. viciae, Phoma malaena, Phyllosticta fabae, Phymatotrichum 
omnivorum, Physoderma fabae, Phytophthora cactorum, Ph. cinnamoni, Pleospora herbarum, P. 
vulgaris, Pythium spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizopus nigricans, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, S. minor, 
S. sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Stagonospora carpathica, Stemphylium botryosum, S. consor-
tiale, Trichothecium roseum, Uromyces appendiculatus, U. fabae, U. orobi, and U. viciae-fabae. 
Broadbeans also attacked by the sweet pea streak, tooth-tumor swelling vein virus and broadbean 
wilt, red-clover vein mosaic (Marmor trifolii), virus 1-celery mosaic (a strain of cucumber mosaic 
virus: Marmor cucumeris), and spotted wilt (Lethum australiensis). Bacteria causing diseases in 
broadbean include Bacterium phaseoli, B. viciae, Erwinia phytophthora, and Psuedomonas viciae. 
Nematodes isolated from broadbean include Ditylenchus dipsaci, Heterodera glycines, H. goet-
tingiana, H. rostochiensis, Longidorus maximus, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. artiella, M. hapla, 
M. incognita, M. incognita acrita, M. javanica, Pratylenchus brachyurus, P. coffeae, P. goodeyi, 
P. pnetrans, P. pratensis, P. vulnus, P. zeae, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorynchus dubius, 
and T. parvus. The most serious insect pests are the broadbean weevil, Bruchus rufimanus , and 
aphids, especially the bean aphid, Aphis fabae. Broomrape (Orobanche crenata) may be a serious 
problem in the Middle East. Eptam, applied as a postemergence spray, was fairly effective, as was 
soil fumigation with dibromochloropropane, and oxak (terbutol), if deeply incorporated into the soil 
before sowing.
extra Cts (Faba bea N):
Estrogenic activity of fresh beans equivalent to 11.4 µg estradiol monobenzoate/kg. The ethanol-
ether extract of the seeds at 50-mg dose level stimulated non-pregnant uterus at diestrus (WOI). 
“The immature seeds exhibited appreciable antifungal activity; phytoalexins came into play to 
combat the infection” (WOI). The LD50 of the bean extract in mice was 19,000 mg/kg body 
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weight. L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa) was first synthesized as a D,L racemate in 1911. 
Its L-isomer was isolated from seedling, and from 1961 onward was recognized as the most efcfi a-
cious drug treatment of Parkinson’s disease. It is now generally recognized that L-dopa use in P-ar
kinson’s disease is a classic example of brain neurotransmitter replacement therapy. That may not 
be its sole action of interest. Recent evidence suggests that L-dopa may also have its own biological 
activity in the CNS, independent of dopamine (X15143441). Both L-Dopa and epinene have been 
reported from the seeds. L-Dopa is said to induce priapism in elderly males receiving it for Parkin-
sonianism. According to Father Nature’s Farmacy (FNF), L-dopa has analgesic, anorexic, antidote 
(manganese), antiencephalopathic, antifeedant, antimorphinic, antineuroleptic, antiparkinsonian, 
antireserpine, aphrodisiac, arrhythmigenic, antitremor, cardiovascular, CNS-active, depressant, 
diuretic, dopaminergic, emetic, hallucinogenis, hypertensive, hypotensive, insectifuge, miotic, and 
natriuretic activities. The LD50 = 609 ppm (orl rbt); LD50 = 3650 ppm (orl mus); LD50 = 4000 
ppm (orl rat) (FNF). Daidzein reportedly has antialcoholic, antiarrhythmic, anticephalalgic, a-nti
dipsomanic, antihemolytic, antiinafl mmatory, antileukemic, antimelanomic, antimicrobial, anti-
mutagenic, antiosteoporotic, antioxidant, antispasmodic, coronary-dilator, estrogenic, fungicide, 
hypotensive, and lipase-inhibitor activities. Genistein (0–92 ppm in the stem) has abortifacient, 
aldose-reductase-inhibitor, alpha-reductase-inhibitor, antiaggregant, antiangiogenic, anticancer 
(breast), anticarcinomic (breast), antiendoccytotic, antifertility, antihemolytic, antiimplantation, 
antiischemic, antileukemic, antileukotrienic, antilymphomic, antimelanomic, antimicrobial, ant-i
mitogenic, antimutagenic, antineuroblastomic, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antiprostatadenomic, 
antiprostatitic, antispasmodic, antitumor, antitumor (GI), antitumor (ovary), antitumor (prostate), 
antitumor (stomach), “antiulcer?,” apoptotic, cancer-preventive, catechol-O-methyl-transferase-
inhibitor, cytotoxic, DOPA-decarboxylase-inhibitor, estrogenic, afl tulent, fungicide, fungistat, 
histidine-kinase-inhibitor, lipase-inhibitor, MAO-inhibitor, peroxidase-inhibitor, phytoalexin, 
pituitary-sensitizer, topoisomerase-II-inhibitor, trypanosomastat, and tyrosine-kinase-inhibitor 
activities (FNF).
GRApe (v itis vinifer A L.) +++ v It ACeAe
Notes (g rape ):
But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them 
afraid: for the mouth of the LORD of hosts hath spoken it.
Micah 4:4 (KJV)
…but they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree, and none shall make them 
afraid; for the mouth of the LORD of hosts has spoken.
Micah 4:4 (RSV)
And they will actually sit, each one under his vine and under his fig tree, and there will be no one 
making [them] tremble, for the very mouth of Jehovah of armies has spoken [it].
Micah 4:4 (NWT)
I will recount only tidbits from Zohary’s interesting historical account. “From the dawn of man’s 
history,” grapes were widely cultivated in the Old World. Noah, first tiller of the soil, planted a 
vineyard. Viticulture was very important in the land of Israel, an image of bounty and the blessings 
of God in the future. The grape, one of the “seven species” with which the land was blessed, was a 
national emblem; but in bad years there would be little bounty. The New Testament attributes spir-i
tual meanings to the grape, Jesus even identifying himself with the species in John. Viticulture was 
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FIGURe . Grape (Vitis vinifera).
established in Egypt, Israel, and Syria in the Early Bronze Age. Pips of grapes have been uncovered 
in northern Greece, circa 4500 BC (ZOH). But there seem to have been those who deemed the 
product of the wine (and grape juice) demotivational.
Whoredom and wine and new wine take away the heart.
Hosea 4:11 (KJV)
Wine and new wine take away the understanding.
Hosea 4:11 (RSV)
Fornication and wine and sweet wine are what take away good motive.
Hosea 4:11 (NWT)
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And there were those who deem it healthy or health-giving:
Drink no longer water, but use a little wine for thy stomach’s sake and thine often infirmities.
1 Timothy 5:23 (KJV)
No longer drink only water, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your fre-
quent aliments.
1 Timothy 5:23 (RSV)
Do not drink water any longer, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent 
cases of sickness.
1 Timothy 5:23 (RSV)
Commo N Names (g rape ):
Abai (Bom.; KAB); Aenab (Arab.; KAB); Ampelos (Greek; KAB); Amrutaphala (Sanskrit; 
KAB); ‘Anab (Arab.; GHA); Anavim (Heb.; ZOH); Angur (Beng.; Dec.; Hindi; India; Kan.; Nwp.; 
Urdu; EFS; KAP; NAD; WOI); Angura (Iran; EFS); Angurphal (Beng.; WOI); Asma (Tur.; EFS; 
EB54:155); Basho (Lad.; KAB); Budo (Japan; BOU); Buri (Pun.; KAB); Chagarat el’Enab (Arab.; 
AVP); Chawat Udi (Malaya; EFS); Common Grape (Eng.; FAC; TAN); Dakh (Hindi; WOI); Dakha 
(Sanskrit; EFS); Dakhnaari (Mun.; KAB); Dalia (Alg.; AVP); Darakh (Guj.; WOI); Devek (Tur.; 
EB49:406); Dhaku (Kon.; KAB); Dielja (Malta; KAB); Drak (Sind; KAB); Drakasha (Guj.; KAB); 
Drakhyaluta (Beng.; KAB; WOI); Draksha (Guj.; Kan.; Kon.; Mah.; Mar.; Sanskrit; Tam.; Tel.; EFS; 
NAD; WOI); Draksha Pondu (Tel.; NAD); Drakshai (India; WOI); Drakshe (Kan.; KAB); Drakshya 
(India; EFS); Drakya (Oriya; WOI); Edleweinrebe (Ger.; NAD); ‘Enab (Arab.; GHA); Enredadera 
(Sp.; EFS); European Grape (Eng.; FAC; TAN); Gefen (Heb.; ZOH); Ghephen (Heb.; KAB); Gos-
tani (Mal.; WOI); Gostanidraksha (Tam.; Tel.; KAB; WOI); Gostoni (Oriya; KAB; WOI); Grape 
(Eng.; CR2); Gundak Api (Malaya; EFS); Gureb (Iran; EFS); Karm (Arab.; Palestine; AVP; KAB); 
Kerm (Arab.; EFS); Kishamisha (India; EFS); Kishmish (Hindi; India; Iran; EFS; NAD; WOI); 
Kismis (India; WOI); Kmen Winny (Czech; KAB); Kodiminduri (Tam.; WOI); Kottani (Tam.; 
KAB); Kwar (Pushtu; KAB); Lakom (Malaya; EFS); Madhurasam (Mal.; KAB); Manakka (India; 
WOI); Monaangur (Bal.; KAB); Mridirka (Sanskrit; NAD); Muddrap (Sin.; KAB); Mudraka (Guj.; 
NAD); Mundiri (Mal.; WOI); Munteri (Malaya; EFS); Onguro (Oriya; WOI); Otrik (Arm.; KAB); 
Parra (Cat.; Por.; Sp.; EFS; KAB); Parreira (Por.; AVP); P’i T’ao (China; EFS); Pú Tao (Pin.; DAA); 
Rosinen (Ger.; NAD); Sabisi (Burma; KAB); Seben Gkak (Malaya; EFS); Sougi (India; WOI); Sur 
Medun (Kalmuk; KAB); Szollo (Hun.; KAB); Tak (Afg.; KAB); Trachei (Madras; KAB); Traube 
(Ger.; EFS); Uva (Sp.; Por.; AVP; EFS); Uzum Cibigi (Tur.; EB49:406); Vid (Sp.; EFS); Videira 
(Por.; EFS); Vigne (Fr.; Haiti; AVP; EFS); Vigne Cultive (Fr.; NAD); Viña (Sp.; AVP); Vinha (Por.; 
AVP); Vinrauka (Swe.; AVP); Vinstoock (Swe.; KAB); Vita (Rom.; KAB); Vite (It.; EFS); Vito (It.; 
AVP); Voaloboka (Hova; KAB); Wasia (Georgia; KAB); Weinrauke (Ger.; AVP); Weinrebe (Ger.; 
EFS); Weinstok (Ger.; EFS); Wijnstok (Dutch; EFS); Wine Grape (Eng.; WOI); Winna Macica 
(Pol.; KAB); Winograd (Rus.; KAB); Winorosl (Pol.; AVP); Wuntraee (Den.; KAB).
