%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%9D%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E1%BA%8E%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E1%BA%8E%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%9D%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA/%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%E1%B4%A5%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%E1%B4%A5%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA/%E2%9A%AA%D0%AD%D0%84%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%E1%BA%8E%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%DF%A6%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%DF%A6%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E1%91%90%E1%91%95%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%E1%BA%8E%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%A9%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%D0%AD%D0%84%E2%9A%AA/%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A2%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%BB%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%BB%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A2%E2%9A%AAI%E2%9A%AA/%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A2%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA%DF%A6%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA%E2%A7%B2%E2%9A%AA%D0%97%D4%90%E2%9A%AA%E2%8A%99%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%E1%91%8F%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E4%BA%BA%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%AF%E2%9A%AA%C8%8A%CC%AE%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA8%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%E2%A7%BB%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%A7%BB%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA8%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%C8%8A%CC%AE%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%AF%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%D0%9D%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%E4%BA%BA%E2%9A%AA%D0%86%E2%9A%AA%E1%91%8F%E2%9A%AA%E2%88%A3%E2%9D%81%E2%88%A3%E2%9A%AA%E2%8A%99%E2%9A%AA%D0%97%D4%90%E2%9A%AA%E2%A7%B2%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA%DF%A6%E2%9A%AA%E1%97%B1%E1%97%B4%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A2%E2%9A%AA/%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A4%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%97%8C%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA%EA%95%A4%E2%9A%AA%E2%9C%A4%E2%9A%AA/TXT.%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E1%94%93%E1%94%95%E2%9C%A4%E1%91%8E%D0%98N%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%EA%97%B3%E2%93%84%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%9C%BB%E2%93%848%E1%97%9D%D0%98N%E1%97%A9%EC%98%B7%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%97%AF%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%97%AF%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%97%8C%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%8A%9A%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%EC%98%B7%E1%97%A9%D0%98N%E1%97%9D8%E2%93%84%E2%9C%BB%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%93%84%EA%97%B3%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%D0%98N%E1%91%8E%E2%9C%A4%E1%94%93%E1%94%95%E2%A0%80%E2%B5%99%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80%E2%A0%80.TXT


Handbook of
Nuts
James A. Duke, Ph.D .
0
CRC Press
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
Cover image courtesy of
T. Michael Kengla 
GrassRoots Productions
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Duke, James A., 1929-
Handbook of nuts / author, James A. Duke.
p. cm .- (Herbal reference library series)
Rev. ed. of: CRC handbook of nuts, c l 989.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0-8493-3637-6 (alk. paper)
1. Nuts-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Duke, James A., 1929- CRC handbook of nuts.
II. Title. III. Series.
SB401.A4 D84 2000 
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1989
First published by CRC Press LLC <1 
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INTRODUCTION*
Appropriately, one might commence a Handbook of Nuts with a definition of nut. But, 
if you’ll pardon the jargon, that’s a “ tough nut to crack.’’ To drive home my definition. 
I’ll here recount an anecdote. For several years I was peripherally embroiled in a controversy 
over that definition. Various people interested in the jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) would 
call or write, hoping my definition would support their contention that the jojoba was or 
was not a nut.
Finally, lawyers from the Internal Revenue Service (1RS) called and asked me to send 
my definition, in writing! I quote my cautious letter to the 1RS:
I understand that the 1RS has special treatment for certain farmers raising fruits and nuts.
I quote definitions from my favorite glossary, B. D. Jackson’s A Glossary of Botanic 
Terms, 4th ed., Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1928, reprinted 1953:
Nut: a hard indéhiscent one-seeded fruit.
Fruit: (1) Strictly, the pericarp and its seeds, the fertilized and developed ovary.
1 think the jojoba “ beans” would qualify just as well as the pecan as both a nut and a 
fruit, botanically speaking. There are popular concepts of the fruit as fleshy and/or wet, the 
nut as nonfleshy and/or dry. Relatively speaking, the jojoba is as dry as a pecan and popularly 
considered a nut. But botanically, a nut is just one kind of fruit. Hence, I conclude the jojoba 
bean is both a nut and a fruit from a botanical point of view.
Ironically, 1RS definitions may make or break a nut species. Vietmeyer^^^ shows how an 
1RS ruling in 1969 withdrew a number of nut species, especially almond, from its list of 
speculative agricultural investments. “ Pistachios, however, remained an allowable tax write
off. Suddenly alone it became a hot investment.’’ Vietmeyer calls this the unexpected source 
for the real advance into commercialization; e.g., Getty Oil, Superior Oil, and Tenneco 
West then invested in pistachios. By 1984 we had some 20,000 hectares pistachios and 
pushed Turkey out of the number 2 production spot. In 1985, Vietmeyer went even farther 
with his NRC report on jojoba,perhaps giving the jojoba more momentum. Tax advantages 
to the jojoba may hinge on whether or not it is defined as a nut. Who knows? Perhaps the 
future of the jojoba as a new crop may hinge on its definition.
In 1985, I received a hasty call from an official of the Jojoba Grower’s Association, 
distressed by the 1RS interpretation of my letter quoted previously. The official enticed me 
to agree that, in common, if not botanical parlance, the words fruit and nut implied edibility.
Here I quote the letter drafted (but never typed) to that official. Following conversations 
with other jojoba fans in the government, I feared the last half of the letter might jeopardize 
the future of the jojoba as a “ new crop’’. So few “ new crops’’ break through the economic 
catch 22 here in the U.S.! The farmer won’t grow it until industry provides a guaranteed 
market, and industry won’t generate a market until there’s a guaranteed source (the farmer).
Enclosed is a copy of my letter of July 5, 1983 to the 1RS re jojoba. When asked by legal 
types how to define something, I like to quote published definitions, rather than inventing 
my own. Trained as a taxonomist, I resorted to Jackson’s glossary.H orticulturists might 
resort to other sources.
It is true that the popular concepts of fruits and nuts with most people may imply edibility.
Few, if any, modem Americans eat jojoba “ nuts.” I would have to agree with you. Dr. M.
Faust, of USDA, and J. Janick, of Purdue University, that, if edibility is a prerequisite part 
of the definition of fruit or nut, jojoba is best not considered a nut.
Expanded from talks presented at the Agricultural Marketing Workshop for the Caribbean Basin, Miami, 
Florida, September 24-27, 1984; and New Orleans, Louisiana, September 16-20, 1985.
I realize that paragraph two is what you wanted to hear. Hence, I separate it from the 
following paragraph which, being something you may not wish to hear, can be extricated 
from the rest of my letter.
Two books which I procured in preparing a draft Handbook of Nuts are Rosengarten’s The 
Book of Edible Nuts (Walker and Company, New York, 1984),^*^ and Menninger’s Edible 
Nuts of the World (Horticultural Books, Inc., Stuart, Florida, Menninger, who
defines nut as “ any hardshelled fruit or seed of which the kernel is eaten by mankind” , 
treats the jojoba as an edible nut, noting the Indian consumption and the vulgar names “ goat 
nut” and “ deer nut.” Rosengarten employs the word “ nut” “ in the broad and popular 
sense, covering a wide variety of fruits or seeds, some of which would not be classified as 
nuts according to strict botanical definition.” He groups jojoba among “ Thirty Other Edible 
Nuts” , adding as common names “ sheep nut” and “ pignut” . He says “ Its fruits and leaves 
are devoured with avidity by goats, sheep, and deer. Indians of the desert Southwest gathered 
jojoba nuts and ate them, raw or roasted; their flavor is reminisent of the hazelnut, but more 
bitter . . . Today the use ofjojoba nuts for human consumption is mainly of historic interest.” 
This paragraph of my letter reinforces my reluctance to disqualify jojoba, even in the popular 
concept “ nut.” I have tasted them raw, and find them about as unappealing as most acorns 
I have tried.
Those seeking to exclude jojoba from the staid society of nuts might say that jojoba, an 
American species, is, with good reason, excluded from Woodruff’s Tree Nuts (2 vols., AVI 
Publishing Company, Westport, Connecticut, 1967^'^' and Jaynes Handbook of North Amer
ican Nut Trees (NNGA, Knoxville, Tennessee, 1969).*'** My superficial examination of these 
revealed no definition of nut.
For the record, I did send the following letter and poem that encapsulated my seedy
feelings.
Thanks for your letter of April 25, re the jojoba.
While not fully understanding the tax implication of the Jackson (botanical) interpretation 
of the word “ nut” and “ fruit” , I surely agree with you that in common, rather than botanical 
parlance, the words fruit and nut imply edibility. Hence, the common parlance for an orchard 
of nuts would be a cultivated grove of trees or shrubs for their edible nuts. I don’t frankly 
believe that jojoba falls into that common concept.
Hence, the botanical definition of nut is at variance with the popular definition of nut. I 
think jojoba is a fruit and/or nut according to Jackson’s technical definition, but not according 
to common parlance.
Not a Nut?
(The incredible inedible nut!!!)
The Jojoba Growers’ Association 
Wishes, to my consternation.
That I’d retract a note.
That long ago I wrote 
For 1RS edification.
I sent Jackson’s definition 
To the 1RS Commission 
I resorted to quote, but.
Jojoba’s both fruit and nut.
Which promotes the Growers’ dissension.
I find it perfectly credible 
To define a “ nut” as an edible. 
But even that caveat 
Won’t change the fact that 
Its edible uses are negligible.
Poets sometimes get in a rut,
Nonpoetic lines, dry and cut.
No amount of stink 
Will lead me to think 
The jojoba nut’s not a nut.
My interpretation of the facts is 
Jojoba’s not good for the gut.
And when you tally your taxes.
The jojoba nut’s not a nut.
Anonpoet 
April 29, 1985
I have included in this book many species which are not true nuts. Unlike a one-seeded 
peanut, a peanut with two or three seeds in the indéhiscent pod is disqualified because it 
has more than one seed. But I excluded many nuts treated in my Handbook of Legumes of 
World Economic Im p o rta n c e There are many seeds in the Brazil nut pod, which rules 
them out (as one-seeded fruits). Similarly, there are many “ nuts” in the colas, included in 
this book, and many “ beans” in the cacao pod of the same family. Cacao is no further 
from the definition of nut than is cola. Cacao will be considered in the volume on Money 
Crops. As a matter of fact, nearly half the species in this book are not nuts in the narrowest 
sense: “ one-seeded indéhiscent fruits, the kernels of which are edible.”
In 1984, I addressed the Agricultural Marketing Workshop (Miami) on subtropical and 
tropical nuts. The feedback I got from that first meeting suggested that I may have overdosed 
the audience with suggestions of nuts that might be grown in the tropics. There are hundreds 
of species that can be called nuts, by any of several possible definitions. And due to the 
overall higher species diversity in the tropics, there is a concomitant higher number of nut 
species available for consideration in the tropical environments with which we were con
cerned.
During that same year, CRC Press published Martin’s Handbook of Tropical Food Crops^^^ 
just before I attended the Miami conference that presaged the New Orleans conference of 
the Agricultural Marketing Workshop. Carl Campbell’s^ excellent chapter on Fruits and 
Nuts gave a good overview of the cultivation of fruits and nuts, and included short treatises 
on the cashew, pili nut, brazil nut, breadfruit, coconut, oil palm, and lychee (really a fruit). 
In a summary table, he listed a few others, the monkey pot {Lecythis elliptica), the paradise 
nut {Lecythis zabucajo), the jackfruit {Artocarpus heterophylla), the salak {Salacca edulis), 
the peach palm {Bactris gasipaes), the macadamia {Macadamia integrifolia), and the jujube 
(Ziziphus mauritiana). Certain virtues were suggested for nut trees:
Dietary diversity 
High oil content
Luxury long-distance commercial markets
Important to subsistence farmers
Everbearing
Low maintenance
Intercropping potential
Wood as byproduct
Land stabilization
Following my presentations, CRC advised me that they would publish this Handbook of 
Nuts. It was designed to contain information summaries on about 100 nut species, in the
same format as my Plenum Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance (Plenum 
Press^^) with succinct paragraphs on Uses, Folk Medicine, Chemistry, Description, Germ- 
plasm, Distribution, Ecology, Cultivation, Harvesting, Yields and Economics, Energy, Biotic 
Factors.
The following recommendations seem germaine to potential nut producers.
1. Understand the crop and its requirements — take the principles of production and do 
good, replicated, semi-commercial research to adapt the crop to your own situations.
2. Select growing areas where good production of a crop can be concentrated — secure 
large quantities of nuts to make an impact on the export market.
3. Develop or choose the best varieties and disease-free planting stocks.
4. Concentrate on producing high quality produce to ensure repeat sales.
5. Time production so that it will not overlap competitor production, if any.
6. Practice insect, disease, and pest control — consider quarantine and import regulations 
for the crop.
7. Develop attractive and protective packaging that is distinctive and makes your product 
recognizable.
8. Do not plant a tree until you’ve tentatively contracted a market. Many advanced 
technological studies concern temperate nuts and oil seeds.
Chemical Business (CB) ran an article on Oleochemicals (Research Sparks Oleochemical 
Hopes).Oleochemicals are defined as the industrial products based on animal fats and 
vegetable oils, a $1.2 billion segment of the U.S. chemical industry (cf. nut imports worth 
ca. $300 million, 200 in brazil nuts, 50 in cashews).
Unlike nuts, oleochemicals find their way into:
1. The personal care product market (20%)
2. Industrial lubricants and related products (14%)
3. Coatings (10%)
4. Detergent intermediates (10%)
5. Plastics, alkyds, urethanes, cellophane, cleaners, detergents (18%)
6. Textiles, emulsion, polymerization, rubber, asphalt, mining, miscellaneous
In this handbook I treat both kinds of nuts, (1) the familiar nuts that we eat and (2) a few 
oleochemical or chemurgic nuts. Some of the chemurgic nuts of the tropics are tung and its 
relatives, purging nut, marking nut, jojoba, and some even more obscure species. I suspect 
more technological advances are emerging with oil palms than with edible nuts.
Laurie acid is now obtained mainly from coconut oil and secondarily from palm kernel 
oil. Finding an alternative source of lauric acid has sparked much industry interest. Henkel 
Corporation is betting on palm kernel oil in the short run, “ in about 5 years, lauric acid 
from palm kernel oil will add about 75% to current s u p p lie s .W e use about 2 billion 
pounds of oleochemicals, which include fatty acids, surfactants, and other esters, amines, 
natural glycerins, natural alkanoamides, and primary amides and bisamides, at only $0.60 
per pound = 1% of U.S. Chemical Revenues.