a Ctivities (g rape ):
Anabolic (1; X16028976); Anodyne (1; BIB; FNF); Antiaggregant (1; FNF); Antiallergic (1; FNF); 
Antialopecic (1; PH2); Antialzheimeran (1; COX; FNF); Antianaphylactic (1; FNF); Antiarthritic 
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(1; COX; FNF); Antiasthmatic (1; FNF); Antiatherosclerotric (1; FNF; PH2); Anticancer (1; COX; 
FNF); Anticariogenic (1; APA); Antiedemic (1; FNF); Antierythemic (1; FNF); Antihistaminic 
(1; FNF); AntiHIV (1; FNF); Antiinafl mmatory (1; COX; FNF); Antileukemic (1; X15309446); 
Antimelanomic (1; X15309446); Antimutagenic (1; FNF; MB); Antioxidant; (1; APA; FNF; PH2; 
X10820088); Antiprostaglandin (1; FNF); Antiseptic (1; FNF); Antitumor (1; PH2); Antiulcer (1; 
FNF); Antiviral (1; BIB; FNF); Aphrodisiac (f; BIB; KAB); Apoptotic (1; JAF51:7280); Astringent 
(f1; BIB; VAD); Bactericide (1; FNF); Cancer Preventive (1; FNF); Capillariprotective (1; FNF); 
Cardioprotective (f1; FNF; VAD); Collagen Protective (1; APA); COX-1 Inhibitor (1; FNF); COX-
2 Inhibitor (1; COX; FNF); Demulcent (f; BIB; EFS); Depurative (f; BIB); Diuretic (f; BIB; EFS); 
Expectorant (f; BIB); Fungicide (1; FNF); Hemostat (1; EFS; FNF); Hepatoprotective (1; FNF; PH2); 
Hypocholesterolemic (1; FNF); Immunostimulant (1; FNF); Insulinomimetic (1; X16028976); Lax -
ative (f; BIB); Litholytic (f; BIB; NAD); Orexigenic (f; NAD); Propecic (1; PH2); Protein-Kinase-C 
Inhibitor (X11823594); Radioprotective (1; X10820088); Stomachic (f; BIB); Tonic (f; BIB); Topo-i
somerase Inhibitor (1; X15796584); Sunscreen (1; FNF); Vasoprotective (1; APA; VAD); Venotonic 
(f1; VAD).
iNdi Catio Ns (g rape ):
Alopecia (1; PH2); Alzheimer’s (1; COX; FNF); Anaphylaxis (1; FNF); Anemia (f; NAD; PH2); 
Anorexia (f; NAD); Arteriosclerosis (1; VAD); Arthrosis (1; BIB; COX; FNF); Asthma (1; BIB); Ath-
erosclerosis(1; FNF; PH2); Biliousness (f; BIB; NAD); Bladder stone (f; BIB; NAD); Bleeding (f; BIB; 
FEL; HHB); Blepharosis (f1; VAD); Boil (f; SKJ); Bronchosis (f; GHA); Bruise (f; NAD); Cachexia 
(f; BIB; NAD); Cancer (f1; FNF; JLH; PH2); Cancer, abdomen (f1; DAD; FNF); Cancer, breast (1; 
JAF51:7280); Cancer, colon (1; DAD; FNF; X12935318); Cancer, ear (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, liver 
(f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, neck (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, nose (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, testicle (f1; FNF; 
JLH); Cancer, throat (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, tonsil (f1; FNF; JLH); Cancer, uterus (f1; FNF; JLH); 
Cancer, uvula (f1; FNF; JLH); Candida (f; NAD); Capillary Fragility (f1; BRU; FNF; PH2; VAD); 
Cardiopathy (f1; BIB; FNF; VAD); Caries (1; FNF; MB); Catarrh (f; NAD); Cholera (f; BIB; DAA); 
Circulosis (f; PH2); Cold (f; NAD); Condyloma (f; JLH); Conjunctivosis (f1; BRU; FNF; VAD); Con-
stipation (1; X12935318); Consumption (f; DAA; PH2); Corn (f; JLH); Cough (f; DAA; GHA); Cramp 
(1; BIB; PH2); CVI (1; PH2; X10356940); Cyanosis (f; PH2); Dermatosis (f; BIB; KAB; PH2); Diabe-
tes (f1; NAD; PH2; X16028976); Diarrhea (f; FEL; PH2; WOI); Diptheria (f; BIB); Diverticulosis (1; 
X12935318); Dropsy (f; DAD; PH2); Dysentery (f; FEL; HHB); Dysmenorrhea (f1; VAD); Dyspnea 
(f; NAD); Dysuria (f; NAD; PH2); Earache (f; GHA); Ecchymosis (1; BRU); Edema (f1; FNF; PH2; 
VAD); Fever (f; FEL; PH2); Fibroid (f; JLH); Fibroma (f; PH2); Fungus (f1; DAD; KAD); Gastrosis 
(1; FNF); Gingivosis (f; EB49:406); Gonorrhea (f; PH2); Gout (1; FNF); Hangover (f; BIB); Headache 
(f; KAB; PH2); Hemorrhoids (f; BRU; DAD; NAD; PH2); Hepatosis (1; BIB; JLH; FNF); Herpes (1; 
BIB); High Blood Pressure (f1; BI2) High Cholesterol (1; FNF); HIV (1; FNF); Hoarseness (f; DAA; 
PH2); Hyperacidity (f; FEL); Impostume (f; JLH); Induration (f; JLH); Infection (f1; FNF; NAD); 
Inafl mmation (f1; BIB; COX; FNF; EB49:406); Jaundice (f; BIB; NAD); Maculitis (1; FNF), Mycosis 
(f1; DAD; NAD); Nausea (f; BIB; PH2); Nephrosis (f; DAA; PH2); Nervousness (f; PH2); Nyctalopia 
(1; FNF; PH2); Obesity (f1; VAD); Ophthalmia (f1; BIB; KAB; PH2); Orchosis (f; BIB; NAD); Oto-
sis (f; GHA); Pain (f; PH2); Parathesia (1; PH2); Phlebitis (f1; VAD); Polyp (f; JLH); Pregnancy (f; 
DAA); Retinopathy (1; FNF; PH2); Rheumatism (f; HHB; NAD); Rhinosis (f; JLH); Scabies (f; BIB); 
Scirrhus (f; JLH); Smallpox (f; BIB; HJP); Sore Throat (f; KAB; PH2; WOI); Splenosis (f; DAD); 
Sprain (f; NAD); Sting (f; NAD); Stomachache (f; PH2); Stomatosis (f; BIB); Stone (f; BIB); Stress (f; 
PH2); Strangury (f; KAB); Swelling (f; PH2); Syphilis (f; BIB; KAB); Telangectasia (1; FNF; MB); 
Thirst (f; PH2); Thrush (f; NAD); Tonsilosis (f; JLH); Toothache (f; PH2); Tuberculosis (f; EFS; HJP; 
PH2); Ulcer (1; FNF); Varicosity (f1; FNF; VAD); Virus (1; BIB); Wart (f; JLH; PH2); Water Reten-
tion (f; BIB); Wound (1; FNF); Wrinkles (1; FNF).
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00 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
d osages (g rape ):
FNFF = !!!
Fruits widely eaten, raw, juiced, fermented, or preserved; leaves less widely so; grape seeds are 
used to garnish cheeses. Italians celebrate the first pressing of the olives with noodles (pasta alla 
decfi iera) cooked in wine instead of water. Dibs or pekmez, used to sweeten tea, consisting of 
evaporated grape juice or grape molasses. Unripened grape juice (verjuice or verjus) is used when 
tartness is needed. Grapeseed oil is preferred for cooking meat in fondue bourguignonne. Grape 
leaves (dolmas or sarmas) are often stuffed with rice, and/or currants, and/or pine nuts. Flowering 
shoots, tendrils and all, are tart and tender, sometimes astringent, but a good nibble in the efi ld. 
Cream of tartar, scraped from the insides of wine barrels, can stabilize egg whites, and is added 
to candies and frostings. It is also added to baking powders to acidify. Vineyard cuttings are often 
burned to smoke meats (FAC; JAD; TAN; EB54:155). 75–600 mg seed extract (or OPC) daily for up 
to 3 weeks; maintenance dose 40–100 mg/day (APA, PH2).
• Arabians boil fruits, strain, adding honey for bronchosis and cough, as eardrops for e-ar
ache (GHA).
• Asian Indians squeeze and boil dried raisins (with seeds) and take internally for diabetes 
(NAD).
• Asian Indians suggest that elders chew raisins for rheumatism (NAD).