Exciting new technologies are being explored in the search for alternative sources of lauric 
acid. In the continental U.S., the technologies are directed more to temperate annuals than 
to tropical perennials, but potential is probably greater among tropical perennials which need 
not contend with winter. Some of the technologies do relate to tropical nuts. The kernel of 
the oil palm is a nut. Britain’s Unilever, and others, are propagating high-yielding oil palms 
and these are showing up in palm plantations. Such palms can produce more than ten times 
as much oil as the temperate soybean. Elsewhere I have speculated that 2 billion ha oilpalm
yielding 25 barrels oil/ha could, with transesterification, support the world’s requirements 
for 50 billion barrels oil.^^®
Meanwhile, back in the temperate zone, Calgene^^® is looking at Cuphea, an oilseed with 
low yields and other agronomic problems, but a crop which produces lauric acid, a short- 
chain fatty acid. “ Most oilseeds, including rapeseed, make long chain fatty acids (C-18 and 
up) . . . but . . . because the plants do not ‘know how’ to stop molecule chain growth, 
no midchain fatty acids, such as lauric acid, are produced by the plants . . . Some oilseed 
species such as cuphea do know how . . . Calgene scientists plan to isolate the gene or 
genes responsible and transfer them to rapeseed. Calgene has already overcome difficulties 
in introducing foreign genes into rapeseed and making the transformed rapeseed plants 
grow . . . Calgene researchers may be able to modify plants to produce whatever fatty acid 
is d esired.T hey “ expect to have a series of genes cloned and to be able to ‘mix-and- 
match’ genes in a low-cost production plant to produce custom-designed plants that produce 
specialty oils.’’ One potential of this research is the possibility of finding plant sources that 
can compete with petroleum feedstocks. Some Cuphea species synthesize the C-8 and C- 
10 fatty acids that could potentially replace petroleum based C-7 and C-9 fatty acids.
An Ohio subsidiary of Lubrizol has developed a high-oleic acid sunflower with 80% oleic 
acid, up from the traditional 40%. They put in a 20,000 hectare crop of high-oleic acid 
sunflowers. Perhaps those interested in tropical nuts should look more to the pataua, Jessenia 
bataua, a tropical perennial producing perhaps 3 to 6 MT of oil with 80% oleic acid according 
to some authors. This oil has been favorably compared with olive oil, at a much lower 
price.
So much for the annual cupheas, brassicas, and sunflower, the latter treated as a nut by 
both Menninger^^ and Rosengarten.^®^ None of the biotechnologies mentioned are unique 
to annuals; they can apply just as well to perennials. But it is easier to keep an annual 
proprietary. Perennials, once given to the world, can usually be clonally reproduced ad 
infinitum. Hence, I speculate that the world at large, especially the tropical world, would 
fare better if the new technologies were developed for perennial species, while the seed 
salesmen and gene-grabbers might fare better with annuals.
Whether annual or perennial, plant sources of oleochemicals, or proteins, or pesticides, 
or drugs, always seem to suffer from one valid criticism. As Tokay (1985) notes, “ . . . the 
use of natural raw materials that are often inconsistent in composition from batch to batch 
causes processing headaches. In addition, most fractionation processes produce many by
products and co-products, which are often difficult to sell.’’^^® Contrastingly, we read in 
Science, September 13, 1985, “ Whole plant utilization—extracting medicines, leaf proteins, 
vitamins, polyphenols, essential oils, and chemurgics, and using the residues for alcohol 
production for energy—could move us from the petrochemical to the phytochemical era, 
with the possible fringe benefits of slowing the ‘greenhouse effect’ and making us more 
self-sufficient.
Balandrin and Klocke^^ indicate that much evidence shows that natural product research 
is still potentially less expensive and more fruitful (in terms of new prototype compounds 
discovered) than are large chemical synthesis programs.
New technologies for better extraction of main products and co-products and by-products 
are rapidly coming on line. Work goes on with the transesterification of palm oil, which 
could effectively fuel the diesel needs of the world. In “ A Green World Instead of the 
Greenhouse’’,®^ one finds scores (yields in barrels oil equivalent per hectare) for several 
energy plants.
Peachpalm 3 5 - 105
Babassu 5-60 
Peanut 4,5,13 
Cassava 6,11,15— 45 
Castor 13 Purging nut 18 
Coconut 11,25 Rape 4,5 
Cottonseed 1 Sesame 8
Date palm 10— 20 Soybean 2,2,6 
Eucalypt 76 
Sugarcane 13,15 
Melaleuca 76 Sunflower 4,6 
Nypa 30— 90 
Sweet potato 30— 90 
Oilpalm 24— 58 Tung 17
Coconut is just one of the hundreds of palms which can be termed a nut. Oil-palms are 
also considered nuts, even by Menninger,^®^ if their seeds are edible. Botanically, many 
familiar palms might better be classified as drupes, but their energetic potential is noteworthy. 
In his survey of “ Amazonian Oil Palms of Promise” , Balick^^ notes that most oil palms 
have a high yield and produce one or both of the basic types of oil (kernel and pulp). These 
two types usually differ chemically. More importantly, “ Most of the palms would seem to 
be well adapted to underused agricultural lands in tropical areas, where climate or other 
factors preclude the cultivation of the more common oleaginous plants.
The palms on people’s minds today include, besides the conventional coconut and oil 
palm, both sources of lauric acid, the babassu and the pataua. And then there’s another tree, 
the inche, not even a palm, attracting the attention of the oil-palm people.
The jojoba, with which I opened my talk in 1984, is not even an oilseed, but a “ waxseed” . 
Since it is so important to my introduction, I have left it in this CRC Handbook of Nuts.
Menninger, in his Edible Nuts of the WorlcP^ after noting that “ A thousand kinds of nuts 
in this world are hunted and eaten by hungry people” defines nut as “ any hard shelled fruit 
or seed of which the kernel is eaten by man-kind.” He purports to exclude those nuts that 
never see the interior of the human stomach in his chapter, “ Not Nuts.”
Rosengarten, in The Book of Edible Nutsf^^ is more cautious, like me, mostly quoting 
other definitions. Then he selects twelve important edible nuts and discusses their relation 
to the various definitions. That discussion bears repeating:
Few botanical terms are used more loosely than the word ‘nut’. Technically, according to 
Funk & Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedic College Dictionary (1968), a nut is ‘1. A dry fruit 
consisting of a kernel or seed enclosed in a woody shell; the kernel of such fruit, especially 
when edible, as of the peanut, walnut, or chestnut; Bot. A hard, indéhiscent, one-seeded 
pericarp generally resulting from a compound ovary, as the chestnut or acorn.’ (Indéhiscent 
means that the seedcase does not split open spontaneously when ripe.) The nut has also been 
described as a one-celled, one-seeded, dry fruit with a hard pericarp (shell); and, more 
simply, as the type of fruit that consists of one edible, hard seed covered with a dry, woody 
shell that does not split open at maturity. Only a fraction of so-called nuts— for example, 
chestnuts, filberts, and acorns— answer this description. The peanut is not really a nut; it is 
a legume or pod, like the split pea, lentil, or bean— ^but an indéhiscent one because the pod 
does not split open upon maturing. The shelled peanut is a seed or bean. The edible seeds 
of almonds, walnuts, pecans, pistachios, hickory nuts, and macadamia nuts are enclosed in 
the hard stones of a drupe— like the stones of peaches, cherries, or plums. A drupe is a soft, 
fleshy fruit with a spongy or fibrous husk, which may or may not split free from the inner 
hard-shelled stone containing the seed. In plums and peaches, we eat the fleshy parts and 
throw away the stones; but the fleshy part of the walnut, for example, is removed and 
discarded, while the kernel of the stone— the nut — is eaten. The shell of a drupe nut, like 
the walnut, corresponds to the hard, outer layer of the peach stone. The coconut is the seed 
of a fibrous drupe. The Brazil nut is a seed with a hard seed coat, as is the pinon nut. Another 
dry, indéhiscent fruit type is the achene— a small, thin shell containing one seed, attached 
to the outer layer at one point only— as in the dandelion and buttercup. The sunflower seed 
is an achene. A true nut resembles an achene, but it develops from more than one carpel 
(female reproductive structure), is usually larger and has a harder, woody wall; e.g ., the 
difference between the filbert nut and the sunflower achene.
In 1983/84, the U.S. imported nuts worth $305 million per year, with $216 million in 
brazil nuts, and $55 million in cashews, cf. $233 with $159 and $46, respectively, in 
1982/83"» (Table 1).
Table 1
DATA ON AN IMPORTANT DOZEN NUTS
Import Per cap. 
u.s. costs 
consumption Price Oil
production annual 
(shelled) per percentage
1980 1983—84 
I960—J 079 pound (APB)
(1,000 tons)- (million $)^ ($)-
(lbs)-
Almonds 260
0.45 1.75 54.2 
Brazil nuts 216
1.65 66.9 
Cashew
55 2.15 45.7
Chestnut
1.65 1.5
Coconut
0.50 .65 35.3
Filbert 15
0.08 1.40 62.4
Macadamia 15
0.033 5.50 71.6
Peanut
7.1 .65 47.5
Pecan
92 0.30 2.75 71.2
Pistachio
14 3.30 53.7
Sunflower
.55 47.3 
Walnut (Persian)
197 0.50 2.00 64.0
“ Rosengarten.^*^ 
Gyawa.**^
In 1980, the U.S. produced on an in-shell basis, ca.260,(XX) tons almonds, 197,(X)0 tons 
walnuts, 92,(XX) tons pecans, 15,(X)0 tons filberts, 15,(X)0 tons macadamia, and 14 tons 
pistachios, for a total approximating 600,000 MT nuts production. Of these, it might be 
noted that only 92,OCX) (the pecans) were from a native American species.
Here we see a parallel with the other major groups of crops; North America has not 
contributed much to America’s foodbasket. “ Of all the horticultural products given by our 
continent to civilization, none are of more importance than the pecan, nor destined to play 
a more vital role in our pomological future.’’ Moreover, a great slave, Antoine, of the Oak 
Valley Plantation, in Louisiana, is accredited with our most important contribution to the 
nut basket. “ The slave Antoine had thus laid the foundation upon which was to be erected 
a great industry . . .
Mostly maturing in fall, the temperate zone nuts are extremely rich in calories. Rosengarten 
notes that one pound of nut kernels (assuming 3,000 calories of fuel value per pound) is 
equivalent in energy value to about 2.4 lbs breads, 3.2 lbs steak, 8 lbs potato, or 10.4 lbs 
apple.Oils of the temperate zone are higher in unsaturated fatty acids in general, than 
oils from the tropics like the palm oils, brazil nut, cashew, etc. It is rather well known that 
the unsaturated fats are more healthy than the saturated. It is not so well known that you 
could clone a pecan, grow it in a cold and a hot locale, and have a higher unsaturated profile 
at the colder locale. In other words, the oils from the tropics will, in general, be less healthy 
than those from the temperate zone. Perhaps we should raise our edible oils in the temperate 
zone and our fuel oils in the tropics. But save the pilis, cashews, and brazil nuts for the 
palates they please so well.
Rosengarten adds that “ Most nuts are an excellent source of calcium, phosphorus, iron, 
potassium, and the B vitam ins.T his is true on an as-purchased basis, because nuts 
contain so little water. On a zero-moisture basis (Table 2), the nuts do not seem particularly 
outstanding with these nutrients. Some of the more familiar nuts are compared in Table 3.

THE AUTHOR
James A. “Jim” Duke, Ph.D. is a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the University of North 
Carolina, where he received his Ph.D. in Botany. He then moved on to postdoctoral 
activities at Washington University and the Missouri Botanical Gardens in St. Louis, 
Missouri, where he assumed professor and curator duties, respectively. He retired from the 
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 1995 after a 35-year career there and 
elsewhere as an economic botanist. Currently he is Senior Scientific Consultant to Nature’s 
Herbs (A Twin Labs subsidiary), and to an on-line company, ALLHERB.COM.
Dr. Duke spends time exploring the ecology and culture of the Amazonian Rain Forest and 
sits on the board of directors and advisory councils of numerous organizations involved in 
plant medicine and the rainforest. He is updating several of his published books and refining 
his on-line database, http://www.ars-grin.gov/dukeA still maintained at the USDA. He is also 
expanding his private educational Green Farmacy Garden at his residence in Fulton, 
Maryland.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Conceptualization)
Herb Strum, Agricultural Marketing Specialist, USDA, triggered all this when he called 
and asked if I knew anyone who could address his Agricultural Marketing Workshops on 
tropical nuts. The next thing you know, I became the speaker without portfolio. Since these 
nuts are high-priced, light-weight, often labor-intensive crops, it was only natural that I 
should view the nuts as possible alternative crops for narcotics. For their support in my 
alternative crops program, I am indebted to the USDA’s Dr. T. J. Army, Deputy Admin
istrator, National Program Staff, Beltsville, Maryland; Dr. W. A. Centner, Research Leader, 
Weed Science Laboratory, ARS, BARC, Beltsville, Maryland, and Quentin Jones, Assistant 
to Deputy Administrator for Germplasm (now retired). National Program Staff, Beltsville, 
Maryland.
In the preparation for these talks, I called on those more knowledgeable to help me decide 
what should be discussed in papers on Tropical Nuts. I sent these fine correspondents the 
crude check list, as follows:
TROPICAL NUTS
Anacardium occidentale 
Cashew
Artocarpus altilis (A. communis)
Breadfruit
Bauhinia esculenta (Tylosema esculentum) 
Marama nut or bean 
Bertholettia excelsa 
Brazil nut
Buchanania latifolia (lanza)
Cudapah almond or cuddapaha almond or Chironji nut 
Canarium indicum 
Java almond 
Caryocar nuciferum 
Suari nut 
Caryodendron 
Inchi nut
Cordeauxia edulis 
Jeheb nut, ye-eb nut 
Irvingia gabonensis 
Dika nut 
Lecythis ollaria 
Sapucaja nut
Lecythis minor 
Lecythis zabucajo 
Paradise nut 
Licania rigida 
Oiticica 
Macadamia spp.