• Ayurvedics regard the fruits, especially the black fruits, as aphrodisiac, diuretic, laxative, 
purgative, and refrigerant, and use them for asthma, biliousness, blood disorders, bur-n
ing, eye ailment, fever, hangover, jaundice, sore throat, and strangury (KAB).
• Chinese use the leaf decoction for cholera, dropsy, nausea, pregnancy, and threatened 
abortion (DAA).
• Europeans use the juice from young branches for dermatoses and ophthalmia (KAB).
• Italians use unripe grape juice for throat afflictions (NAD).
• Lebanese have a grape “cure” for fever, liver, nervousness, smallpox, and tuberculosis. 
Small young leaves and/or tendrils are fed to infants to prevent scurvy and iron decfi iency 
(the seeds and roots are ground for an anemia treatment, like wine itself). The expressed 
leaf juice is applied to various skin conditions, including “cancer.” Lebanese use wine or 
brandy for cramps, stomachache, toothache, and for any pain (HJP).
• Lithuanians use raisins as a folk remedy for arthritis (JLH).
• Scientists report that two servings of raisins per day (84 g/day) can cause benecfi ial 
changes in colon function and may decrease the risk for colon cancer (X12935318).
• Unani use leaves, or leaf juice, for bleeding at the mouth, headache, nausea, piles, s-ca
bies, splenitis, and syphilis; the stem ashes for arthritis, bladder stones, orchitis, and piles; 
the fruit for fever; the seed ash for inafl mmation. They consider the seeds aphrodisiac, 
astringent, and refrigerant, the fruit as depurative, digestive, expectorant, and stomachic 
(KAB).
d ow Nsides (g rape ):
None yet known. Not in AHP (1997). No health hazards or side effects known with proper therapeutic 
dosages (PH2). Shahina Ghazanfar (GHA), coming from an Arabian tradition, notes that grape juice 
is taken with honey, as grapes are believed to increase phlegm and a tendency to jaundice (GHA).
Natural History (g rape ):
Many cultivars of theV inifera-type are self-unfruitful, and require another cultivar with an overlapping 
ofl wering period to be interplanted. In some cultivars, pruning affects the effectiveness of the pollen. 
Spraying “tame” grapes for control of insects and diseases is essential to production of fruit. However, 
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the problems are different in different places. Each grower should study his conditions and apply only 
such sprays as found necessary and recommended. Infection must be prevented if clean fruit is to be 
produced. Thoroughness is very essential. Grapes are very sensitive to injury from 2,4-D. Grapes are 
affected by a great many fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, insects, and mineral decfi iencies. Local 
problems should be resolved with local agricultural agents. Eastman (1992) presents a wealth of natural 
history data applying to wild grapes and I excerpt here. Martin et al. note that, except for the Japanese 
beetle (Popillia japonica), wild grapes have few serious pests. Feeding on almost 300 plant species, it 
favors grape. I suspect that many of the pests of the wild grapes will be even worse on “tame” grapes. 
Conversely, I suspect that, proportionately, the wild grapes are stronger, on average, than the tame 
grapes. Many gamebirds (dove, duck, grouse, pheasant, pigeon, prairie chicken, quali, turkey) relish the 
fruit. Migrating south, Tennessee warblers sometimes descend on grapevines to feed. Martin et al. list 
dozens of songbirds indulging in grapes (e.g., blackbird, bluebird, catbird, nfi ch, ifl cker, etc.), sometimes 
constituting 50% of the diet of mockingbirds, less than 25% of cardinal, fox sparrow, robin, and wa- x
wing. Songbirds collect shreddy grapevine bark as a favorite material for nests (e.g., red-eyed vireo, gray 
catbird, Northern mockingbird, brown thrasher, and Northern cardinal). Raccoons often deposit scat 
with grape seeds at bases of trees. Other fruit feeders include black bears, coyote, fox, opossum, rabbit, 
raccoon, skunk, and squirrel. Deer graze the herbage (EAS; MZN). Causing diamond-shaped cankers 
on vines, resulting in dead branches and small angular spots with yellowish margins on leaves, is a wi-de
spread sac fungus C( ryptosporella viticola; dead-arm disease or branch necrosis). A “landscape scene” 
growing on the dead inner bark of a grapevine is a mycelial fan, probablAyr millaria. At night, the fun-
gus sometimes casts a faint luminescent glow. Fleshy, pea-shaped galls on leaf undersides with openings 
on the upper leaf surface indicate yellowish-green grape phylloxera P(hylloxera vitifoliae), this plant’s 
most injurious aphid. Aphid generations migrating to the roots, feeding and forming nodules, may kill 
the vine. Green or red conical galls, like dunce caps on upper leaf surfaces arCee cidomyia viticola, the 
grape gall or tube midge. The grapevine tomato gall midge (Lasioptera vitis) may make greenish or red-
dish pea-size swellings on leaf veins and tendrils. Large, rear-horned sphinx caterpillars, some of which 
make squeaking sounds, are easily recognized. The patterns of adult wood-nymph moths E(udryas) 
resemble bird droppings. The eight-spotted forester (Alypia octomaculata), a bluish-white caterpillar 
banded with orange, can defoliate vines. Grapevine loopersE (ulithis), slender, pale green inchworms, 
pupate in loose webs on the foliage. Dyspteris aborivaria, another inchworm (badwing geometer), rolls 
grape leaves, as does the grape plume moth (Geina periscelidactyla). A smoky black spotted spinulose 
caterpillar, the grapeleaf skeletonizer H( arrisina americana), feeds on upper leaf surfaces, consuming 
all but the veins. Roundish, white, clear-winged moth caterpillars may be grape root borers V(itacea 
polistiformis), which drop to the ground and bore into the roots. The adults resemble paper wasps, even 
mimicking their behavior. In summer, an inch-long tan beetle with black spots on each side, the spotted 
grapevine beetle (Pelidnota punctata), draws leaves together making its tent.
The grape curculio (Craponius inaequalis) lays eggs, first feeding on the leaves. Larvae then 
excavate the green berry pulp beneath the skin. Caterpillars of the grape berry moth P( aralobesia 
viteana) web several ripe berries together or to leaves, making a hole in each berry. The caterp-il
lar folds over a leaf and pupates inside the fold. Folded leaves may hang on the vine in winter. The 
large Virginia creeper sphinx moth, also called hog sphinx D( arapsa myron), punctures decaying 
or fermented fruit to feed, as do bees and wasps.
extra Cts (g rape ):
In general, agricultural selection breeds out some of the natural pesticides, like resveratrol, which also 
have many interesting biological activities. The recent American Chemical Society book, WineN, utri-
tional and Therapeutic Benefits (Watkins, T.R., 1997), heaps praise on resveratrol, failing to tell us that 
there is 10 to 100 times more in the leaves, and I suspect seeds, than in the fruit pulp and wines. The 
seeds have only recently come to the market and clinical trials are few and far between. On the other 
hand, the fruits contain more than 30 types of anthocyanins. Small wonder that grape juice has 4 times 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
the ORAC score of any other fruit juice studied (JNU). Resveratrol has received much press for cancer 
prevention. For example, Stewart et al. (2003), commenting on resveratrol as a candidate for prostate 
cancer prevention, comment that it may constitute 5 to 10% of grapeskin. “Resveratrol may represent 
the tip of the iceberg of a broad class of stilbene and related polyphenolic natural products,” possibly 
safe and effective agents for cancer prevention. They look to resveratrol as a leading agent for prostate 
cancer prevention because it inhibits each stage of multistage carcinogenesis, and scavenges inc-ipi
ent populations of androgen-dependent and androgen-independent prostate cancer cells (X12840221). 
Resveratrol protects against colitis, and has antioxidant and apoptotic actvities. At levels of 5 to 10 
mg/kg/day (equivalent to 1 g/day if I were the 100-kg rat), resveratrol reduced colonic injury, index of 
neutrophil infiltration, and levels of cytokine (X15013856). But I like to remind readers that it is a cock-
tail of closely related compounds, piceatannol and pterostilbene deserving almost as much praise as the 
resveratrol (X15309446). Many other anticancer activities are listed in the USDA database. Working 
with tissue culture, Jo et al. (2005) found potent topoisomerase II catalytic inhibitors: TP fractions 4 
and 6 (IC50 = 0.28–0.29 µg/ml), TP-3 (IC50 = 0.74 µg/ml), and crude extract (IC50 = 1.02 µg/ml) 
— each signicfi antly more potent than resveratrol (IC50 = 18.0 µg/mL) (X15796584). Preliminary data 
and literature searches suggest that the leaves may be a better source of resveratrol, ironically, leaves 
stressed by disease, insects, and physical damage (JAD). A study by Fernandez-Pachon et al. (2005) 
confirms what I had long heard: that red wine increases uric acid levels. That can be good in normo-u
ricemic humans, but may induce a gout crisis in hyperuricemic individuals. Maximum concentrations 
of maximum antioxidant capacity (and uric acid) occurred after about an hour. Uric acid, like albumin 
and bilirubin, is an endogenous antioxidant as well (X15941351).
spINy Co CKLeBUR (xA nthium spinosum L.) + Aste RACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Acanthoxanthium spinosum (L.) Fourreau; Xanthium americanum Walter; Xanthium canadese 
Mill.; Xanthium catharticum H.B.K.; Xanthium cavanillesii Schouw; Xanthium chinese Mill.; 
Xanthium commune Britton; Xanthium cylindraceum Millsp. & Sherff; Xanthium strumarium 
var. glabratum; Xanthium echinatum Murray; Xanthium echinellum Greene & Rydb.; Xanthium 
indicum J. Koening ex Roxb.; Xanthium inflexum Mack. & Bush; Xanthium italicum Moretti; 
Xanthium macrocarpum var. glabratum DC.; Xanthium occidentale Bertol.; Xanthium orientale 
L.; Xanthium pensylvanicum Wallr.; Xanthium pungens Wallr.; Xanthium saccharatum Wallr.; 
Xanthium speciosum Kearney; Xanthium strumarium subsp. italicum (Moretti) D. Löve; Xan-
thium vulgare Hill
Notes (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
And thorns shall come up in her palaces, nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof: and it 
shall be an habitation of dragons, and a court for owls.
Isaiah 34:13 (KJV)
Thorns shall grow over its strongholds, nettles and thistles in its fortresses. It shall be the haunt 
of jackals, an abode for ostriches.
Isaiah 34:13 (RSV)
On her dwelling towers thorns must come up, nettles and thorny weeds in her fortified places, and 
she must become an abiding place of jackals, the courtyard for the ostriches.
Isaiah 34:13 (NWT)
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FIGURe .0 Spiny Cocklebur (Xanthium spinosum). Source: Regina Hughes in Reed (1970); Colored by 
Peggy Duke.
In my earlier book, I followed the Moldenkes (BIB), who concluded that the spiny cocklebur was 
the most likely candidate for this biblical thorn. But Zohary does not even cover this species in his 
Bible book, although three species of Xanthium, including this spiny one, are included in his Flora 
of Palestine (FP3).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
• Leaves with three spines at base of leaf stalk: Xanthium spinosum
• Leaves spineless:
• — Burr more than 2.5 cm, the prickles hairy at the base: Xanthium italicum
• — Burr less than 2.1 cm, the prickles glandular pubescent: Xanthium strumarium
Commo N Names (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
Abrojillo (Arg.; MPG); Abrojito (Arg.; MPG); Abrojo (Arg.; Bol.; MPG); Alqo Khichkha (Bol.; 
Que.; MPG); Amor de Negro (Brazil; MPG); Amor Seco (Bol.; Ecu.; MPG); Anucháphi (Aym.; 
Bol.; MPG); Atulet (Arg.; MPG); Badhipjan Tariaki (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Bathur-sbtur (Australia; 
Eng.; USN); Cachurrera Menor (Sp.; USN); Cadillos (Sp.; EFS); Carrapicho Bravo (Brazil; MPG); 
Casa Marutsja (Ecu.; MPG); Cepa de Caballo (Arg.; Sp.; Uru.; EFS; MPG); Choquchapi (Bol.; 
MPG); Chunngil (Ecu.; MPG); Clonqui (Chile; MPG); Dornige Spitzklette (Ger.; EFS; USN); 
Elpererin (Araucano; Arg.; MPG); Espina de Perro (Bol.; MPG); Espinho de Carneiro (Brazil; 
MPG); Floraria (Spain.; EFS; MPG); Gedoornde Stekelnoot (Dutch; EFS); Gratteron (Fr.; EFS); I 
Mop (Arg.; MPG); Juan de Alonzo (Bol.; MPG); Kachu Kawell (Arg. Vilele; MPG); Kokelin (Arg. 
Vilele; MPG); Lampourde aux Écrouelles (Fr.; EFS); Lampourde Épineuse (Fr.; USN); Lappolino 
(It.; EFS); Marucha (Ecu.; MPG); Matagallegos (Sp.; EFS); Pegotes (Sp.; EFS); Pitrak (Tur.; EFS); 
Prickly Burweed (Australia; Eng.; USN); Qopajchi (Bol.; Torotooro; MPG); Rat (Araucano; Arg.; 
MPG); Rat Ratraid (Arg.; MPG); Spino D’Asino (It.; EFS); Spiny Clotbur (Eng.; EFS); Spiny Cock-
lebur (Eng.; USN); Thorny Burweed (Eng.; EFS); Thorny Buttonbur (Eng.; EFS); Thorny Cockle-
bur (Eng.; EFS); Urusumaru (Bol.; Chiriguano; MPG); Xanthio (It.; EFS); Nscn.
a Ctivities (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
Acaricide (1; MPG); Antifertility (f; VAD); Antiinafl mmatory (f; VAD; Antileukemic (1; MPG); Anti -
MDR (1; X9364417); Antiseptic (f1; VAD; WOI); Antispasmodic (f; VAD); Antitumor (1; MPG); Astrin-
gent (f; VAD); Bactericide (1; MPG); Cicatrizant (f; VAD); CNS Depressant (1; MPG); Contraceptive (1; 
MPG); Depurative (f; HJP); Diaphoretic (f; DAW); Digestive (f; MPG); Diuretic (f; VAD); Emollient (f; 
MPG); Febrifuge (f; VAD); Hemostat (f; EFS); Hepatoprotective (f; VAD); Insulin Sparing (1; MPG); 
Laxative (f; VAD); Sedative (f; HJP); Sialagogue (f; EFS; VAD); Sudoricfi (f; VAD); Tonic (f; HJP).
iNdi Catio Ns (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
Bacillus (1; MPG; X9364417); Bacteria (1; MPG); Blennorrhagia (f; MPG); Boil (f; HJP); Cancer (1; 
MPG); Cold (f; VAD); Cramp (f; VAD); Cystosis (f; VAD); Diarrhea (f; VAD); Dysentery (f; HJP); 
Dyspepsia (f; HJP); Dysuria (f; MPG); Edema (f; VAD); Epilepsy (f; HJP); Fever (f; VAD); Flu (f; 
VAD); Gout (f; VAD); Headache (f; MPG); Hepatosis (f; MPG); High Blood Pressure (f; VAD); Infec-
tion (f1; MPG; VAD; WOI); Inafl mmation (f; VAD); Insomnia (f; HJP); Klebsiella (1; X9364417); 
Leukemia (1; MPG); Malaria (f; EFS); Micrococcus (1; MPG); Nephrosis (f; MPG); Obesity (f; 
VAD); Oliguria (f; VAD); Pain (f; HJP); Pharyngosis (f; MPG); Pneumonia (1; X9364417); Pseu-
domonas (1; X9364417); Pyelosis (f; VAD); Rabies (f; HJP); Rheumatism (f; HJP); Salmonella (1; 
X9364417); Scrofula (f; EFS); Snakebite (f; DAW); Sore (f; HJP); Sore Throat (f; MPG); Splenosis 
(f; MPG); Staphylococcus (1; X9364417); Stress (f; HJP); Ulcer (f; HJP); Urethrosis (f; VAD); Uro-
lithiasis (f; VAD); Uterosis (f; MPG); Wound (f; VAD).
d osages (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
FNFF = X
100 g seed/liter water; 1/2 cup 2–3 ×/day (MPG); 100 g root/500 ml water; 1/2 cup 2–3 ×/day (MPG).
• Argentines take root as antimalarial, digestive, diuretic, and emollient (MPG).
• Bolivians take the leaf decoction for liver and stomach problems (MPG).
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• Canary Islanders use shoots for diarrhea, dysentery, fever, hepatitis, and oliguria (MPG).
• Europeans recommend the plant for rabies (MPG).
• Lebanese reportedly feed children crushed seed to make blood and bones strong (HJP).
• Lebanese suggest a leaf tea for indigestion, a strong decoction for ulcers, internal or 
external (HJP).
• Lebanese use powdered seed to treat boils (HJP).
• Lebanese use the plant in steam baths to treat colds and rheumatism (HJP).
• Ukrainians use as calmative and sedative, and for dysentery, epilepsy, and hydrophobia 
(HJP).
• Uruguayans use the root as antiseptic, antispasmodic, diuretic, laxative, and use for he-pa
toses; other parts of the plant are taken in decoction or tea for malaria (MPG).
d ow Nsides (s piNy Co Cklebur ):
Contraindicated in small children and lactating or pregnant women; possibly depressant, antifer-til
ity (VAD). As of November 2004, the FDA Poisonous Plant Database listed 24 titles alluding to the 
toxicity of this species.
spINy ZILLA (zill A spinos A (L.) pRANt L.) ++ BRAss ICACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Bunias spinosa L.; Zilla myagriodes Forssk fide FP1
Notes (s piNy zilla ):
And there shall be no more a pricking brier unto the house of Israel, nor any grieving thorn of all 
that are round about them, that despised them; and they shall know that I am the Lord GOD.
Ezekiel 28:24 (KJV)
And for the house of Israel there shall be no more a brier to prick or a thorn to hurt them among all 
their neighbors who have treated them with contempt. Then they will know that I am the Lord GOD.
Ezekiel 28:24 (RSV)
And be no will there prove to be to the house of Israel a malignant prickle or a painful thorn out 
of all those round about them, those who are treating them with scorn; and people will have to 
know that I am the sovereign Lord Jehovah.
Ezekiel 28:24 (NWT)
And there will be no more for the house of Israel a prickling brier or a painful thorn from any 
round about them who scorned them; then they will know that I am the Lord GOD.
Ezekiel 28:24 (NAST)
There were nearly 100 citations forZ illa, almost all of them for authors named Zilla, and almost no 
(only two) PubMed citations for the biblical plantZ illa spinosa. So, for a change, I went for a special 
Google searach <Zilla spinosa Bible> and got 15 citations, which I eagerly explored. The first two 
were unexpectably based on my own work, the third and fourth were a map of historical sites in the 
Holy Land, and the remainder were false drops. That is about the fifth time I have experienced this; 
most of the hot leads on the biblical plants I Google harken back to me. So I wasted 20 minutes on this 
Google search. The USDA nomenclature database has nothing on it. My own phytochemical database, 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
also online at USDA, has nothing on it. And, I expect cruising through all my Mideastern books will 
waste even more time, but now in the Z’s I am getting anxious to finish this venture. So I will para -
phrase much of what Zohary has to say on his one page devoted toZ illa. The Arabic name silla for a 
conspicuously thorny plant (I remember it well from Egypt) was Latinized by Forsskal to Zilla as the 
generic scienticfi name. But quite often, as perhaps in the Ezekiel quotes above, it was reduced to a 
very general word for thorn rather than a specicfi reference to Zilla spinosa. Zohary offers a second 
quotation, “Lamech said to his wives: ‘Adah and Zillah, hear my voice; you wives of Lamech, hearken 
to what I say: I have slain a man for wounding me, a young man for striking me.’” (Genesis 4:23; RSV). 