Macadamia nut 
Omphalea megacarpa 
Hunter’s nut 
Ongokea klaineana 
Isano nut 
Palaquium burukii 
Siak illipe nut 
Pangium edule 
Pangi nut 
Poga oleosa
Oboga nut 
Ricinodendron heudelotii 
Essang nut 
Sclerocarya cajfra 
Manila nut 
Sterculia chicha 
Maranhao nut 
Terminaba catappa 
Indian almond 
Terminaba okara 
Okari nut 
Telfairia pedata
Oyster nut
Omit:
Jojoba 
Coconut 
Chestnut, water 
Cola nut
Chufa or Tiger nut 
Peanut 
Groundnut 
Litchi nut
Frank Martin added the jackfruit {Artocarpus integer) and the champedak (Artocarpus 
heterophylla), emphasizing that they were distinct species. He also added Aleurites triloba 
Forst, one of the many candle nuts, stating that it is edible when roasted. Further, he added
the palmyra palm {Borassus flabellifer L.), Gnetum gnemon (adding that it is excellent), 
and Telfairia occidentalism another oystemut. He challenged my exclusion of the coconut, 
and cautioned that Sterculia chicha contains a poisonous cyclopropenoid fatty acid.
Gerardo Budowski, of CATIE, added Salacca edulis, which is very important in Indonesia, 
often served at receptions. After he consulted Menninger, he queried how worthwhile are 
some of the nuts. If you listen to Menninger, all kinds of things are nuts, and may be 
delicious — to some, such as a large group of palms.
So I wrote to palm specialist Dennis Johnson, and sent him the list of the more than 50 
genera of palms that Menninger had included in this books. Dennis seemed comfortable 
with leaving these in a talk on nuts and added Areca, which Menninger excluded because 
it was not ingested, and the Pacific ivory nut, Coelococcus.
Harold Winters, retired USDA author of Kennard and Winters, Some Fruits and Nuts for 
the T r o p ic s ,also added several species to my list.
Bob Knight, of the USDA Station at Miami, reminded me of the double meaning of 
breadnut (1) as the nut of Brosimum alicastrum, also known as Maya Breadnut, and (2) as 
a seeded breadfruit. Bob also Aleurites moluccana as a chemurgic nut, and Castanopsis 
as an edible. He reminded me of the unfortunate consequences of overeating seleniferous 
species of the Lecithidaceae.
Carl Campbell, also of Florida, added Brosimum too, with the Pili Nut (Canarium ovatum) 
and the Malabar chestnut (Pachira macrocarpa). He reminded me, as did Julia Morton and 
Bob Knight, that the pangi nut and the oiticica were “ toxic(?)” and “ hardly edible” , 
respectively. They are right.
Ernie Imle, retired USDA cacao specialist, sent literature ranking the pili nut, Canarium 
ovatum, up with the macadam and cashew. He mentioned that several lines of pili were 
established at La Zamorana, Honduras.
Julia Morton added the jackfruit Artocarpus heterophylla, the breadnut, Brosimum ali
castrum, the quandong, Fusanus acuminatus, the Tahiti chestnut, I nocarpus edulis, and the 
Saba nut, or Pachira aquatica, and included data on these and other nut species which I 
have incorporated in my write-ups on these species. She also added her acuminate capsular 
reviews of Menninger’s and Rosengarten’s books and equally acuminate warnings on other 
of our nut species.
I also acknowledge the help of Jayne Maclean, National Agricultural Library, who went 
through a list of tropical nuts to check how many citations there were in her computerized 
search. The tabulation which follows, with the number of “ hits” , might suggest the relative 
importance of the tropical nuts in the literature:
162 Anacardium occidentale 0 Omphalea megacarpa
22 Artocarpus altilis or communis 0 Ongokea klaineana ( = O. gore)
2 Bauhinia esculenta 1 Palaquium
24 Bertholettia excelsa 0 Pangium edule 
2 Buchanania latifolia 0 Pogo oleosa
2 Licania rigida
0 Canarium indicum 
0 Ricinodendron sp.
0 Caryocar nuciferum
0 Sclerocarya caffra
0 Caryodendron sp.
1 Sterculia chicha
1 Irvingia gabonensis
8 Terminalia catappa 
3 Cordeauxia edulis 
0 Telfairia pedata
0 Lecithis ollaria
0 Lecithis zabucajo
My wife, Peggy, has helped in gathering and touching up illustrations, some in the public 
domain, some being redrawn and reproduced here with the permission of the artist and/or 
publishers. She has gone to the libraries and herbaria around Washington to seek out illus
trations, or specimens with which to improve on the quality of the illustrations herein. She
is responsible for those drawings bearing her name. Last and most, my thanks go to my 
program assistant, Judy duCellier, who helped compile information into format from several 
disparate sources. Not only has she learned to read my handwritten annotations and seek 
out data from obscure sources, she has been good enough to type the manuscript as well. 
In the civil service system, the very fact that she types the data she helped gather may 
jeopardize her promotion potential. Take this as my letter of recommendation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (Procedure and format)
For conventional nut species, I was immensely aided by a USDA contract with Dr. C. 
F. Reed,^^® who prepared rough drafts on description, uses, varieties, distribution, ecology, 
cultivation, economics, yields, and biotic factors of 1000 economic species. I was responsible 
for the drafts of the nonconventional species reviewed herein as nuts, and Judy duCellier 
and I edited, updated, and augmented the Reed drafts on the conventional species. Certain 
major sources constituted the major documentation for Dr. Reed’s early drafts and my final 
drafts.
For the Use paragraph, the major references were Bailey,Bogdan,^^ Brown,Brown 
and Merrill,Burkill,^^ C.S.I.R.,"^® Dalziel,^^ Hortus MacMillan,Martin
and Ruberte,^®^ Uphof,^^"^ and many others. Often in this or other paragraphs I have internally 
cited the Chemical Marketing Reporter,a weekly tabloid with much useful information.
For the Folk Medicine paragraphs, primary resources were Boulos,"^^ C.S.I.R.,"^® Duke,®® 
Duke and Ayensu,^ Duke and Wain,^^ Hartwell,Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ List and Horham- 
mer,^®^ M o rto n ,P e rry ,a n d Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk.^^^
For the Chemistry paragraph, the major references were C.S.I.R.,^® Duke,®^ Duke and 
Atchley,®^ Gibbs,Gohl,^^® Leung et al.,^®^ List and Horhammer,^®^ and Morton.
For the Description paragraph, various floras were consulted in addition to the prime 
references, Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ Little,^®® Ochse,^^® Radford, Ahles, and Bell,^^^ and Reed.^^®
For the Germplasm paragraph, the major references were Duke,®^ Reed,^^® and Zeven 
and Zhukhovsky;^^® for the Distribution paragraph, various floras. Holm et al.,^^'^ Little,^®® 
and for the Ecology paragraph, C.S.I.R.,^® Duke,®^ Holm et al.,^^^ Little,^®® and
(While ecological amplitudes were available for many of these nuts from Duke,®^^ 
in other cases I amplified the Duke data from other sources. For yet other species with no 
hard data, I estimated ecological magnitudes.)
For the Cultivation and Harvesting paragraphs, C.S.I.R.,^® Purseglove,^^^
Reed^® were consulted; for the Yields and Economics paragraph, Bogdan,"^^ Duke,®^ FAO,^® 
and Reed;^® for the Energy paragraph, Channel,^^ Duke,®^ NAS,^^^ and Westlake;^^"^ for the 
Biotic Factors paragraph, Browne,^^ and Agriculture Handbook No. IbS,"* were the primary 
references. Dr. C. F. Reed went through some USDA mycology files^®^ for those on which 
he cooperated. These names have not all been verified. In the Biotic Factor or Cultivation 
paragraph, there may be bibliographic mention of pesticides. In no way do I imply acceptance 
or rejection of a pesticide by inclusion or omission. I have merely recited items that may 
be of interest to those seeking information on pesticides.
I have omitted several “ nuts” included in my Handbook of Legumes of World Economic 
Importances^ I have added other legumes, e.g., the groundnut, Apios (not really a nut, but 
a root), and the yeheb, the tallownut, which were not covered in the handbook. I rank Apios 
with the promising, yet still undeveloped, new crops of the New World.
Warning — Although I have compiled from the literature folk medicinal applications for 
some of these nut species, neither I nor my publishers endorse or even suggest self diagnosis 
or herbal medication. The folk medicinal information was compiled from open literature, 
and I cannot vouch for its safety nor efficacy. As a matter of fact, I suspect some folk 
medicinal applications are both dangerous and inefficacious.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acrocomia sclerocarpa............................. 1 Corylus maxima...................................... 130
Coula edulis.............................................131
Acrocomia total..........................................3
Cycas circinalis...................................... 133
Adhatoda vasica........................................5
Cycas revoluta........................................135
Aleurites fordii........................................... 8
Cycas rumphii......................................... 137
Aleurites moluccana..................................12
Cyperus esculentus................................. 139
Aleurites montana.....................................14
Cyperus rotundas.....................................142
Amphicarpaea bracteata........................... 16
Detarium senegalense.............................145
Anacardium occidentale........................... 19
Elaeis guineensis.....................................147
Apios americana...................................... 22
Elaeis oleifera......................................... 152
Areca catechu...........................................26
Eleocharis dulcís.....................................154
Arenga pinnata......................................... 30
Fagus grandifolia...................................157
Artocarpus altilis...................................... 34
Fagus sylvatica........................................160
Artocarpus heterophyllus......................... 37
Ginkgo biloba......................................... 163
Balanites aegyptiaca................................40
Gnetum gnemon...................................... 166
Barringtonia procera................................43
Helianthus annuus...................................168
Bertholletia excelsa...................................44
Hyphaene thebaica................................. 173
Borassus flabellifer...................................47
Inocar pus edulis...................................... 175
Brosimum alicastrum................................50
Jatropha curcas...................................... i l l
Brosimum utile......................................... 53
Jessenia bataua...................................... 180
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza.............................55
Juglans ailanthifolia................................184
Buchanania lanzan...................................57
Juglans cinerea........................................186
Butyrospermum paradoxum.....................59
Juglans hindsii........................................189
Calamus rotang........................................62
Juglans nigra...........................................190
Canarium indicum.....................................65
Juglans regia...........................................194
Canarium ovatum.....................................67
Lecythis minor......................................... 198
Carya illinoiensis...................................... 69
Lecythis ollaria....................................... 200
Caryocar amygdaliferum......................... 73
Lecythis pisonis......................................202
Caryocar nuciferum................................. 74
Licania rigida.........................................204
Caryocar spp.............................................75
Macadamia spp....................................... 207
Caryodendron orinocense........................78
Madhuca longifolia................................. 210
Castanea crenata...................................... 80
Moringa oleifera.................................... 214
Castanea dentata...................................... 82
Nelumbo nucífera...................................218
Castanea mollissima................................. 85
Nypa fruticans......................................... 222
Castanea pum ila...................................... 88
Orbignya cohune.................................... 224
Castanea sativa........................................90
Orbignya spp...........................................225
Castanospermum australe........................93
Pachira aquatica.................................... 229
Ceiba pentandra........................................96
Paullinia cupana.................................... 231
Cocos nucífera........................................100
Phytelephas macrocarpa....................... 234
Cola acuminata......................................107
Pinus edulis............................................ 236
Cola nitida..............................................110
P inus quadrifolia.................................... 238
Cola verticillata...................................... 113
Pistacia vera...........................................240
Cordeauxia edulis...................................114
Pittosporum resiniferum.........................244
Corylus americana................................. 116
Platonia esculenta...................................247
Corylus avellana.................................... 119
Prunus dulcis...........................................249
Corylus chinensis.................................... 123
Quercus súber.........................................253
Corylus colurna...................................... 124
Ricinodendron heudelotii....................... 256
Corylus cornuta...................................... 126
Ricinodendron rautanenii....................... 258
Corylus ferox...........................................128
Santalum acuminatum............................ 260
Corylus heterophylla.............................. 129
..262 Trapa spp............................................... 284
Treculia africana................... ................287
..266
Virola sebifera...................... .............. 290
..269
..272 Virola surinamensis.............. .............. 292
..276 References.............................. ................293
Figure Credits....................................... 307
..278
.............. 311
Index ......................................
..281
1
ACROCOMIA SCLEROCARPA Mart. (ARCEACEAE) — Gru-Gru Nut, Coco de Catarro, 
Macauba, Mucaja
Syn.: Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd.
P D»-».We,
Uses — The slimy, soft external tissue (mesocarp) and the seed yield oil. The mesocarp 
oil can be used as cooking oil, without refining, if extracted from fresh or properly stored 
fruits. The mesocarp oil is also used for soaps. The kernel oil, with a sweet taste like coconut 
oil, is used as an edible oil, e.g., in the preparation of margarine.
Folk medicine — Sometimes used as a purgative and vermifuge.
Chemistry — Seed contains 60% fat with 17% saturated fatty acids (74.6% oleic acid 
and 8% linoleic acid). Fruit contains 4.58 mg carotene per 100 g fresh weight. Flowers 
contain 2.1% gallic acid and tannin.According to Balick,^^ air-dried kernels yield 53 to 
65 (to 69.4%), pulp up to 63.7% fat. The yellow pulp oil is softer and has a higher iodine 
value than palm oil, but, unfortunately, hydrolyzes rapidly after harvested, especially if 
damaged, like the oil palm. Johnson^^^ says that fresh fruits contain 35% moisture; dry fruit 
mesocarp yields 33% oil, the kernel 53.75%.
Description — Armed palm to 11 m tall. Leaves pinnate, armed, like the trunk. Inflo
rescence with very sharp fine spines. Fruit a reddish-yellow edible drupe surrounded by a 
tough woody kernel. Dry fruits weigh about 18 g, with 19.8% outer shell, 41.1% mesocarp 
pulp, 29.0% inner shell, and 10.1% kernel.
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, gru-gru is reported 
to tolerate drought.
Distribution — Widely dispersed in Brazil, especially in Minas Gerais, where it grows 
in dense groves. Ranging into Paraguay.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Wet to Dry through Subtropical Wet to Dry 
Forest Life Zones, gru-gru nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 40 dm.
Handbook of Nuts
annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8. Sometimes gregarious in dense groves. 
In Johnson,Balick notes this palm occurs in drier regions than most palms, and therefore 
might be a useful economic plant in the dry areas.
Cultivation — Usually not cultivated.