He then says, “It seems not too risky to suggest that Zillah, wife of Lamech, was named for this plant, 
so characteristic of the desert in the Land of Nod.” (ZOH) One can think of it as spiny tumbleweed 
because, when mature, it may be uprooted by the wind and tumble through the desert.
Commo N Names (s piNy zilla ):
Chebreg (Mali; UPW); Ftozzer Oftazzen (Ber.; BOU); Hassaniya Achenfarach (Arab.; Mauritania; 
UPW); Oftazzen (Ber.; BOU); Roquette Épineuse (Fr.; BOU); Shabrom (Arab.; BOU); Shoubroq 
(Arab.; BOU); Silla (Arab.; BOU; ZOH); Silon (Heb., ZOH); Sirr (Arab.; BOU); Spiny Zilla (Eng.; 
ZOH); Zilla (Arab.; BOU); Nscn.
a Ctivities (s piNy zilla ):
Antithyroid (1; X4129701); Litholytic (f; BOU).
iNdi Catio Ns (s piNy zilla ):
Kidney stone (f; BOU); Nephrosis (f; BOU); Stone (f; BOU).
d osages (s piNy zilla ):
FNFF = ?
• North Africans use the plant to treat kidney stones (BOU).
Natural History (s piNy zilla ):
Said to provide excellent fodder for camels and other stock, it is probably, like many Brassicaceae, 
quite edible and nutritious once one gets around those formidablke spines. The large leaves are near 
the base, getting smaller and smaller out toward the thorn tips (UPW; ZOH).
extra Cts (s piNy zilla ):
Like many members of Brassicaceae, it contains goitrogenic glucosinolates and antithyroid goitrins 
(X4129701).
sy RIAN Ch RIsttho RN (ziziphus spin A-christi 
(L.) WILLD. ++ Rh AMNACeAe
syNo Nyms :
Rhamnus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
Notes (syria N CHristt Hor N):
Then came Jesus forth, wearing the crown of thorns, and the purple robe. And Pilate saith unto 
them, Behold the man!
John 19:5 (KJV)
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So Jesus came out, wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe. Pilate said to them, “Behold 
the man!”
John 19:5 (RSV)
Accordingly Jesus came outside, wearing the thorny crown and the purple outer garment. And 
he said to them “Look! The man!”
John 19:5 (NWT)
Many authors viewZ iziphus as corresponding to the crown of thorns. On the contrary, there are at least 
a dozen thorny species, not completely ruling out Ziziphus, but pushing Sarcopoterium as the most 
likely candidate. And Zohary notes that there are still a fewZi ziphus growing on the eastern slopes of 
the Temple Mount (Mount Moriah).With respect to Zohary, I include both plants. The Useful Plants 
of Tropical West Africa (UPW) hints that this was the dudaim, the name of the plant Leah mentioned 
to Joseph as a possible cure for sterility. They suggest that the mandrake does not occur in the biblical 
arena, while the dudaim bears apples and grows along the river banks rather than in open efi lds. UPW 
further states that these fruits, the Lotiphagi ate which wereZ iziphus rather thanN ymphaea. Christians 
consider this to be the crown of thorns that Jesus wore before the crucixfi ion. Indian Muslims, respect-
ing the plant highly, wash corpses in the leaf decoction. Revered by the Arabs and mentioned in the 
Quran (LIII: 13–18; LVI: 28–32); the “lote-tree” is revered also by Muslims throughout the Middle 
East. It has been esteemed both as a fruit and medicinal plant for millennia. Some believe that on the 
Day of Judgment, those at Allah’s right hand will dwell among thornless lot-etrees (UPW; ZOH).
Commo N Names (syria N CHristt Hor N):
Abaqua (Ber.; BOU); Ardj (Arab.; BOU); As Sidr (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Atad (Heb.; X16270941; ZOH); 
Bauyer (Arab.; Sen.; UPW); Christ Thorn (Eng.; ZOH); Christ’s Thorn (Eng.; FAC; UPW); Christ-
thorn Jujube (Eng.; X16270941; HJP); Dabi (Mali; UPW); Dawm (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Dem (Arab.; 
UPW); Dudaim (Heb.; UPW); Dum (Arab.; ZOH); Èpine du Christ (Fr.; UPW); Ghassel (Arab.; 
BOU); Jujuba de Palastine (Fr.; UPW); Kanari (Isr.; X16270941); Karnoyer (Arab.; Niger; UPW); 
Korna (Ber.; BOU); Lote (Eng.; UPW); Nabag (Nig.; UPW); Nabaq (Arab.; GHA); Nabas (Egypt; 
UPW) Nabk (Arab.; Syria; HJP); Nabq (Arab.; BOU); Ourdj (Arab.; BOU); Rimin (Isr.; X16270941); 
Sadr (Arab.; X16270941); Sedam (Arab.; UPW); Seder (Arab.; UPW); Sedr (Arab.; GHA); Shagar en 
Nabk (Arab.; HJP); Sheizaf (Heb.; X16270941); Sidr (Arab.; Syria; BOU; GHA; HJP); Syrian Chri-st
thorn (Eng.; CR2); Tsal (Arab.; X16270941); Zefzhous (Arab.; BOU); Zegzeg (Arab.; BOU).
a Ctivities (syria N CHristt Hor N):
Analgesic (f1; CRC; GHA; X11395256); Anthelmintic (f; FNF); Antiinafl mmatory (f; BOU); Anti -
nociceptive (f1; GHA; X11395256); Antiseptic (f1; X11167035); Antitumor (f; CRC); Astringent (f1; 
CRC; X12826300); Bactericide (1; X11167035); Bechic (f; UPW); CNS Depressant (1; X11744289); 
Collyrium (f; CRC); Demulcent (f; CRC); Depurative (f; CRC); Emollient (f; BIB; CRC; UPW); 
Febrifuge (f; BOU; CRC); Lactagogue (f; FNF); Laxative (f; BIB; CRC); Pectoral (f; CRC); Prop-e
cic (f; UPW); Refrigerant (f; CRC); Sedative (1; X11744289); Stomachic (f; CRC); Tonic (f; CRC; 
GHA); Vulnerary (f; JHP).
iNdi Catio Ns (syria N CHristt Hor N):
Abscess (f; BIB; BOU); Arthrosis (f; CRC; GHA; HJP); Bacteria (1; X11167035); Blister (f; FNF); 
Bronchosis (f; CRC); Bruise (f; FNF); Burn (f; FNF); Cancer (1; CRC; JLH); Cardiopathy (f; FNF); 
Childbirth (f; GHA); Cold (f; CRC); Conjunctivosis (f; BOU); Constipation (f; BOU); Cough (f; CRC); 
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Dermatosis (f; BIB; UPW); Diarrhea (f1; UPW; X12826300); Dyslactea (f; FNF); Fever (f; BIB; 
BOU; CRC; HJP); Fungus (f; UPW); Furuncle (f; BIB; BOU); Gastrosis (f; FNF); Gingivosis (f; 
GHA); Headache (f; GHA); Heartburn (f; FNF); Hemorrhoid (f; FNF); Hepatosis (f; CRC; HJP); 
High Blood Pressure (f; CRC); Infection (f1; UPW; X11167035); Inafl mmation (f; BOU); Measles 
(f; BIB; BOU); Myalgia (f; FNF); Mycosis (f; UPW); Nervousness (f; FNF); Obesity (f; UPW); 
Ophthalmia (f; BIB; BOU; CRC); Pain (f1; GHA; X11395256); Proctosis (f; FNF); Pulmonosis (f; 
GHA); Respirosis (f; GHA); Rheumatism (f; CRC); Ringworm (f; UPW); Snakebite (f; BIB; BOU; 
UPW); Sore (f; BIB; UPW); Sterility (f; UPW); Toothache (f; CRC); Tuberculosis (f; CRC); Tumor 
(1; CRC); Venereal Disease (f; CRC; HJP); Worm (f; BOU); Wound (f; FNF).
d osages (syria N CHristt Hor N):
FNFF = !!
Acid yellow drupaceous fruits eaten raw, dried, or made into breadstuffs. Sometimes in Israeli 
markets (FAC; TAN; ZOH).
• Arabs and Iraqi Jews apply fruit juice to wounds (X16270941).
• Bedouins drink leaf decoction as lactagogue (X16270941).
• Bedouins (Negev; Sinai) inhale leaf steam for myalgia (X16270941).
• Bedouins of Egypt put leaf cataplasm on abscesses and furuncles, and before retiring, 
apply to inafl med eyes (BOU).
• Camerounians plaster the plant on ringworm (UPW).
• Dhofari apply crushed leaves to arthritic joints and skin sores (GHA), seeds, fruits, and 
leaves to bruises (X16270941).
• Ethiopians use the plant as bechic and emollient (UPW).
• Ghanans apply the sap to cuts and wounds (UPW).
• Iraqi and Yemenite Jews use the leaves for hemorrhoids (X16270941).
• Lebanese eat boiled fruits as compote for bronchosis, cough, and tuberculosis (HJP).
• Lebanese take floral tea for fever and use as collyrium (HJP).
• Lebanese take powdered seed with lemon juice for liver ailments (HJP).
• Madagascans use the plant for diarrhea (UPW).
• Mauritanian women use powdered leaves to darken and lengthen the hair (UPW).
• Nigerians around Born take the bark as a slimming medicine (UPW).
• North Africans apply the wood ash, mixed with vinegar, to snakebite (BOU).
• Somali rub dried leaves on skin and wash, as a cleansing detergent (UPW).
Natural History (syria N CHristt Hor N):
Flowers said to be a favored food of the elephant in Sudan (UPW).
extra Cts (syria N CHristt Hor N):
LD50 (aqueous root bark extract) = 2235 mg/kg ipr mus (X11395256); LD50 (methanol bark extract) 
= 345 mg/kg ipr mus; and LD50 (methanol bark extract) = 1200 mg/kg orl mus (X12826300).
eeLGRAss ( zoster A mArin A l .) + Zoste RACeAe
Notes (eelgrass ):
The waters compassed me about, even to the soul: the depth closed me round about, the weeds 
were wrapped about my head.
Jonah 2:5 (KJV)
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FIGURe . Eelgrass (Zostera marina).
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0 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
The waters closed in over me, the deep was round about me; weeds were wrapped about my head.
Jonah 2:5 (RSV)
Waters encircled me clear to the soul; the watery deep it kept enclosing me; weeds were wound 
about my head.
Jonah 2:5 (NWT)
In my King James Version, the word weeds shows up only once, in the story of Jonah. Some scholars 
have concluded as did I (BIB) that this weed could be it, so I include this account in my revision of 
biblical herbs. The leaves may prove valuable as fodder, thatching, or packing material. The f-oli
age is an important food for some sea turtles and water fowl. An important shallow water, mu-dat fl
stabilizer, the plant helps to sustain the productivity of estuarine areas. The plant is used by the Seri 
Indians of Mexico for diarrhea.
Commo N Names (eelgrass ):
Alva Marina (Sp.; HOC); Ama Mo (Japan; TAN); Barnacle Grass (Eng.; DAA); Eelgrass (Eng.; 
TAN); Grass Weed (Eng.; HOC); Grass Wrack (Eng.; BIB); Hai Dai (Pin.; DAA); Sea Ware (Eng.; 
HOC); Seagrass (Eng.; BIB); Seawrack (Eng.; BIB; DEM); Zostére Marine (Fr.; USN).
a Ctivities (eelgrass ):
Antiaging (1; X15022719); Antioxidant (1; X15022719); Antiseptic (1; X1755708); ATPase (1; 
X12407193); Bacteria (1; X1755708); Dropsy (f; DAA); Immunomodulator (1; X1755708);  Matrix Meta-l
loproteinase Inhibitor (1; X15022719); Phagocytotic (1; X1755708); Photoprotective (1; X15022719).
iNdi Catio Ns (eelgrass ):
Bacteria (1; X1755708); Diarrhea (f; EB28:429); Dropsy (f; DAA); Edema (f; HOC); Goiter (f; DAA; 
HOC); Hysteria (f; DAA; HOC); Infection (1; X1755708); Sunburn (1; X15022719); Swelling (f; 
HOC); Wrinkle (1; X15022719).
d osages (eelgrass ):
FNFF = !
Bellacoola eat plants raw with eulachon grease. Cowichan use efl shy roots and leaf bases to afl -
vor seal, porpoise, and deer meat. Hesquiat clean and eat the brownish rhizomes raw. Kwakiutl 
dip stems and roots in oil to eat during feasts. Nitinaht once ate the efl shy, whitish rhizomes raw. 
Oweekeno picked and ate the leaves with attached herring spawn. Saanich used efl shy roots and 
leaf bases to afl vor deer, porpoise and seal. Seri Indians of Mexico ground the seeds into an edible 
ofl ur. The grain, although small and relatively bland, is toasted, winnowed, and ground into ofl ur 
and made into a gruel, traditionally combined with other food (e.g., sea turtle oil or honey) in Baja 
California. (BIB; DEM; http://www.innvista.com/health/foods/seeds/waternut.htm.)
• Seri Indians of Mexico use the plant for diarrhea (BIB).
Natural History (eelgrass ):
Brownish “roots” (actually rhizomes) eaten by black brants, Canada geese, mallard ducks, and 
cattle (DEM).
extra Cts (eelgrass ):
Zosterin (a seagrass pectin) has antibacterial and immunomodulatory activities of therapeutic e-ffi
cacy in experimental infections (X1755708).
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8202_C002.indd   520 11/7/07   4:20:35 PM
Common Name Index
Corn Cockle, 8–10
A
Coromandel, 176–177
Abyssinian Myrrh, 130
Costus, 419–421
African Myrrh, 126–127
Cucumber, 151–154
Agarwood, 44–46
Cumin, 155–159
Aleppo Pine, 334
Alexandrian Senna, 425–427
D
Almond, 355–359
Aloe, 30–34
Daffodil, 283–284
Apple, 261–265
Dandelion, 453–459
Apricot, 352–354
Date Palm, 325–328
Asian Buttercup, 369–370
Desert Date, 58–61
Dill, 39–42
B Dog Rose, 380–383
Balm of Gilead, 128–129
E
Barley, 205–209
Bay, 237–240
Eelgrass, 508–510
Bean Caper, 461–462
Egyptian Henbane, 213
Benzoin, 444–446
Endive, 97–99
Biblical Acacia, 7
English Ivy, 202–204
Biblical Bramble, 386–387
English Walnut, 216–220
Bitter-apple, 438–439
Euphrates Poplar, 350–351
Black Cumin, 298–302
Black Mulberry, 276–278
Black Mustard, 65–68
F
Boxthorn, 260
Boxwood, 69–71
Faba Bean, 491–495
Brittle Willow, 411–412
Fenugreek, 463–467
Broomcorn, 440–443
Fig, 187–190
Butcher’s Broom, 391–393
Flax, 250–255
Frankincense, 62–64
C Fringed Rue, 394–396
Cade Juniper, 226–227
Calabash Gourd, 233–236
G
Calabrian Pine, 332–333
Galbanum, 185–186
Camel’s Thorn, 13–15
Garlic, 23–29
Caper Bush, 76–79
Giant Milkweed, 72–75
Carob, 90–92
Giant Reed, 52–54
Cassia, 104–107
Glasswort, 402–403
Castor, 374–379
Golden Henbane, 212
Cattail, 474–477
Golden Thistle, 423–424
Cedar of Lebanon, 84–85
Grape, 496–501
Ceylon Ebony, 174–175
Grecian Juniper, 224–225
Charlock, 433–435
Gundelia, 201
Chickpea, 94–96
Chicory, 100–103
Christ’s Thorn, 315
H
Cilician Fir, 1
Cinnamon, 108–112 Hairy Elm, 478–479
Citron, 121–125
Henna, 241–244
Colocynth, 115–117 High Mallow, 266–268
Common Reed, 329–331
Hollyhock, 11–12
Common Saltwort, 413–414 Horseradish, 47–49
Coriander, 138–142 Hyacinth, 210–211
521
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522 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
I R
Indian Gum Arabic Tree, 2–5 Red Sandalwood, 360–361
Italian Cypress, 160–162 Rocket, 181–184
Rose-of-Jericho, 36
Russian Olive, 178–180
J
Jatamansi, 285–289 S
Jointed Anabasis, 35
Safofl wer, 80–83
Judas Tree, 93
Saffron, 143–147
Salt Cedar, 451–452
Sandarac, 459–460
L
Sea Blite, 449–450
Ladanum, 113–114
Sea Daffodil, 316
Lake Rush, 422
Sea Orache, 57
Laurestinus, 490
Shaggy Sparrowwort, 462
Lebanese Oregano, 311
Sheep Sorrel, 388–390
Leek, 21–22
Soft Rush, 221–223
Lentil, 245–246
Spanish Thistle, 88
Lettuce, 229–232
Spiny Cocklebur, 502–504
Levant Cotton, 197–200
Spiny Zilla, 505
Star of Bethlehem, 312–314
Stone Pine, 335–336
M
Storax, 256–259, 447–448
Sugarcane, 397–401
Madder, 384–385
Sycamore Fig, 191–193
Maltese Mushroom, 171
Syrian Christthorn, 506–507
Mandrake, 269–272
Syrian Scabious, 89
Manna, 194–196
Mastic, 339–340
Mayweed, 43
T
Melon, 148–150
Tabor Oak, 367–368
Milk Thistle, 428–432
Talh, 6
Millet, 317–319
Terebinth, 341–342
Mount Atlas Mastic, 337–338
Myrrh, 131–134 Thorny Burnet, 418
Tragacanth Milkvetch, 55–56
Myrtle, 279–282
Tulip, 472–473
Turmeric, 162–167
N
Nettle, 480–484
V
Vetiver, 485–489
O
Vine of Sodom, 436–437
Oleander, 294–297
Olive, 306–308
W
Olive Oil, 309–311
Onion, 16–20 Watercress, 289–293
Watermelon, 118–120
Opium Poppy, 320–324
Weeping Willow, 409–410
Oriental Plane Tree, 345–347
Wheat, 468–471
White Broom, 371–372
P White Lily, 247–249
White Poplar, 348–349
Palestine Buckthorn, 373
White Waterlily, 303–305
Palmarosa, 168–170
White Wormwood, 50–51
Papyrus, 172–173
Wild Mint, 273–275
Peelu, 415–417
Willow, 404–408
Phoenician Juniper, 228
Windofl wer, 37–38
Pistachio, 343–344
Poison Hemlock, 135–137
Y
Pomegranate, 362–366
Purple Star Thistle, 86–87
Yellow Flag, 214–215
8202_C003.indd   522 11/7/07   4:21:30 PM
Scientic Nfi ame Index
Armoracia rusticana, 47–49
A
Artemisia herba-alba Asso, 50–51
Abies cilicica, 1
Artemisia inculta, 50
Acacia arabica, 2
Artemisia sieberii, 50
Acacia nilotica, 2–5
Arundo bengalensis, 52
Acacia raddiana Savi, 7
Arundo donax, 52–54
Acacia seyal, 6
Arundo phragmites, 329
Acacia vera, 2
Arundo vulgaris, 329
Acanthoxanthium spinosum, 502
Asclepias heterophylla, 72