Harvesting — Balick^^ notes the following, for oil palms in general, not necessarily for 
this species. “ In commercial production, palm fruits first are harvested and removed from 
the panicles upon which they are formed. Sterilization is next, to inactivate the enzymes 
present in the mesocarp. These enzymes can cause deterioration of the oil through lipolysis, 
an increase of the free fatty acid content known commercially as rancidity. A so-called 
“ hard oil” , with up to 94.5% free fatty acids, is made by fermenting rather than sterilizing 
the ripe palm fruits. Sterilization also stops oxidation, which lowers the bleachability of the 
oil and makes it less valuable for commercial use. The fruits are then macerated to separate 
the oily pulp from the kernels. In small-scale, local production, natives may pound the fruits 
with a log or stone to release the pulp. On a large plantation, special machinery is used. 
To release the oil, this pulpy mass is pressed with a hand press, if primitively processed, 
or with heavy mechanical presses if on an industrial scale. Clarification follows: in a small 
operation, the oil is allowed to rise through a layer of boiling water and is then skimmed 
off. Large processing factories use a settling and centrifuge process. For commercial use, 
the oil is usually bleached, removing certain natural red or green pigments. These colors 
may lower the monetary value of the oil.
Kernels of some species of palms are often saved for their oil as a by-product of primitive 
fruit processing. These are then shipped to mills located in central areas, where heavier 
equipment is used for extraction. Natives in the past and today extract palm kernel oil by 
baking the kernels in an oven and pounding them in hollow logs. The resulting mash is 
boiled in pots with water, and the oil is collected as it rises to the top. Palm kernel cake, 
a product of the extraction, is a good protein source and may be used for either human 
consumption or as an animal feed.^^
Yields and economics — Small local Brazilian establishments develop the oils, which 
are little known in the world market. Brazil produced small quantities of the oil before and 
during World War II. In 1980, Brazilian production was limited to three States: Maranhao, 
Ceara, and Minas Gerais, producing only 190 tons.^^^
Energy — The oil could be used like that of other oil palms for energy, the press-cake 
for alcohol production or animal feed. An 18 g fruit would yield ca. 2.4 g mesocarp oil and 
1 g kernel oil.^^^
Biotic factors — No data available.
ACROCOMIA TOTAI Mart. (ARECACEAE) — Gru-Gru Nut, Paraguay Coco-Palm, Mbocaya
Uses — Since pre-Colombian times, this palm has, with Copernicia australis (most 
abundant palm in Paraguay), supplied food, shelter, and the raw material for fabrication of 
soaps, hats, ropes, baskets, bags, hammocks, and mats. In Argentina, it is regarded as an 
ornamental palm with edible nuts. Leaves are sometimes lopped for fodder in the dry season. 
The “ cabbage” and base of the involucral leaves are eaten in salads. Ripe fruits are edible 
and tasty. Five industrially useful products are obtainable: pulp oil, kernel oil, kernel meal, 
kernel cake, and extracted pulp. The kernel oil is most valuable and abundant, usable for 
soap and food.^^
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mesocarp is reported to contain 4.3 g H2O, 4.2 g protein, 
27.9 g fat, 4.8 g total sugars, 8.8 g fiber, 10.32 g ash, 90 mg Ca, 120 mg P, and 2,180 
mg K. Other data are tabulated in Markley.^^^ (See Tables 1 and 2).
Description — Monoecious palm to 15 (to 20) m tall, the stipe provided with stout spines, 
some 7.5 to 12.5 (to 17) cm long. Leaves pinnate, 2 to 3 m long, individual leaflets 50 to 
70 cm long; petiole with spines on the dorsal surface. Spadix interfoliar, 1 m long, like the 
inner spathe densely spinose. Fruits yellow, rounded, ca. 3 to 4 cm diam. with dark orange 
oily pulp, rich in carotene.
Germplasm — Reported from the South American (Paraguayan) Center of Diversity, 
mbocaya, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate savannas. Some trees are almost devoid of 
spines, except just below the crown.
Distribution — Higher altitude savannas in Argentina and Paraguay.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Very Dry to Wet through Subtropical Wet 
to Dry Forest Life Zones, mbocaya is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 35 
dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8.
Cultivation — Markley^^^ calculates yield, at 10 x 4 m spacing (250 trees/ha) at 640 
kg oil/ha, at 10 X 6 (166 trees) at 424 kg/ha, at 10 x 8 (125 trees) at 320 kg/ha, and at 
10 X 10 (100 trees/ha) at 256 kg oil/ha. Markley’s information suggests that the seeds 
might be as recalcitrant as those of oil palms.
Harvesting — Humans usually eat only the pulp of freshly fallen fruits owing to the 
difficulty of extracting the kernels. Nature (decay and/or defecation, followed by rains) often 
leaves clean nuts lying on the ground, to be harvested by humans. Leaves are sometimes 
lopped to leave only two in the dry season.
Yields and Economics — The mbocaya palm is of greater economic importance to 
Paraguay than any other indigenous palm. Between 1940 and 1951, Paraguay produced 883 
to 2,849 MT of kernel oil annually, exporting 13 to 2,588, and 170 to 1,125 MT pulp oil, 
exporting 109 to 2,074 MT. In 1971, Paraguay exported 7,400 MT, up from 2300 tons in 
1964.^^^ Commenting on comparative yields of oil per ha, Markley^^ shows only 96 to 640 
kg/ha for this species, compared to 2,790 for oil palm, 818 for coconut, 420 for sesame, 
392 for rapeseed, 308 for sunflower, 230 for peanuts, 193 for flaxseeds, and 190 for soybeans.
Energy — The oil could be used like that of other oil palms for energy, the press-cake 
for alcohol production or animal feed. Brazil is now studying this plant as a renewable 
source of fuel oil.^^^
Biotic factors — A highly destructive stem borer or snout beetle (Rhyna barbirostris) 
attacks the palm. Larvae may devour the whole interior, except for the long cellulose fiber. 
A fungus, probably Phaecophora acrocomiac, may cause yellow blotches with black centers 
on the leaves. Ruminants may eat the whole fruit, regurgitating or even defecating entire 
kernels (“ nuts” ). Seedlings may be devoured by insects, birds, or other animals, as well 
as attacked by microorganisms.
Handbook of Nuts
Table 1
COMPOSITION (%) OF COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF A. 
TOTAI PRODUCTS'”
Outer Pulp, Kernel,
hull Pulp expeller Shell expeller
Constituent (epicarp) (mesocarp) cake (endocarp) Kernel cake
Moisture (H2O) 6.65 4.31 5.26 6.84 3.17 7.44
Lipides (oil) 3.88 27.94 6.26 2.46 66.75 7.22
Nitrogen 0.74 0.67 0.98 0.31 2.02 5.50
Protein {N x 6.25) 4.62 4.18 6.12 1.94 12.62 34.38
Crude fiber 36.00 8.82 6.83 49.69 8.60 11.65
—
Sugars (total) 4.85 5.16 — 1.28 2.80
5.82
Ash 10.32 9.16 3.26 1.98 5.37
Potassium 2.18 2.18 2.75 1.02 1.36 1.55
Phosphorus 0.10 0.12 0.16 0.04 0.42 1.14
Calcium 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.04 0.08 0.27
Table 2
CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPOSITION OF THE PULP OILS 
OF A. TOTAI AND E. GUINEENSIS^^
Characteristic A. A.
E. guineensis
—
Specific gravity (40°C) 0.9240 0.898—0.901
Refractive index (40°C) 1.4615 1.4582— 1.4607 1.453— 1.456
—
Titer value (°C) 26.1— 33.2 4 0 - ^ 7
Iodine value
68.4 54.5— 66.7 44— 58
Unsaponifiable matter (%) 0.81 0.27— 0.55 < 0 .8
Saponification value 197.0 200— 209 195— 205
Free fatty acids (% palmitic) 41.2 1— ?
Total fatty acids
Iodine value — —
69.7
Thiocyanogen value
66.6 — —
Saturated (%) 20.0 — 39— 50
Oleic (%) —
80.0 38— 52
Linoleic (%) —
0.0 6— 10
ADHATODA VASICA (L.) Nees (ACANTHACEAE) — Malabar Nut, Adotodai, Pavettia,
Wanepala, Basak
Syn.: Justicia adhatoda L.
Uses — Plants grown for reclaiming waste lands. Because of its fetid scent, it is not eaten 
by cattle and goats. Leaves and twigs commonly used in Sri Lanka as green manure for 
field crops, and elsewhere in rice fields. Leaves, on boiling in water, give durable yellow 
dye used for coarse cloth and skins; in combination with indigo, cloth takes a greenish-blue 
to dark green color. Also used to impart black color to pottery. Stems and twigs used as 
supports for mud-walls. Wood makes good charcoal for gunpowder, and used as fuel for 
brick-making. Ashes used in place of crude carbonate of soda for washing clothes. In Bengal, 
statue heads are carved from the wood. Leaves also used in agriculture as a weedicide, 
insecticide, and fungicide, as they contain the alkaloid, vasicine. As a weedicide, it is used 
against aquatic weeds in rice-fields; as insecticide, used in same way tobacco leaves; as 
fungicide, they prevent growth of fungi on fruits which are covered with vasica leaves. 
Market gardeners place layers of leaves over fruit, like mangoes, plantains, and custard- 
apples, which have been picked in immature state to hasten ripening and to ensure devel
opment of natural color in these fruits without spoilage.®^
Folk medicine — Plant has many medicinal uses. Whole plant used in Sri Lanka for 
treatment of excessive phlegm, and in menorrhagia. Leaves are source of an expectorant 
drug used to relieve coughs. Plants are used in folk remedies for glandular tumors in India. 
Leaf used for asthma, bronchitis, consumption, cough, fever, jaundice, tuberculosis; smoked 
for asthma; prescribed as a mucolytic, antitussive, antispasmodic, expectorant. Ayurvedics^^^ 
use the root for hematuria, leucorrhea, parturition, and strangury, the plant for asthma, 
blood impurities, bronchitis, consumption, fever, heart disease, jaundice, leucoderma, loss 
of memory (amnesia), stomatosis, thirst, tumors, and vomiting. Yunani use the fruit for 
bronchitis, the flowers for jaundice, poor circulation, and strangury; the emmenagogue leaves 
in gonorrhea, and the diuretic root in asthma, bilious nausea, bronchitis, fever, gonorrhea, 
and sore eyes.^^
Chemistry — Used in Indian medicine for more than 2000 years, adhatoda now has a 
whole book dedicated to only one of its active alkaloids.In addition to antiseptic and
Handbook of Nuts
insecticidal properties, vasicine produces a slight fall of blood pressure, followed by rise to 
the original level, and an increase in the amplitude of heart beats and a slowing of the 
rhythm. It has a slight but persistent bronchodilator effect. With a long history as an 
expectorant in India, vasicine has recently been modified to form the derivative bromhexine, 
a mucolytic inhalant agent, which increases respiratory fluid volume, diluting the mucus, 
and reduces its viscosity. Fluid extract of leaves liquifies sputum, relieving coughs and 
bronchial spasms. The plant also contains an unidentified principle agent active against the 
tubercular bacillus. Adhatodine, anisotinine, betaine, vasakin, vasicine, vasicinine, vasici- 
nol, vasicinone, vasicoline, vasicolinone, are reported. Deoxyvasicine is a highly effective 
antifeedant followed by vasicinol and vasicine. These plant products as antifeedants could 
be safely used for controlling pests on vegetable crops. AtaP devoted a whole book 
to the chemistry and pharmacology of Vasicine-A. At the Regional Research Laboratory 
(RRL), in Jammu, vasicine showed a definite bronchodilatory effect, comparable to that of 
theophylline, as well as hypotensive, respiratory stimulant, and uterotonic activities.The 
total alkaloid content is up to 0.4%, of which 85 to 90% is vasicine.
Toxicity — Vasicine is toxic to cold-blooded creatures (including fish) but not to mam
mals. Although it is not listed in many poisonous plant books, the fact that it is not grazed 
suggests that it could well be poisonous.Vasicine and vasicinol exhibit potential to reduce 
fertility in insects. “ Vasicine is also likely to replace the abortifacient drugs in current use 
as its abortifacient activity is comparable to prostaglandins.“ ^^ In large doses the leaves 
cause diarrhea and nausea.®^
Description — A gregarious, evergreen, densely branched shrub 1.5 to 3 (to 6) m tall; 
bark smooth, ash-colored; branches softly hairy, intemodes short; leaves opposite, elliptic, 
ovate or elliptic-lanceolate, pointed at both ends, acuminate, entire, minutely pubescent, 
12.5 to 20 cm. long, 8 cm. broad; flowers white with red, pink, or white spots or streaks, 
in dense axillary, stalked, bracteate spikes 2.5 to 7.5 cm long; bracts conspicuously leafy, 
1-flowered; calyx deeply divided into 5 lobes, pubescent; corolla 2-lipped, pubescent outside; 
upper lip notched, curved, lower lip 3-lobed; capsules 2.5 cm or more long, 0.8 cm broad, 
clavate, pubescent, 4-seeded; seeds suborbicular, rugose. Flowers and fruit December to 
April; in some areas flowers May—June also.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Centers of Diversity, Malabar 
Nut or CVS thereof is reported to tolerate fungus, insects, mycobacteria, and weeds.
Distribution — Common to tropical India from Punjab to southern India, Sri Lanka, N. 
Burma, Pakistan (Karachi, Sind, Khyber, Wazir, Kurram, Dir); Hong Kong, China, Yunnan, 
where common.
Ecology — Abundant and gregarious in many areas of China and India, growing in full 
sun, at edges of forests, in hilly regions often as the co-dominant shrub with Capparis 
sepiaria L. Also grows in full sun on flood plains and in meadows. In Curacao, it grows 
well on weathered diabase, in south Florida on oolitic limestone. In Sub-Himalayan region 
ascends to 1,300 m altitude, more frequent at altitudes about 200 to 300 m. Requires a 
subtropical to tropical climate with moderate precipitation. Though killed to the ground by 
brief frosts, it recovers rapidly. Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Tropical Very 
Dry Forest Life Zones, Malabar nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 42 
dm (mean of 5 cases = 22), annual temperature of 15 to 2TC (mean of 5 cases = 24), 
and pH of 4.5 to 7.5 (mean of 4 cases = 6.1).^^’^^®
Cultivation — As plants are quite common, often abundant, and gregarious in regions 
of adaptation and where people use the plant, the plant is cultivated mainly in areas of 
habitation, as hedges, wind-breaks, and for reclaiming soil. Propagation is by seeds broadcast 
in areas of need, or in waste areas about areas of cultivation. Any forest edge is a likely 
place to seed, so that the leaves or branches will be handy for use on other cultivated plants. 