Agallochum malaccense, 44
Asclepias procera, 72
Agrostemma githago, 7, 8–10
Astracanthus gummifer, 55
Alcea rosea, 11–12
Astragalus adpressus, 55
Alhagi camelorum, 12
Astragalus erianthus, 55
Alhagi maurorum, 13–15
Astragalus gummifer, 55–56
Allium ampeloprasum, 21
Astragalus noemiae, 55
Allium cepa, 16–20
Atriplex halimus, 57
Allium laetum, 21
Atropa mandragora, 269
Allium porrum, 21–22
Aucklandia costus, 419
Allium sativum, 23–29
Aucklandia lappa, 419
Aloe barbadensis Mill, 30
Aloe indica Royle, 30
Aloe perfoliata, 30
B
Aloe vera, 30–34
Aloe vulgaris, 30 Baeumeria nasturtium, 289
Amaracus syriacus, 311 Balanites aegyptiacus, 58–61
Amygdalus communis, 355 Balsamodendron myrrha, 131
Amygdalus dulcis, 355 Balsamodendrum habessinicum, 130
Amyris gileadensis, 128 Benzoin officinale, 444
Amyris opobalsamum, 128 Boswellia carteri, 62
Anabasis articulata, 35 Boswellia sacra, 62–64
Anastatica hierochuntica, 36 Brassica arvensis, 433
Andropogon bicolor, 440 Brassica eruca, 181
Andropogon martini, 168 Brassica erucoides, 181
Andropogon muricatus, 485 Brassica kaber, 433
Andropogon schoenanthus, 168 Brassica nigra, 65–68
Andropogon sorghum, 440 Brassica sinapis, 433
Andropogon squarrosus, 485 Brassica sinapistrum, 433
Andropogon zizanioides, 485 Bryonia collosa, 148
Anemone coronaria, 37–38 Bunias spinosa, 505
Anethum graveolens, 39–42 Buxus sempervirens, 69–71
Anethum sowa, 39 Buxus wallichiana, 69
Anthemis abyssinica, 43
Anthemis cotula, 43
Anthemis foetida, 43
C
Anthemis heterophylla, 43
Calcitrapa stellata, 86
Anthemis psorosperma, 43
Callitris articulata, 459
Anthemis ramosa Link., 43
Callitris quadrivalvis, 459
Aplotaxus lappa, 419
Calotropis hamiltonii, 72
Aquilaria agallocha, 44
Calotropis heterophylla, 72
Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., 44–46
Calotropis inflexa, 72
Aquilaria malaicense, 44
Calotropis mudari, 72
Aquilaria ovata, 44
Calotropis procera, 72–75
Aquilaria secundaria, 44
Calotropis syriaca, 72
Aquilariella malaccensis, 44
Calotropis wallichii, 72
Armeniaca vulgaris, 352
Capparis rupestris, 74
Armoracia lapathifolia, 47
523
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524 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Capparis spinosa, 76–79 Coriandrum majus, 138
Cardamine armoracia, 47 Coriandrum sativum, 138–142
Cardamine fontana, 289 Crocus sativus, 143–147
Carduus marianus, 428 Cucumis collosus, 148
Carthamus tinctorius, 80–83 Cucumis colocynthis, 115
Cassia acutifolia, 424 Cucumis melo, 148–150
Cassia angustifolia, 424 Cucumis sativus, 151–154
Cassia lanceolata, 424 Cucumis trigonus, 148
Cassia senna, 424 Cucumis utilissimus, 148
Castalia alba, 303 Cucurbita citrullus, 118
Castalia minoriflora, 303 Cucurbita lagenaria, 233
Castalia speciosa, 303 Cucurbita leucantha, 233
Caulis sinapiaster, 433 Cucurbita longa, 233
Cedrus cedrus, 84 Cucurbita siceraria, 233
Cedrus libanensis, 84 Cuminia cyminum, 155
Cedrus libani, 84–85 Cuminum cyminum, 155–159
Cedrus libanotica, 84 Cuminum hispanicum, 155
Cedrus patula, 84 Cuminum odorum, 155
Centaurea calcitrapa, 86–87 Cupressus articulata, 459
Centaurea iberica Spreng., 88 Cupressus sempervirens, 1, 160–161
Cephalaria syriaca, 89 Curcuma domestica, 162
Ceratonia siliqua, 90–92 Curcuma longa, 162–167
Cercis siliquastrum, 93 Cymbopogon martini, 168–170
Chamaemelum cotula, 43 Cynomorium coccineum, 171
Chamaemelum foetidum, 43 Cyperus olivaris, 172
Cicer arietinum, 94–96 Cyperus papyrus, 172–173
Cicer lens, 245 Cyperus tuberosus, 172
Cichorium divaricatum, 97
Cichorium endivia, 97–99
Cichorium intybus, 97, 100–103 D
Cichorium pumilum, 97
Diospyros assimilis, 174
Cicutaria vulgaris, 135
Diospyros dubia, 176
Cinnamomum aromaticum, 104–107
Diospyros ebenum, 174–176
Cinnamomum cassia, 104
Diospyros glaberrima, 174
Cinnamomum obtusifolium, 104
Diospyros hebecarpa, 174
Cinnamomum verum, 108–112
Diospyros melanoxylon, 176–177
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, 108
Diospyros sapota, 174
Cistus creticus, 113–114
Diospyros tupru, 176
Cistus incanus, 113
Diospyros wightiana, 176
Cistus ladinifera, 113
Donax arundinaceus, 52
Cistus villosus, 113
Citrullus caffer, 118
Citrullus colocynthis, 115–117
E
Citrullus edulis, 118
Citrullus lanatus, 118–120
Elaeagnus angustifolia, 178–180
Citrullus vulgaris, 118
Elaeagnus hortensis, 178
Citrus medica, 121–125
Elaeagnus moorcroftii, 178
Cnicus indicus fide, 80
Elaeagnus orientalis, 178
Cochlearia armoracia, 47
Eruca arvensis, 433
Cochlearia rusticana, 47
Eruca sativa, 181–184
Colocynthis citrullus, 118
Ervum lens, 245
Commiphora abyssinica, 130
Commiphora africana, 126–127
Commiphora gileadensis, 128–129
F
Commiphora habessinica, 130
Commiphora molmol, 131 Faba vulgaris, 491
Commiphora myrrha, 131–134 Fedia grandiflora, 285
Commiphora opobalsamum, 128 Ferula galbaniflua, 185
Conium maculatum, 135–137 Ferula gummosa, 185–186
Conium major, 135 Ficus carica, 187–190
Conium vulgaris major, 135 Ficus cocculifolia, 191
Coriandrum diversifolium, 138 Ficus gnaphalocarpa, 191
Coriandrum globosum, 138 Ficus sycomorus, 191–193
8202_C004.indd   524 11/7/07   4:22:39 PM
Scientific Name Index 525
Ficus trachyphylla, 191 Juniperus macrocarpa fide, 226
Fraxinus ornus, 194–196 Juniperus macropoda, 224
Juniperus olivieri, 224
Juniperus oophora, 228
G Juniperus oxycedrus, 226–227
Juniperus phoenicia, 228
Gossypium abyssinicum, 197
Juniperus polycarpos, 224
Gossypium africanum, 197
Juniperus recurva, 224
Gossypium arboreum, 197
Juniperus sabina, 224
Gossypium cambayense, 197
Juniperus seravschanica, 224
Gossypium eglandulosum, 197
Juniperus taurica, 224
Gossypium herbaceum, 197–200
Juniperus terminalis, 228
Gossypium obtusifolium, 197
Juniperus tetragona, 228
Gossypium punctatum, 197
Juniperus turbinata, 228
Gossypium wrightianum, 197
Juniperus turcomanica, 224
Granatum punicum, 362
Gundelia tournefortii, 201
L
H Lactuca sativa, 229–232
Lagenaria lagenaria, 233
Hedera helix, 202–204
Lagenaria leucantha, 233
Holcus saccharatus, 440
Lagenaria siceraria, 233–236
Holcus sorghum, 440
Lagenaria vulgaris, 233
Hordeum aegiceras, 205
Larix cedrus fide, 84
Hordeum coeleste, 205
Laurus cassia, 104
Hordeum deficiens, 205
Laurus cinnamomum, 104, 108
Hordeum distichon, 205
Laurus nobilis, 237–240
Hordeum hexastichon, 205
Lawsonia alba, 241
Hordeum intermedium, 205
Lawsonia inermis, 241–244
Hordeum sativum, 205
Lens culinaris, 245–246
Hordeum vulgare, 205–209
Lens esculenta, 245
Hyacinthus orientalis, 210–211
Lens lens, 245
Hyoscyamus aureus, 212
Lentilla lens, 245
Hyoscyamus insanus fide, 213
Leontodon dens-leonis, 453
Hyoscyamus muticus, 213
Leontodon glaucescens, 453
Leontodon officinalis, 453
Leontodon parvulum, 453
I
Leontodon taraxacum, 453
Leontodon vulgare, 453
Iris longifolia, 214
Leuconymphaea alba, 303
Iris lutea, 214
Ligusticum cuminum, 155
Iris palustris, 214
Lilium candidum, 247–249
Iris Pseudacorus, 214–215
Linum usitatissimum, 250–255
Liquidambar orientalis, 256–258
Lithocarpus benzoin, 444
J
Lolium arvense, 259
Lolium robustum, 259
Juglans duclouxiana, 216
Lolium temulentum, 259
Juglans fallax, 216
Lychnis githago, 8
Juglans kamaonica, 216
Lycium barbarum, 260
Juglans orientis, 216
Lycium europaeum, 260
Juglans regia, 216–220
Lycium mediterraneuum, 260
Juglans sinensis, 216
Lycium orientale, 260
Juncus bogotensis, 221
Juncus communis, 221
Juncus effusus, 221–223
M
Juncus laevis, 221
Juniperus bacciformis, 228 Malus communis, 261
Juniperus excelsa, 1, 224–225 Malus domestica, 261–265
Juniperus foetida, 224
Malus pumila, 261
Juniperus gossainthaneana, 224 Malus sylvestris, 261
Juniperus isophyllos, 224
Malva ambigua, 266