No particular care is taken, as the plants thrive on any tropical soil that is well-drained and
has sufficient precipitation. The plants, also propagated readily from cuttings, are said to 
coppice well.^^^
Harvesting — Harvesting leaves and branches varies according to the needs of the local 
farmer, for green manure, covering fruits or protection, etc. As plants are evergreen, leaves 
are available year-round.
Yields and economics — No data available. However, plants are plentiful, and supply 
all the leaves and twigs needed by those who use them. An important plant for reclaiming 
waste land in areas of adaptation, as in India and Sri Lanka. Also used as weedicide, 
insecticide, and fungicide in tropical areas. Mainly used in tropical Southeast Asia, S. China, 
India, and Sri Lanka. One ton of leaves can yield 2 kg vasicine equivalent to 2 million 
human doses.
Energy — I was surprised to see this listed in a book on firewood trees.They note 
that it has a particularly desirable wood for quick, intense, long-lasting cooking fires, with 
little or no odor, smoke or sparks. The moderately hard wood has been used to manufacture 
gunpowder charcoal.If vasicine becomes commercialized, the biomass residues (>99%) 
following vasicine extraction could conceivably serve as a pesticidal mulch or for conversion 
to alcohol. Perhaps this should be viewed like the neem tree in the third world, stripping 
the leaves as a pesticidal mulch, using the woody “ skeleton” for firewood.
Biotic factors — Fungi reported attacking this plant include the following species: Ae- 
cidium adhatodaCy Alternaría tenuissima, Cercospora adhatodar, Chnoospora butleri, 
Phomopsis acanthi (Phoma acanthi).^^^ Plants are parasitized by Cuscuta reflexa. Not browsed 
by goats or other animals. One source states that this plant “ is never attacked by any 
insect . . . even the voracious eater, Bihar Hairy Catterpillar (sic) {Dieresia obliqua) avoids 
this plant.
8 Handbook of Nuts
ALEURITES FORDII Hemsl. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Tung-Oil Tree
Uses — Tung trees are cultivated for their seeds, the endosperm of which supplies a 
superior quick-drying oil, utilized in the manufacture of lacquers, varnishes, paints, linoleum, 
oilcloth, resins, artificial leather, felt-base floor coverings, and greases, brake-linings and 
in clearing and polishing compounds. Tung oil products are used to coat containers for food, 
beverages, and medicines; for insulating wires and other metallic surfaces, as in radios, 
radar, telephone, and telegraph instruments.
Folk medicine — Reported to be emetic, hemostat, and poisonous, tung-oil tree is a folk 
remedy for bums, edema, ejaculation, masturbation, scabies, swelling, and trauma.
Chemistry — The fmit contains 14 to 20%; the kernel, 53 to 60%; and the nut, 30 to 
40% oil. The oil contains 75 to 80% alpha-elaeo stearic-, 15% oleic-, ca 4% palmitic-, and 
ca. 1% stearic acids. Tannins, phytosterols, and a poisonous saponin are also reported.
Description — Trees up to 12 m tall and wide, bark smooth, wood soft; leaves dark 
green, up to 15 cm wide, heart-shaped, sometimes lobed, appearing usually just after, but 
sometimes just before flowering; flowers in clusters, whitish, rose-throated, produced in 
early spring from terminal buds of shoots of the previous season; monoecious, male and 
female flowers in same inflorescence, usually with the pistillate flowers surrounded by several 
staminate flowers; fruits spherical, pear-shaped or top shaped, green to purple at maturity, 
with 4 to 5 carpels each with one seed; seeds usually 4 to 5, but may vary from 1 to 15, 2 
to 3.2 cm long, 1.3 to 2.5 cm wide, consisting of a hard outer shell and a kernel from which 
the oil is obtained. Flowers February to March; fmits late September to early November.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and North American Centers of Diversity, 
tung-oil tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, disease, frost, insects, poor 
soil, and slope.High-yielding cultivars continue to be developed. Some of the best cvs 
released by the USDA for growing in the southern U.S. are the following:
• ‘Folsom’: low-heading, high productivity; fruits large, late maturing, turning purplish 
when mature, containing 21% oil; highest resistance to low temperature in fall.
• ‘GahT: low-heading, productive; fruits large, 20% oil content; matures early, somewhat 
resistant to cold in fall.
• ‘Isabel’: low-heading, highly productive; fruits large, maturing early, 22% oil content.
• ‘La Crosse’: High-heading, exceptional productivity; fruits small, late maturing, tend
ing to break segments if not harvested promptly, 21 to 14% oil content; a very popular 
cv.
• ‘Lampton’: out-yields all other varieties; very low-heading; fruits large, early maturing; 
22% oil content.
Several other species of Aleurites are used to produce tung-oil, usually of low quality: 
Aleurites cordata, Japanese wood-oil tree; A. moluccana, Candlenut or lumbang tree; A. 
trisperma. Soft Lumbang tree; none of which can be grown commercially in the U.S. 
Aleurites montana. Mu-tree, is the prevailing commercial species in South China and could 
be grown in F l o r i d a . ( z n = zz.)
Distribution — Native to central and western China, where seedlings have been planted 
for thousands of years; planted in the southern U.S. from Florida to eastern Texas.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, tung-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to
21.0 dm (mean of 22 cases = 14.0), temperature of 18.7 to 27.0°C (mean of 21 cases = 
24.0°C), pH of 5.4 to 7.1 (mean of 5 cases = 6.2).^^ Tung trees are very exacting in 
climatic and soil requirements. They require long, hot summers with abundant moisture, 
with usually at least 112 cm of rainfall rather evenly distributed through the year. Trees
require 350 to 400 hr in winter with temperatures 7.2°C or lower; without this cold require
ment, trees tend to produce suckers from the main branches. Vigorous but not succulent 
growth is most cold-resistant; trees are susceptible to cold injury when in active growth. 
Production of tung is best where day and night temperatures are uniformly warm. Much 
variation reduces tree growth and fruit size. Trees grow best if planted on hilltops or slopes, 
as good air-drainage reduces losses from spring frosts. Contour-planting on high rolling land 
escapes frost damage. Tung makes its best growth on virgin land. Soils must be well-drained, 
deep aerated, and have a high moisture-holding capacity to be easily penetrated by the roots. 
Green manure crops and fertilizers may be needed. Dolomitic lime may be used to correct 
excessive acidity; pH 6.0 to 6.5 is best; liming is beneficial to most soils in the Tung Belt, 
the more acid soils requiring greater amounts of lime.*^’^^*
Cultivation — Tung trees may be propagated by seed or by budding. Seedlings generally 
vary considerably from parent plants in growth and fruiting characters. Seedlings which 
have been self-pollinated for several generations give rather uniform plants. Only 1 out of 
100 selected “ mother” tung trees will produce seedlings sufficiently uniform for commercial 
planting. However, a “ mother” tree proven worthy by progeny testing may be propagated 
by budding. The budded trees, which are genetically identical with the original tree, will 
provide an adequate supply of seed satisfactory for planting. Seedlings are used for the root 
system for budded trees. Buds from “ mother” trees are inserted in stems of 1-year old 
seedlings, 5 to 7.5 cm above the surface of the soil. Later, the original seedling top is cut 
off and a new top grown for the transplanted bud, making the tops of budded trees parts of 
the parent tree. Usually seedling trees outgrow budded trees, but budded trees produce larger 
crops and are more uniform in production, oil content, and date of fruit maturity. Tung seed 
are normally short-lived and must be planted during the season following harvest. Seeds are 
best hulled before planting, as hulls retard germination. Hulled seed may be planted dry, 
but soaking in water for 5 to 7 days hastens germination. Stratification, cold treatment or 
chemical treatment of seeds brings about more rapid and uniform germination. Dry-stored 
seed should be planted no later than February; stratified seed by mid-March; cold-treated 
and chemical treated seed by early April. Seed may be planted either by hand or with a 
modified corn-planter, the seed spaced 15 to 20 cm apart, about 5 cm, in rows 1.6 m apart, 
depending on the equipment to be used for cultivation and for digging the trees. Seeds 
germinate in 60 days or more; hence weed and grass control may be a serious problem. As 
soon as seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) with commercial zinc sulfate 
should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate of 600 kg/ha, in bands along each side of 
row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep. Other fertilizers may be needed, depending 
on the soil. Most successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method, 
requiring a piece of budstock bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock 
bar; a T-shaped cut is made in the bark of the rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground 
level, the flaps of bark loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly 
over the transplanted bud with rubber budding stripe, 12 cm long, 0.6 cm wide, 0.002 thick. 
After about 7 days, the rubber stripe is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are 
susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded over them for winter. When growth starts in 
spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud. 
Later, care consists of keeping all suckers removed and the trees well-cultivated. Trees are 
transplanted to the orchard late the following winter. Spring budding is done only as a last 
resort. Trees may be planted at 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small, close planting in rows 
greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing surface of a crowded row 
is about the same as that of a row with trees farther apart. However, it is well to leave 
enough space between row for orchard operations. In contour-planting, distances between 
rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart, trees spaced 3.3 to 
4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of nursery trees must be pruned back to 20 to
10 Handbook of Nuts
25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one strongest growing 
and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of the stump is preferred 
over one closer to top.^^^
Harvesting — Tung trees usually begin bearing fruit the third year after planting, and 
are usually in commercial production by the fourth or fifth year, attaining maximum pro
duction in 10 to 12 years. Average life of trees in the U.S. is 30 years. Fruits mature and 
drop to ground in late September to early November. At this time they contain about 60% 
moisture. Fruits must be dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on 
the ground 3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped 
below 30%. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks. Fruits do not deteriorate on 
the ground until they germinate in spring.
Yields and economics — Trees yield 4.5 to 5 tons/ha. An average picker can gather 60 
to 80 bushels of fruits per day, depending on conditions of the orchard. Fruits may be 
gathered all through the winter season when other crops do not need care. Because all fruits 
do not fall at the same time, 2 or more harvestings may be desirable to get the maximum 
yield. Fruits are usually sacked, placed in the crotch of the tree and allowed to dry 2 to 3 
weeks before delivery to the mill. Additional drying may be done at the mill, but wet fruits 
contain less oil percentage-wise and prices will be lower. Prices for tung oil depend on price 
supports, domestic production, imports, and industrial demands. World production in 1969 
was 107,000 MT of tung nuts; in 1970, 143,000; and projected for 1980, 199,000. Wholesale 
prices were about $0.276/kg; European import prices, $0.335/kg. Growers received about 
$51.10/ton of fruit of 18.5% oil content to about $63.10/ton for fruits of 22% oil content. 
Major producing countries are mainland China and South America (Argentina and Paraguay); 
the U.S. and Africa produce much less. U.S. Bureau of Census figures 1,587,000 pounds 
of tung oil were consumed during February of 1982, representing a 1,307,000 pound drop 
from January. The largest application for the oil is paint and varnish, which accounted for
566,000 pounds of total consumption in F e b r u a r y .D e a l e r s in tung oil include:^^^
Alnore Oil Co., Inc. Pacific Anchor Chemical Corp. 
P.O. Box 699 6055 E. Washington Boulevard 
Valley Stream, NY 11582 Los Angeles, CA 90040
Industrial Oil Products Corp. Welch, Holme, & Clark Co., Inc. 
375 N. Broadway 1000 S. 4th Street 
Jericho, NY 11753 Harrison, NJ 07029
Kraft Chemical Co.
1975 N. Hawthorene Avenue 
Melrose Park, IL 60160
Energy — During World War II, the Chinese used tung oil for motor fuel. It tended to 
gum up the engines, so they processed it to make it compatible with gasoline. The mixture 
worked fine,^"^^ Gaydou et al.^®^ reported yields of 4 to 6 MT/ha, converting to 1,800 to 
2,700 € oil per ha, equivalent to 17,000 to 25,500 kWh/ha.
Biotic factors — Bees are needed to transfer pollen from anthers to pistil. When staminate 
and pistillate flowers are on separate trees, 1 staminate tree for 20 pistillate trees should be 
planted in the orchard. Pollination can occur over several days. Tung trees are relatively 
free of insects and diseases, only a few causing losses serious enough to justify control 
measures: e.g., Botroyosphaeria rihis, Clitocybe tabescens, Mycosphaerella aleuritidis. 
Pellicularia koleroga, Physalospora rhodina and the bacterium. Pseudomonas aleuritidis. 
Other bacteria and fungi reported on tung trees are Armillaria mellea, Botryodiplodia theo-
11
bromae, Cephaleures virescens, Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, 
Corticium koleroga, Fomes lamaoensis, F. lignosus, Fusarium heterosporum forma aleu
ritidis, F. oxysporum, F. scirpi, F. solani, Ganoderma pseudoferreum, Coleosporium aleu- 
riticum, Glomerella cingulata, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Phytomonas 
syringae, Phytophthora omnivor a, Ph. cinnamomi, Poria hypolateritia, Pythium aphani- 
dermatum, Rhizoctonia solani, Septobasidium aleuritidis, S. pseudopedicellatum, Sphae- 
rostilbe repens, Uncinula miyabei var. aleuritis, Ustilina maxima, U. zonata. Insect pests 
are not a serious problem, since fruit and leaves of tung trees are toxic to most animal life. 
Nematodes Meloidogyne spp. have been reported.
12 Handbook of Nuts
ALEURITES MOLUCCANA (L.) Willd. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Candlenut Oil Tree, Can- 
dleberry, Varnish Tree, Indian or Belgium Walnut, Lumbang Oil 
Syn.: Aleurites triloba Forst., Croton moluccanus L.
Uses — Seed yields 57 to 80% of inedible, semi-drying oil, liquid at ordinary temperatures, 
solidifying at - 15°C, and containing oleostearic acid. The oil is quicker drying than linseed 
oil, and is used as a wood preservative, for varnishes and paint oil, also as an illuminant, 
for soap-making, waterproofing paper, in India rubber substitutes and insulating masses. 
Fruits said to be used as a fish poison. Seeds are moderately poisonous and press cake is 
used as fertilizer. Kernels, when roasted and cooked are considered edible; may be strung 
as candlenuts. Oil is painted on bottoms of small craft to protect against marine borers. 