Juniperus lycia, 228 Malva elata, 266
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526 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Malva erecta, 266 Nymphaea melocarpa, 303
Malva glabra, 266 Nymphaea minoriflora, 303
Malva mauritiana, 266 Nymphaea occidentalis, 303
Malva obtusa, 266 Nymphaea officinalis, 303
Malva ruderalis, 266 Nymphaea parviflora, 303
Malva sylvestris, 266–268 Nymphaea polystigma, 303
Malva vulgaris, 266 Nymphaea splendens, 303
Mandragora acaulis, 269 Nymphaea suaveolens, 303
Mandragora mas, 269 Nymphaea urceolata, 303
Mandragora microcarpa, 269 Nymphaea venusta, 303
Mandragora officinalis, 269
Mandragora officinarum, 269–272
Mandragora praecox, 269 O
Mandragora vernalis, 269
Olea europea, 306–311
Marjorana crassa, 311
Origanum crassa, 311
Marjorana crassifolia, 311
Origanum maru, 311
Marjorana maru, 311
Origanum pseudoonites, 311
Marjorana nervosa, 311
Origanum syriacum, 311
Marjorana scutellifolia, 311
Ornithogallum umbellatum, 312–314
Marjorana syriacum, 311
Marula cotula, 43
Marula foetida, 43
P
Marula vulgaris, 43
Paliuris spina-christi, 315
Mentha asiatica, 273
Paliurus aculeatus, 315
Mentha calliantha, 273
Paliurus australis, 315
Mentha candicans, 273
Pancratium maritimum, 316
Mentha capensis, 273
Panicum asperimum, 317
Mentha concolor, 273
Panicum effusum, 317
Mentha hamadanensis, 273
Panicum miliaceum, 317–319
Mentha incana, 273
Panicum milium, 317
Mentha longifolia, 273–275
Panicum ruderale, 317
Mentha royleana, 273
Panicum spontaneum, 317
Mentha spicata, 273
Papaver somniferum, 320–324
Mentha sylvestris, 273
Passerina hirsuta, 462
Mentha viridis, 273
Patrinia jatamansi, 285
Mimosa arabica, 2
Peucedanum galbaniflua, 185
Mimosa nilotica, 2
Peucedanum graveolens, 39
Momordica lanata, 118
Peucedanum sowa, 39
Morus nigra, 276–278
Phoenix dactylifera, 325–328
Myrtus communis, 279–282
Phragmites australis, 329–331
Phragmites communis, 329
Phragmites longivalvis, 329
N
Phragmites vulgaris, 329
Phragmites vulgaris, 329
Napus agriasinapis, 433
Pimpinella spinosa, 418
Narcissus tazetta, 283–284
Pinus abasica, 334
Nardostachys gracilis, 285
Pinus alepensis, 334
Nardostachys grandiflora, 285–288
Pinus arabica, 334
Nardostachys jatamansi, 285
Pinus brutia Ten., 332–333
Nasturtium armoracia, 47
Pinus carica, 334
Nasturtium fontanum, 289
Pinus ceciliae, 334
Nasturtium nasturtium-aquaticum, 289
Pinus genuensis, 334
Nasturtium officinale, 289–293
Pinus halepensis, 332, 334
Nerium indicum, 294
Pinus hispanica, 334
Nerium latifolium, 294
Pinus loiseleuriana, 334
Nerium odorum, 294
Pinus maritima, 334
Nerium oleander, 294–297
Pinus parolinii, 334
Nigella indica, 298
Pinus penicillus, 334
Nigella sativa, 298–302
Pinus persica, 332
Nigella truncata, 298
Pinus pinea, 335–336
Nymphaea alba, 303–305
Pinus pityusa, 332
Nymphaea erythrocarpa, 303
Pinus pseudohalepensis, 334
Nymphaea exumbonata, 303
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Scientific Name Index 527
Pinus sylvestris, 334 Rubus sanctus, 386–387
Pinus x saportae, 334 Rubus sanguineus, 386
Pistacia atlantica, 337–338 Rumex acetosella, 388–390
Pistacia lentiscus, 339–340 Ruscus aculeatus, 391–393
Pistacia mutica, 337 Ruta angustifolia, 394
Pistacia narbonensis, 343 Ruta bracteosa, 394
Pistacia nigricans, 343 Ruta chalepensis, 394–396
Pistacia officinarum, 343 Ruta graveolens, 394
Pistacia reticulata, 343
Pistacia terebinthis, 343
Pistacia terebinthus, 341–342 S
Pistacia trifolia, 343
Sabina bacciformis, 228
Pistacia variifolia, 343
Sabina excelsa, 224
Pistacia vera, 343–344
Sabina isophyllos, 224
Platanus orientalis, 345–347
Sabina lycia, 228
Platanus vulgaris, 345
Sabina olivieri, 224
Populus alba, 348–349
Sabina phoenicia, 228
Populus euphratica, 350–351
Sabina polycarpos, 224
Porrum comune, 21
Sabina religiosa, 224
Porrum sativum, 21
Sabina seravschanica, 224
Porrum sativum Mill., 23
Sabina turbinata, 228
Poterium spinosum, 418
Sabinella phoenicia, 228
Prunus amygdalus, 355
Saccharum officinarum, 397–401
Prunus armeniaca, 352–354
Salicornia europaea, 402
Prunus dulcis, 355–359
Salicornia europea, 402–403
Pterocarpus santalinus, 360–361
Salicornia herbacea, 402
Punica florida, 362
Salicornia virginica, 402
Punica granatum, 362–366
Salix acmophylla, 404–408
Punica multiflora, 362
Salix babylonica, 409–410
Punica nana, 362
Salix fragilior, 411
Punica spinosa, 362
Salix fragilis, 411–412
Pycreus rotundus, 172
Salix glauca, 404
Pyrus malus, 261
Salix japonica, 409
Pyrus pumila, 261
Salix octandra, 404
Salix persicofolia, 411
Salsola kali, 413–414
Q
Salvadora persica, 415–417
Quercus aegilops, 367
Sanguisorba spinosa, 418
Quercus ithaburensis, 367–368
Sarcopoterium spinosum, 418
Saussurea costus, 419–421
Saussurea lappa, 419
R
Schoenoplectus lacustris, 422
Radicula armoracia, 47 Scirpus acutus., 422
Scirpus lacustris, 422
Radicula nasturtium, 289
Ranunculus asiaticus Auth., 369–370 Scolymus hispanicus, 423–424
Scopolia datora, 213
Raphanus arvensis, 433
Retama raetam Forssk., 372–372 Scopolia mutica, 213
Rhamnus palaestinas Boiss., 373 Senna acutifolia, 424
Senna alexandrina, 425–427
Rhamnus paliurus, 315
Rhamnus spina-christi, 506 Senna angustifolia, 424
Seriphidium herba-album, 50
Ricinus communis, 374–379
Rorippa armoracia, 47 Silybum marianum, 428–432
Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum, 289 Sinapis arvensis, 433–435
Sinapis kaber, 433
Rorippa rusticana, 47
Rosa armata, 380 Sinapis orientalis, 433
Sinapis polymorhpa, 433
Rosa canina, 380–383
Rosa caucasica, 380 Sinapis schkuhriana, 433
Rosa frondosa, 380 Sisymbrium nasturtium, 289
Sisymbrium nasturtium-aquaticum, 289
Rosa glauca, 380
Rosa lutetiana, 380 Solanum anguivi Lam., 436–437
Solanum hermannii, 436
Rosa taurica, 380
Rubia tinctorium, 384–385 Solanum incanum, 438–439
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528 Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible
Solanum indicum, 436
V
Solanum sanctum, 438
Valeriana jatamansi, 285
Solanum scalare, 436
Vetiveria odorata, 485
Solanum sodomeum, 436
Vetiveria zizanioides, 485–489
Sorghum bicolor, 440–443
Viburnum tinus, 490
Sorghum saccharatum, 440
Vicia faba, 491–495
Sorghum vulgare, 440
Vicia lens, 245
Styrax benzoin, 444–446
Vitis vinifera, 496–501
Styrax officinalis, 447–448
Suaeda, 449–450
Sycomorus gnaphalocarpa, 191
X
Sycomorus trachyphylla, 191
Xanthium americanum, 502
Xanthium canadese, 502
Xanthium catharticum, 502
T
Xanthium cavanillesii, 502
Xanthium chinese, 502
Tamarix aphylla, 451–452
Xanthium commune, 502
Tamarix articulata, 451
Xanthium cylindraceum, 502
Taraxacum dens-leonis, 453
Xanthium echinatum, 502
Taraxacum eriopodum, 453
Xanthium echinellum, 502
Taraxacum officinale, 453–458
Xanthium indicum, 502
Taraxacum vulgare, 453
Xanthium inflexum, 502
Taraxacum wallichii, 453
Xanthium italicum, 502
Tetraclinis articulata, 459–460
Xanthium macrocarpum, 502
Tetraena dumosa, 461
Xanthium occidentale, 502
Theodorea costus, 419
Xanthium orientale, 502
Thuja articulata, 459
Xanthium pensylvanicum, 502
Thymelaea hirsuta, 462
Xanthium pungens, 502
Trigonella foenum-graecum, 463–467
Xanthium saccharatum, 502
Triticum aestivum, 468–471
Xanthium speciosum, 502
Triticum dicoccum, 468
Xanthium spinosum, 502–504
Triticum durum, 468
Xanthium strumarium, 502
Triticum sativum, 468
Xanthium vulgare, 502
Triticum spelta, 468
Xiphium pseudoacorus, 214
Triticum vulgare, 468
Tulipa, 472–473
Typha, 474–477
Z
Zilla myagriodes, 505
Zilla spinosa, 505
U
Ziziphus spina-christi, 506–507
Zostera marina, 508–510
Ulmus canescens, 478–479
Zygophyllum dumosum, 461
Urtica dioica, 480–484
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