Tung oil, applied to cotton bolls, stops boll weevils from eating them; also prevents feeding 
by striped cucumber beetle.
Folk medicine — Bark used on tumors in Japan. Reported to be aperient, aphrodisiac, 
laxative, poison, purgative, stimulant, sudorific, candlenut oil tree is a folk remedy for 
asthma, debility, sores, swelling, tumors, unconsciousness, womb ailments, and wounds. 
The oil is purgative and sometimes used like castor oil. In China, it is applied to sciatica. 
Kernels are laxative, stimulant, and sudorific. The irritant oil is rubbed on scalp as a hair 
stimulant. In Sumatra, pounded seeds, burned with charcoal, are applied round the navel 
for costiveness. Leaves are applied for rheumatism in the Philippines. In Malaya, the pulped 
kernel enters poultices for headche, fevers, ulcers, and swollen joints. Boiled leaves are 
applied to headache, scrofula, swollen joints, and ulcers. In Java, the bark is used for bloody 
diarrhea or dysentery. Bark juice with coconut milk is used for sprue and thrush. Malayans 
apply boiled leaves to the temples for headache, and to the pubes for gonnorhea.^^ In Yunani 
medicine, the oil is considered anodyne, aphrodisiac, and cardiotonic, and the fruit is 
recommended for the brain, bronchitis, bruises, heart, hydrophobia, liver, piles, ringworm, 
and watery eyes. In Ayurvedic medicine, the fruit is considered apertif, aphrodisiac, anti- 
bilious, cardiac, depurative, and refrigerant.
Chemistry — The oil cake, containing ca. 46.2% protein, 4.4% P2O5, and 2.0% K2O,
13
is said to be poisonous. A toxalbumin and HCN have been suggested. Bark contains ca. 4 
to 6% tannin. Oil also contains glycerides of linolenic, oleic and various linoleic acids. Per 
100 g, the seed is reported to contain 626 calories, 7.0 g H2O, 19.0 g protein, 63.0 g fat,
8.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, 80 mg Ca, 200 mg P, 2.0 mg Fe, 0 mg beta-carotene 
equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.^^
Description — Medium-sized tree, up to 20 m tall, ornamental, with spreading or pen
dulous branches; leaves simple, variable in shape, young leaves large, up to 30 cm long, 
palmate, with 3 to 7 acuminate lobes, shining, while leaves on mature trees are ovate, entire, 
and acuminate, long-petioled, whitish above when young, becoming green with age, with 
rusty stellate pubescence beneath when young, and persisting on veins and petiole; flowers 
in rusty-pubescent panicled cymes 10 to 15 cm long; petals 5, dingy white or creamy, 
oblong, up to 1.3 cm long; ovary 2-celled; fruit an indéhiscent drupe, roundish, 5 cm or 
more in diameter, with thick rough hard shell making up 64 to 68% of fruit, difficult to 
separate from kernels; containing 1 or 2 seeds. Flowers April to May (Sri Lanka).
Germpiasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Aleurites 
moluccana, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, low pH, poor soil, and slope. 
(2n = 44,22).
Distribution — Native to Malaysia, Polynesia, Malay Peninsula, Philippines, and South 
Seas Islands; now widely distributed in tropics. Naturalized or cultivated in Malagasy, Sri 
Lanka, southern India, Bangladesh, Brazil, West Indies, and the Gulf Coast of the U.S.^^®
Ecology — Candlenut trees thrive in moist tropical regions, up to 1,200 m altitude. 
Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, 
Aleurites moluccana is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm (mean of 
14 cases = 19.4) annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.4°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.6) and pH 
of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^
Cultivation — Usually propagated from seed, requiring 3 to 4 months to germinate. 
Seedlings planted 3(X)/ha. Once established, trees require little to no attention.
Harvesting — Bear two heavy crops each year. After harvesting mature fruits, it is 
difficult to separate kernels from shell, as the kernels adhere to sides of shell.
Yields and economics — Asa plantation crop, tree yields are estimated at 5 to 20 tons/ha 
of nuts, each tree producing 30 to 80 kg. Oil production varies from 15 to 20% of nut 
weight. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka, and other tropical regions is used locally 
and does not figure into international trade. In the past, oil has sold for 12 to 14 pounds 
per ton in England. According to the Chemical Marketing Reporter,tung oil prices (then 
ca. $.65/lb) are likely to rise in the near future if demand remains adequate and Argentinean 
and Paraguayan suppliers pressure the U.S. market by charging high prices for replacement 
oil. U.S. imports for the first quarter of 1981 were 58% higher than 1980, despite the absence 
of Chinese tung from the market.
Energy — Nut yields are estimated at 80 kg/tree, which, spaced at 200 trees per hectare, 
would suggest 16 MT/ha/yr, about 20% of which (3 MT) would be oil, suitable, with 
modification, for diesel uses, the residues for conversion to alcohol or pyrolysis. Fruit yields 
may range from 4 to 20 MT/ha/yr. Commercial production of oil yields 12 to 18% of the 
weight of the dry unhulled fruits, the fruits being air-dried to ca. 12 to 15% moisture before 
pressing. The pomace contains 4.5 to 5% oil. This suggests that the “ chaff factor” might 
be ca 0.8. Oil yields as high as 3,100 kg/ha have been reported. As of June 15, 1981, tung 
oil was $0.65/lb, compared to $0.38 for peanut oil, $1.39 for poppyseed oil, $0.33 for 
linseed oil, $0.275 for coconut oil, $0.265 for cottonseed oil, $0.232 for com oil, and $0.21 
for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.(X) per gallon, gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb.
Biotic factors — Following fungi are known to attack candlenut-oil tree: Cephalosporium 
sp., Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium aleuriticum, Phasalospora rhod- 
ina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronaema reinkingii, Tra- 
metes corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina deusta.^^^
14 Handbook of Nuts
ALEURITES MONTANA (Lour.) Wils. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Wood-Oil Tree, Mu-Oil 
Tree
Uses — Kernels yield a valuable drying oil, largely used in paints, varnishes, and lino
leums. Also used locally for illumination and lacquer-work. Varnish made from this plant 
possess a high degree of water-resistance, gloss, and durability. There are only slight dif
ferences between the oils of A. montana and A. fordii}^^
Folk medicine — The oil is applied to furuncles and ulcers.
Chemistry — The oil content of the seed is ca. 50 to 60%. Oil consists chiefly of 
glycerides of beta-elaeostearic and oleic acids, and probably a little linoleic acid. Oil cake 
residue is poisonous and is only fit for manuring.
Description — A small tree about 5 m tall, much-branched, partially deciduous, dioecious. 
Leaves simple, ovate or more or less cordate, apex cuspidate, about 12 cm long, 10 cm 
broad, sometimes larger and 3-lobed; leaf-blade with 2 large, conspicuous glands at base, 
petiole up to 24 cm long. Flowers monoecious, petals large, white, up to 3 cm long. Fruits 
egg-shaped, 3-lobed, wrinkled, about 5 cm in diameter, pointed at summit, flattened at base, 
generally with 3 or 4 one-seeded segments, the outer surface with wavy transverse ridges, 
the pericarp thick, hard, and weedy. Flowers and fruits March.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, mu-oil tree, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, poor soil, and slope. (2n = 22.
Distribution — Native to South China and some of the S. Shan States (Burma). Introduced 
and cultivated successfully in Indochina (where it has replaced A. fordii), Malawi, and in 
cooler parts of Florida, and other tropical regions.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, mu-oil tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 20.2 dm (mean 
of 8 cases = 13.6), annual temperature of 14.8 to 26.5°C (mean of 8 cases = 21.9°C), 
and pH of 5.5 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 6.2).®^ Adapted to subtropical regions and high 
elevations with moderate rainfall. Mainly a hillside species, it can thrive in warmer climates 
and will withstand heavier rainfall than A.fordii, provided the area is well-drained. Maximum 
temperature 35.5°C, minimum temperature 6°C. It is frost-tender, and does not require a 
low temperature (below 3°C) as tung-oil trees {A. fordii) do, so can be grown in warmer 
regions. In Assam, grown where rainfall is 175 to 275 cm annually; in Mysore at elevations 
of 800 to 1,000 m with annual rainfall of 150 cm. Grows well in alluvial soils and is not 
very exacting in its soil requirements. In richer soils, the growth is more vigorous. A slightly 
acid soil is preferable.
Cultivation — Trees are propagated from seeds or by budding. In Malawi, propagation 
is by budding from high-yielding clones. Seeds are usually planted in a nursery and may 
take from 2 to 3 months to germinate. When seedlings are about 1 year old, they are planted 
out, spaced 6.6 x 6.6 m or more. Cultural practices are similar to those for A. fordii. As 
soon as the seedlings emerge, a side-dressing of fertilizer (5-10-5) of nitrogen and phos
phorus, along with commercial zinc sulfate, should be applied. Fertilizer is applied at rate 
of 6(X) kg/ha, in bands along each side of row, 20 cm from seedlings and 5 to 7.5 cm deep. 
Other fertilizers may be needed, depending on the soil. According to Spurling and Spurling,^’^ 
N is the most important nutrient for tung in Malawi, irrespective of climate or soil. Most 
successful budding is done in late August, by the simple shield method, requiring a piece 
of budstick bark, including a bud, that will fit into a cut in the rootstock bark. A T-shaped 
cut is made in bark of rootstock at a point 5 to 7.5 cm above ground level, the flaps of bark 
loosened, shield-bud slipped inside flaps, and the flaps tied tightly over the transplanted bud 
with rubber budding strip 12 cm long and 0.6 cm wide. After about 7 days, the rubber strip 
is cut to prevent binding. As newly set buds are susceptible to cold injury, soil is mounded 
over them for winter. When growth starts in spring, soil is pulled back and each stock cut
15
back to within 3.5 cm of the dormant bud. Later care consists of keeping all suckers removed 
and the trees well-cultivated. Trees may be planted 125 to 750/ha. When trees are small, 
close planting in rows greatly increases the bearing surface, but at maturity the bearing 
surface of a crowded row is about the same as for a row with trees further apart. However, 
it is well to leave enough space between rows for orchard operations. In contour-planting, 
distances between rows and total number of trees per hectare vary; rows 10 to 12 m apart, 
trees spaced 3.3 to 4 m apart in rows, 250 to 350 trees/ha. Tops of trees must be pruned 
back to 20 to 25 cm at planting. As growth starts, all buds are rubbed off except the one 
strongest growing and best placed on the tree. A bud 5 cm or more below the top of stump 
is preferred over one closer to the top.^^^’^*^
Harvesting — Trees begin bearing 2 to 5 years after transplanting with maximum pro
duction reached in 8 years and continuing for 40 years. In northern Burma, it has been 
observed to be more vigorous and disease-resistant than A. fordii. In Indochina, it has been 
successfully planted and its oil is now being produced on a commercial scale, replacing that 
of A. fordii. Fruits mature and drop to ground in late September to early November. They 
are gathered and dried to 15% moisture before processing. Fruits should be left on the ground 
3 to 4 weeks until hulls are dead and dry, and the moisture content has dropped below 30%; 
fresh they are about 60% moisture. Fruits are gathered by hand into baskets or sacks.
Yields and economics — A. montana is reported to give much higher yields of fruits 
than A. fordii. The percentage of kernels in the seeds is about 56%, and of oil in the kernels, 
about 59.3%. Major producers of the oil from A. montana are Burma, Indochina (Vietnam, 
Cambodia, Laos), Malawi, Congo, East Africa, South Africa, Malagasy Republic, India, 
and U.S.S.R. It has been considered for introduction in Florida.
Energy — Yields of oil per tree in China is figured to be about 3.2 kg; in Florida, 4.5 
to 9 kg. Trees yield about 45 to 68 kg nuts per year, these yielding about 35 to 40% oil. 
In one Malawi trial, N treatments gave an increase of 519 kg/ha dry seed over a trial mean 
of 1070 kg/ha. With tung cake and ammonium sulphate, air dry tung seed yields of 12 to 
17 year old trees was 2013 to 2367 kg/ha, of 6 to 9 year olds 766 to 1546 kg/ha.
Biotic factors — Fungi reported on A. montana include the following: Armillaria mellea, 
Botryodiplodia theobromae, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cephaleuros mycoidea, C. virescens, 
Cercospora aleuritidis, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides var. aleuritidis, Corticium koleroga, 
C. solani (Rhizoctonia solani), Corynespora cassiicola, Diplodia theobromae, Fusarium 
arthrosporioides, F. lateritium, Glomerella cingulata, Haplosporella aleurites, Mycospha- 
erella aleuritidis, Periconia byssoides, Pestalotiopsis disseminata, P. glandicola, P. ja
pónica, P. versicolor, Pestalotia dichaeta, Phyllosticta microspora, Pseudocampton 
fasciculatum, Rhizoctonia lanellifera, Schizophyllum commune, Thyronectriapseudotrichia, 
Trametes occidentalis, Ustulina zonata.^^^
16 Handbook of Nuts
AMPHICARPAEA BRACTEATA (L.) Femald (FABACEAE) — Hog Peanut, Wild Peanut
Uses — Ojibwa Indians were said to eat both roots and seeds cooked. (There’s not much 
to the roots.) Meskwaki (Fox) Indians learned that mice gathered the underground nuts and 
laid them up in stores, which stores the Indians gathered for themselves (Dakota Indians 
were said to leave com or other food in exchange). The subterranean seeds are more important 
as food. They have been likened to garden-bean in flavor, the aerial seeds to soybeans. As 
late as November in Maryland, the subterranean seeds may be tracked from the dying 
yellow/brown tops. If eaten raw, seeds might be soaked in warm water or water with 
hardwood ashes. In October, when both Amphicarpaea and Apios seeds are available, I find 
both the aerial and subterranean seeds of the Amphicarpaea seeds much more pleasing to 
the palate raw than the Apios seeds. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ speculate that the subterranean 
seeds may “ have survival-potential under conditions of intense grazing.” I suggest that the 
subterranean seeds might not set in tightly packed sod. Both aerial and subterranean seeds 
are eaten by bear, chipmunk, deer, grouse, mice, pheasant, prairie chicken, quail, and wild 
turkey. Vines are browsed by livestock and probably deer. Once cultivated in southern U.S., 
hog peanuts have been suggested for planting in poultry forage systems and for intercropping 
with com and perhaps ginseng. All members of the genus can be important in soil improve
ment, as soil cover, and in erosion control.®
Folk medicine — Chippewa drank the root with other roots as a general physic, while, 
conversely, the Cherokee used it for diarrhea. Cherokee also blew the root tea onto snakebite 
wounds."^
17
Chemistry — Marshall'^^^ notes that the aerial seeds, with flavor similar to soybeans, 
contain ca. 30% protein, 7 to 16% oil. The oil contains 10.3 to 10.4% palmitic-, 1.3 to 
1.6% stearic-, 24.9 to 26.7% oleic-, 54.8 to 58.5% linoleic-, and 6.5 to 7.6% linolenic- 
acids. The cleistogamous, underground seeds, weighing as much as 1 g each, may contain 
50% water. Their oil content is lower, and the protein content may be only 14.3%, perhaps'^®'* 
reflecting the higher water content.Lectins are also reported. Gallaher and Buhr^®^ analyzed 
Tennessee fodder during early pod-fill stage, reporting for the whole plant ca. 89% organic 
matter, 26.5 g/kg N, 2.4 g/kg P, 14.2 g/kg K, 17.3 g/kg Ca, 4.1 g/kg Mg, 20 ppm Cu, 40 
ppm Zn, 120 ppm Mn, and 360 ppm Fe, averaging slightly lower than pegging peanut 
forage, but higher in P, Ca, Mn, and Fe. Crude protein in the hog peanut forage was over 
16%, slightly below the peanut forage.
Description — Weak, twining, climbing annual (though often cited as perennial) to 2 m 
long, the stems sparsely appressed short-pubescent to densely villous. Leaves 3-foliolate; 
leaflets entire, ovate to rhombic-ovate, the laterals often asymmetrical, 2 to 10 cm long, 
petiolulate, stipellate; usually pubescent. Axillary racemes of 1 to 17 petaliferous flowers, 
on peduncles 1 to 6 cm long, the ovate bracts 2 to 5 mm long; pedicels 1.5 to 5 mm long; 
racemes from lower axils slender, elongate, with cleistogamous, apetalous, inconspicuous 
flowers. Calyx of petaliferous flowers narrowly campanulate; tube 4 to 6 mm long, ca. 2 
mm in diameter; upper 2 lobes united, or nearly so, glabrous to densely appressed-pubescent; 
petals pale purple or lilac to white, 9 to 16 mm long; stamens of the petaliferous flowers 
diadelphous, 9 and 1; ovary stipitate, style not bearded. Legume from petaliferous flowers 
flattened, oblong-linear, 1.5 to 4 cm long, 7-10 mm broad, often 3-seeded, valves laterally 
twisting in dehiscence; fruit from cleistogamous flowers fleshy, often subterranean, usually 
1-seeded, indéhiscent, cryptocotylar.^^^ Duke"^®^ recognizes four different flower/fruit 
combinations:
1. Subterranean seed, whose cleistogamous flowers never left the soil (usually one or 
two); the biggest, juiciest, softest, and most edible (15% protein). For propagation in 
situ.
2. Geotropic seed from cleistogamous flowers at the tip of branches originating in the 
axils of the first simple aerial leaves. Usually solitary, soft, plump. For propagation 
nearby.
3. Aerial cleistogamous flowers, whose pods, and usually single hard seeds, develop 
strictly above ground. For dispersal.
4. Aerial chasmogamous flowers followed by pods with usually three small hard seeds 
(the smallest, driest, hardest, and least edible, yet 30% protein). For longer distance 
dispersal. The type 4 flower/fruits are said to occur mostly in sunny situations. If the 
forest is cleared, the increased sunlight would trigger more dispersal seed, enhancing 
the chances to move the plant back into the forest.
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, hog peanut, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alluvium, muck, mulch, sand, shade, slope, and brief 
waterlogging. A. bracteata is said to merge imperceptibly with var. comosa, which grows 
on richer, often calcareous or alluvial soil. Turner and Fearing"^ concluded the genus 
contained only three species, A. africana in the cool high mountains of Africa, A. edgeworthii 
in the Himalayas and eastern Asia, and the American A. bracteata, the latter two nearly 
indistinguishable. (2n = 20,40.)
Distribution — Native to damp shaded woodlands from Quebec to Manitoba and Montana, 
south to Florida, Louisiana, and Texas.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Moist to Wet through Cool Tem
perate Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, hog peanut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation
18 Handbook of Nuts
of 8 to 20 dm, annual temperature of 8 to 14°C, and pH of 5.5 to 7.5. Although native to 
damp shaded forest, the plant can be cultivated in sandy, sunny situations. The underground 
seed must have very different chemistry, ecology, and physiology, destined for immediate 
survival and not dispersal, as contrasted to the aerial seed, destined for long-term dispersal.
Cultivation — Said to have been cultivated in the South, but few details are available. 
W. G. Dore"*^^ sterilizes his soil, plants in the fall, and mulches with such things as sawdust, 
peat moss, vermiculite, and/or organic muck. Gas-sterilization is all but imperative to control 
weeds since the clambering habit of the vine precludes cultivation. In fertile soils in full 
sun, the one-seeded beans grow large and succulent, comparable to peanuts, or even lima 
beans. Frey'*^’ suggests intercropping the hog peanut with com.
Harvesting — The large seeds appear beneath the dead leaves, generally just under the 
surface of the ground. In weed-free culture, the tangled vines can be raked off preparatory 
to harvest in fall. In loose sandy soil, the seeds separate out easily with a quarter inch screen. 
Harvested seed tend to germinate in the refrigerator, if not frozen.
Yields and economics — Unpublished research by W. G. Dore"^^ reported yields as high 
as 1 kg seed per 10 m row. His seed were fall-planted about 10 cm apart in gas-sterilized 
sandy loam.
Energy — Both biomass (ca. 5 g per plant) and oil yields are low. The biomass raked 
up before harvesting could conceivably be converted to energy. The nitrogen fixed by the 
plant could be energetically important, in pastures, forests, and in intercropping scenarios.
Biotic factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting Am- 
phicarpaea bracteata: Cercospora monoica (leaf spot), and Erysiphe poly goni (powdery 
mildew). Agriculture Handbook No. 165,"^ without reference to a specific species, also lists: 
Colletotrichum sp. (leaf spot), Parodiella perisporioides (black mildew), Puccinia andrò- 
pogonis var. onobrychidis (rust), and Synchytrium aecidioides (false mst, leaf gall). Allen 
and Allen^ report that earlier studies showed a relative inability of the hog peanut Rhizobium 
to nodulate legumes from 21 diverse genera. Later plant-infection studies discounted this 
exclusiveness by showing plant-infection kinships within the cowpea miscellany. Larvae of 
Rivella pallida Lowe, a common and widely distributed species of the dipteran family 
Platystomatidae (and a potential pest of soybean), attack the N2-fixing root nodules of 
Amphicarpaea. The nodular contents are completely destroyed, thus eliminating the nodule’s 
ability to fix N2. Up to 25% of an individual’s nodules are damaged in northeastern Ohio. 
There is one and perhaps a partial second generation per year in northern Ohio, with 
overwintering occurring as mature larvae in diapause. Eight species of neartic Rivellia 
(including R. flavimana Loew and R. metallica (Walp)) occur on Amphicarpaea bracteata 
(L.).**®® Chasmogamous flowers are pollinated primarily by Bombus affinis."^
19
ANACARDIUM OCCIDENTALE L. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Cashew
Uses — Many parts of the cashew plant are used. The cashew “ apple” , the enlarged 
fully ripe fruit, may be eaten raw, or preserved as jams or sweetmeats. The juice is made 
into a beverage (Brazil cajuado) or fermented into a wine. Seeds of the cashew are consumed 
whole, roasted, shelled and salted, in Madeira wine, or mixed in chocolates. Shelling the 
roasted seed yields the cashew nut of commerce. Seeds yield about 45% of a pale yellow, 
bland, edible oil, resembling almond oil. From the shells or hulls is extracted a black, acrid, 
powerful vesicant oil, used as a preservative and water-proofing agent in insulating varnishes, 
in manufacture of typewriter rolls; in oil- and acid-proof cements and tiles, in brake-linings, 
as an excellent lubricant in magneto armatures in airplanes, and for termite-proofing timbers. 
Timber is used in furniture making, boat building, packing cases and in the production of 
charcoal. Bark used in tanning. Stems exude a clear gum, Cashawa gum, used in phar
maceuticals and as substitute for gum arabic. Juice turns black on exposure to air and 
provides an indelible ink. Along the coast of Orissa, shelter belts and wind breaks, planted 
to stabilize sand dunes and protect the adjacent fertile agricultural land from drifting sand, 
have yielded economic cashew crops 5 years after planting.
Folk medicine — The fruit bark juice and the nut oil are both said to be folk remedies 
for calluses, corns, and warts, cancerous ulcers, and even elephantiasis. Anacardol and 
anacardic acid have shown some activity against Walker carcinosarcoma 256. Decoction of 
the astringent bark given for severe diarrhea and thrush. Old leaves are applied to skin 
afflictions and bums (tannin applied to bums is hepatocarcinogenic). Oily substance from 
pericarp used for cracks on the feet. Cuna Indians used the bark in herb teas for asthma, 
colds, and congestion. The seed oil is believed to be alexeritic and amebicidal; used to treat 
gingivitis, malaria, and syphilitic ulcers. Ayurvedic medicine recommends the fmit for 
anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, ascites, dysentery, fever, inappetence, leucoderma, piles, tumors, 
and obstinate ulcers.In the Gold Coast, the bark and leaves are used for sore gums and 
toothache. Juice of the fmit is used for hemoptysis. Sap discutient, fungicidal, repellent. 
Leaf decoction gargled for sore throat. Cubans use the resin for cold treatments. The plant 
exhibits hypoglycemic activity. In Malaya, the bark decoction is used for diarrhea. In 
Indonesia, older leaves are poulticed onto bums and skin diseases. Juice from the apple is 
used to treat quinsy in Indonesia, dysentery in the Philippines.
20 Handbook of Nuts
Toxicity — He who cuts the wood or eats cashew nuts or stirs his drink with a cashew 
swizzle stick is possibly subject to a dermatitis.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 542 calories, 7.6 g H2O, 
17.4 g protein, 43.4 g fat, 29.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 76 mg Ca, 578 
mg P, 18.0 mg Fe, 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.25 mg riboflavin, 1.6 mg niacin, and 7 mg ascorbic 
acid. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 561 calories, 5.2 g H2O, 17.2 g 
protein, 45.7 g fat, 29.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 38 mg Ca, 373 mg 
P, 3.8 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 464 mg K, 60 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.43 mg thiamine, 
0.25 mg riboflavin, and 1.8 mg niacin. Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 
533 calories, 2.7 g H2O, 15.2 g protein, 37.0 g fat, 42.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.4 g fiber,
3.1 g ash, 24 mg Ca, 580 mg P, 1.8 mg Fe, 0.85 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, and
2.1 mg niacin. The ‘’apples” (ca. 30 to 35 kg per tree per annum) yield each 20 to 25 cc 
juice, which, rich in sugar, was once fermented in India for alcohol production. The apple 
contains 87.9% water, 0.2% protein, 0.1% fat, 11.6% carbohydrate, 0.2% ash, 0.01% Ca, 
0.01% P, .002% Fe, 0.26% vitamin C, and 0.09% carotene. The testa contains alpha- 
catechin, beta-sitosterol, and 1-epicatechin; also proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, and 
leucopelargonidine. The dark color of the nut is due to an iron-polyphenol complex. The 
shell oil contains about 90% anacardic acid (C22H32O3) and 10% cardol (C32ri2704). It yields 
glycerides, linoleic, palmitic, stearic, and lignoceric acids, and sitosterol. Examining 24 
different cashews, Murthy and Yadava^^^ reported that the oil content of the shell ranged 
from 16.6 to 32.9%, of the kernel from 34.5 to 46.8%. Reducing sugars ranged from 0.9 
to 3.2%, nonreducing sugars, 1.3 to 5.8%, total sugars from 2.4 to 8.7%, starch from 4.7 
to 11.2%. Gum exudates contain arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and xylose.
Description — Spreading, evergreen, perennial tree to 12 m tall; leaves simple, alternate, 
obovate, glabrous, penninerved, to 20 cm long, 15 cm wide, apically rounded or notched, 
entire, short petiolate; flowers numerous in terminal panicles, 10 to 20 cm long, male or 
female, green and reddish, radially symmetrical nearly; sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 10; ovary 
one-locular, one-ovulate, style simple; fruit a reniform achene, about 3 cm long, 2.5 cm 
wide, attached to the distal end of an enlarged pedicel and hypocarp, called the cashew- 
apple. The fruit is shiny, red or yellowish, pear-shaped, soft, juicy, 10 to 20 cm long, 4 to 
8 cm broad; fruit is reniform, edible, with two large white cotyledons and a small embryo, 
surrounded by a hard pericarp which is cellular and oily; the oil is poisonous, causing 
allergenic reactions in some humans. Flowering variable.
Germplasm — Several varieties have been selected, based on yield and nut size. Reported 
from the South America and Middle America Centers of Diversity, cashew or cvs thereof 
is reported to tolerate aluminum, drought, fire, insects, laterite, low pH, poor soil, sand, 
shade, slope, and savanna. (2n = 42.)^^
Distribution — Native to tropical America, from Mexico and West Indies to Brazil and 
Peru. The cashew tree is pantropical, especially in coastal areas.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist to Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, cashew is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean of 32 
cases = 19.6), annual temperature of 21 to 28°C (mean of 31 cases = 25.2), and pH of 
4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 21 cases = 64). Grows on sterile, very shallow, and impervious savanna 
soils, on which few other trees or crops will grow, but is less tolerant of saline soil than 
most coastal plants. Does not tolerate any frost. In Brazil, Johnson*^® summarizes ‘‘optimal 
ecological conditions” : annual rainfall 7 to 20 dm, minimum temperature 17°C, maximum 
temperature 38°C; average annual temperature 24 to 28°C, relative humidity 65 to 80%; 
insolation 1,500 to 2,(XX) hr/year, wind velocity 2.25 km/hr, and dry season 2 to 5 months 
long. It is recommended that cultivation be limited to nearly level areas of red-yellow podzols, 
quartziferous sands, and red-yellow latosols.®^’^^®
Cultivation — Cashew germinates slowly and poorly; several nuts are usually planted to 
the hole and thinned later. Propagation is generally by seeds, but may be vegetative from
21
grafting, air-layering or inarching. Planting should be done in situ as cashew seedlings do 
not transplant easily. Recommended spacing is 10 x 10 m, thinned to 20 x 20 m after 
about 10 years, with maximum planting of 250 trees per ha. Once established, the field 
needs little care. Intercropping may be done the first few years, with cotton, peanut, or 
yams. Fruits are produced after 3 years, during which lower branches and suckers are 
removed. Full production is attained by the 10th year, and trees continue to bear until about 
30 years old. In dry areas, like Tanzania, flowering occurs in the dry season, and fruits 
mature in 2 to 3 months. Flowers and fruits in various degrees of development are often 
present in same panicle.
Harvesting — From flowering stage to ripe fruit requires about 3 months. Mature fruit 
falls to the ground where the “ apple” dries away. In wet weather, they are gathered each 
day and dried for 1 to 3 days. Mechanical means for shelling have been unsuccessful, so 
hand labor is required. Cashews are usually roasted in the shell (to make it brittle and oil 
less blistering), cracked, and nuts removed and vacuum packed. In India, part of the nuts 
are harvested from wild trees by people who augment their meager income from other crops 
grown on poor land. Kernels are extracted by people skilled in breaking open the shells 
with wooden hammers without breaking the kernels. Nuts are separated from the fleshy 
pedicel and receptacle, seed coat removed by hand, and nuts dried. Fresh green nuts from 
Africa and the islands off southern India are shipped to processing plants in Western In
dia.70.278
Yields and economics — Yields are said to range from 0 to 48 kg per tree per year, with 
an average yield of 800 to 1,000 kg/ha. Heavy bearing trees often produce nuts considered 
too small for the trade. Indian field trials showed that fertilizers could increase yields of 15- 
year-old trees from less than 1 kg to tree to >4 and enabled 6-year-olds to average 5.7. 
Regular applications of 250 g N, 150 g P2O5, and 150 g K2O per tree resulted in average 
yield increases of 700 to 1600 
kg/ha.In Pernambuco, trees produced 1.5 to 24.0 kg each 
per year, averaging 10.3 kg per tree.’^® At Pacajus (Ceara, Brazil) trees average 17.4 kg/year 
with one tree bearing 48 kg/year. Major producers of cashew nuts are India, Tanzania, 
Mozambique, and Kenya. In 1968 India planted over 224,000 ha in cashews to supply over 
200 processing factories operating all year. In 1971 India produced 90,000 MT, the bulk 
exported to the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Export price at U.S. ports was $.33/kg. India imports 
green nuts from the African countries and processes them for resale. Import price in 1971 
in India was 1730 rupees/MT. Cashawa Gum is obtained from the West Indies, Portuguese 
East Africa, Tanzania, and Kenya.
Energy — A perennial species, the cashew has already, in the past, yielded alcohol from 
the “ apple” , oil from the nut, and charcoal from the wood. Prunings from the tree and the 
leaf biomass could also be used as energy sources.
Biotic factors — The cashew tree has few serious diseases or pests. The following are 
reported disease-causing agents, none of which are considered of economic importance: 
Aspergillus chevalieri, A. niger, Atelosaccharomyces moachoi, Balladynastrum anacardii, 
Botryodiplodia theobromae, Cassytha filiformis, Cephaleuros mycoides, Ceratocystis sp., 
Cercospora anacardii, Colletotrichum capsid, Cytonaema sp., Endomyces anacardii, Fu
sarium decemcellulare, Gloeosporium sp., Glomerella cingulata, Meliola anacardii, Ne- 
matospora corylii, Parasaccharomyces giganteus, Pestaliopsis disseminata, Phyllosticta 
anacardicola, P. mortoni, Phytophthora palmivora, Pythium spinosum, Schizotrichum in- 
dicum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Trichomerium psidii, Trichothecium roseum, Valsa eugeniae. 
Cuscuta chinensis attacks the tree. Of insects, Helopeltis spp. have been reported in Tanzania. 
In Brazil, high populations of the nematodes Criconemoides, Scutellonema, and Xiphinema 
are reported around cashew roots. Four insects are considered major pests: the white fly 
(Aleurodicus cocois), a caterpillar {Anthistarcha binoculares), a red beetle (Crimissa sp.), 
and a thrip (Selenothripes rubrocinctus). Flowers are visited by flies, ants, and other insects, 
which may serve as pollinators. Artificial pollination is practiced in some areas.
22 Handbook of Nuts
APIOS AMERICANA Medik. (FABACEAE) — Groundnut
Uses — An attractively flowered plant, suggestive of Wisteria, Apios has been described 
by the NAS^^* as a “ useful, sweet-scented ornamental” . I have enjoyed the tubers raw or 
cooked. During the potato famine of 1845, Apios was introduced to Europe (but not for the 
first time). Its cultivation there as a food crop was abandoned when potato growing again 
became feasible. The plant was much esteemed by early American settlers, who ate them 
boiled, fried, or roasted, calling them groundnuts, potato beans, or Indian potatoes. The 
Pilgrims of New England survived their first few winters thanks to the groundnut. Blackmon"^ 
presents several groundnut recipes. Erichsen-Brown^ recounts many of the Indian uses. 
Menominee preserved the roots by boiling them in maple syrup.Even bread was made 
from the root. Indians were said to eat the seeds like lentils. I would like to join the ranks 
of Bill Blackmon,"^ Ed Croom, Janet Seabrook,^^’^°° and Noel Vietmeyer, and advocate 
more studies of the economic potential of this interesting tuber, harvestable all year round. 
I agree with Blackmon and Reynolds,"^® who, after studying Apios intensively stated: “ the 
prognosis for developing A. americana as a food crop looks outstanding.” Advocates should 
be aware of its weed potential, at least among uncultivated perennials, e.g., cranberries and 
azaleas.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers were used in folk remedies for 
that cancerous condition known as “ Proud Flesh” in New England. Nuts were boiled and 
made into a plaster: “ For to eat out the proud flesh they (Indians) take a kind of earth nut 
boyled and stamped.
23
Table 1
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (PERCENT) OF APIOS SPECIES
Apios americana Apios fortunei Apios priceana
Fresh Dry Fresh Dry Fresh Dry
basis basis basis basis basis basis
Water 81.00 68.60 61.88
Fiber 5.20 27.37 1.20 3.82 4.95
12.99
Crude protein 3.12 16.42 4.19 13.34 2.62 6.87
Nonprotein N 0.19 1.00 0.42 1.34 0.15
0.39
Protein N 0.31 1.63 0.25 0.80 0.27
0.69
Crude fat 0.67 3.53 0.19 0.61 0.82
2.15
Ash 5.21 1.30 4.14
0.99 2.67 7.00
Carbohydrate 9.02 47.47 24.52 78.09 27.06 70.97
Starch
18.30 58.28 7.84 20.58
Alcohol-insol. solids 15.08 39.55
From Walter, W. M ., Croom, Jr., E. M ., Catignani, G. L., and Thresher, W. C., 
Compositional study of Apios priceana tubers, J. Agric. Food Chem., (Jan./Feb.), 39,
1986. Copyright 1986, American Chemical Society. With permission.
Chemistry — Some describe the plant as having a milky juice. Seabrook^^^ suggests tha 
the latex could be used commercially. According to the NAS, the only published analysis^"^- 
records a remarkable protein content of 17.5%. Prompted by the inadequacy of analyses, 
Duke arranged for new analytical investigations. Sanchez and Duke,^^^ based on these 
analyses provided by Benito de Lumen, report (ZMB): 3.75 crude fat, 5.50% ash, 17.28% 
crude protein, 28.84% neutral detergent fiber, 44.63% available carbohydrate, and 1.06 
nonprotein nitrogen. Per g they report 71.76 mg free amino acids, 1.26 mg nitrate, and 
10.36 mg tannin. Subsequently, Walter et al.^^^ tabulated the differences in analyses between 
fresh and dry tubers of A. americana, A. fortunei, and the endangered A. priceana (Table 
1). Saponins have been reported in the genus, and the absence of tannins,refuted above. 
Whether or not the plant exports its fixed nitrogen as ureides (allantoin, allantoic acid) as 
is typical of many of the subtropical Phaseoleae or as the more soluble amides (asparagine 
and glutamine) as in such temperate legumes as Lupinus, Pisum, Trifolium, and Vida remains 
to be seen. Because it is suggested to have a cowpea-type Rhizobium, I predict it will be 
a ureide exporter. Some calculations suggest it takes ca. 2 1/2 times as much water (remember 
this is an aquaphyte) to export N as ureides. But the ureides are more economical with a 
C:N ratio ca. 1:1; cf. 1:1 for asparagine, 5:2 for glutamine.^*^ Many legume sprouts are rich 
in allantoin, widely regarded as a vulnerary medicinal compound. According to the Merck 
Index, allantoin is a product of purine metabolism in animals, while it is prepared synthet
ically by the oxidation of uric acid with alkaline potassium permanganate. Medical and 
veterinary use — “ Has been used topically in suppurating wounds, resistant ulcers, and to 
stimulate growth of healthy tissue (Merck & Co.^‘°). Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary 
puts it differently:
allantoin (ah-lan'to-in). Chemical name: 5-ureidohydantoin. A white crystallizable substance,
C4H6N4O3, the diureide of glyoxylic acid, found in allantoic fluid, fetal urine, and many 
plants, and as a urinary excretion product of purine metabolism in most mammals but not 
in man or the higher apes. It is produced synthetically by the oxidation of uric acid, and was 
once used to encourage epithelial formation in wounds and ulcers and in osteomyelitis. It is 
the active substance in maggot treatment, being secreted by the maggots as a product of 
purine metabolism.
The direct role of allantoin in gout, if any, should be of great interest to those American
24
Handbook of Nuts
males who have gout, especially if they ingest large quantities of legume sprouts or comfrey. 
Apios produces a complex pterocarpan that appears structurally similar to glyceollin III, a 
phytoalexin of the cultivated soybean.
Description — Twining, herbaceous vine, the stems short-pubescent to glabrate, 1 to 3 
m long, the rhizomes moniliform, with numerous fleshy tubers 1 to 8 cm thick. (Some 
plants have fleshy roots only, others both fleshy roots and tubers, and others only tubers.) 
In winter, the stems have a distinctive brown color and are locally flattened, enabling the 
experienced collector to distinguish it from honeysuckle. Leaves once-pinnate, 1 to 2 dm 
long; leaflets 5 to 7, ovate or ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, ca. 3 to 6 cm long, glabrous 
to short-pubescent, obscurely stipellate; petioles mostly 2 to 7 cm long; stipules setaceous, 
soon deciduous, 4 to 6 mm long. Inflorescence 5 to 15 cm long, nodes swollen, flowers 1 
to 2 per node, subtended by linear-subulate bracts 2 to 2.5 mm long; pedicels 1 to 4 mm 
long with 2 linear-subulate bractlets near apex. Calyx sparsely short-pubescent, broadly 
campanulate, tube ca. 3 mm long; petals nearly white to brownish purple, the standard 
obovate or orbicular to obcordate, reflexed, obscurely auricled, 9 to 13 mm long, the wings 
shorter, slightly auricled, the keel strongly incurved; stamens diadelphous, 1 and 1. Legume 
linear, 5 to 15 cm long, 4 to 7 mm broad, 2 to 12-seeded, dehiscing by 2 spirally twisted 
valves.Germination cryptocotylar.^^^’^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, groundnut, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate acid and bog soils, partial shade, slopes, and waterlogging. 
In 1982, the Plant Introduction Officer of the USDA suggested to me the possibility of 
mounting a germplasm expedition to collect germplasm of this species, and its endangered 
relative, Apios priceana Robinson, which produces a single large tuber instead of a string 
of small tubers. NAS^^‘ speculates that a bush-like mutant may be found in nature. Seedlings 
from Tennessee had 22 chromosomes, while plants from the northern part of the range were 
triploid. Blackmon^® and Reynolds^”^^ discuss the variation in germplasm they have already 
assembled. (2n = 22.)
Distribution — Widely distributed in eastern Canada and the U.S. (often around ancient 
Indian campsites) (Florida, Texas, to Nova Scotia, Minnesota, and Colorado). Usually in 
low damp bottomland or riparian woods and thickets. Seems to be associated with Alnus in 
Rocky Gorge Reservoir, Maryland, as well as on the eastern shore of Maryland. Unfortu
nately, it can become a serious weed in cranberry plots. Uninfested bogs yielded nearly 14 
MT/ha cranberries, whereas herbicide plots yielded only ca. 670 to 2,300 kg/ha cranberry. 
Perhaps the cranberry salesmen could find a market for the groundnuts, since both are Native 
American food plants.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Cool Temperate Forest Life Zones, 
groundnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.7 to 11.7 dm (mean of 2 cases 
= 10.7), annual temperature of 9.9 to 20.3°C (mean of 2 cases = 15.1), and pH of 4.5 
to 7.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.8). Produces well in South Florida and Louisiana. I have 
successfully germinated fall harvested seed, after soaking in hot water, room temperature 
water, or frozen water, seeds that sunk and seeds that floated after soaking. These took 4 
months from harvest to germination, whereas their unsoaked counterparts had still not 
germinated. Fall-harvested seed apparently exhibit no dormancy when planted in spring.
Cultivation — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ since seed do not ripen in France, it 
is multiplied by division in March and April, or in the latter part of summer. Divisions are 
planted in good, light, well-drained soil 1 to 1.5 m apart in every direction. Reynolds^^^ 
spaced his seedlings at 2 x 3 feet, tubers at 3 x 3 feet. Stems should be supported by 
poles or stakes. Ground should be kept free of weeds by an occasional hoeing. Cultivation, 
if overdone, might discourage the rhizomes and their tubers. Seedlings require at least 2 
years growth and a minimum photoperiod of 14 hr to induce flowering.Tuber dormancy 
can be broken by chilling (several months at 35 to 40°F) or using ethylene.
25
Harvesting — According to Vilmorin-Andrieux,^^^ the tubers are not large enough to be 
gathered for use until the second or third year after planting. Blackman’s results in Louisiana 
show this is not true where there is a long growing season. Once large enough, they can 
be dug at any time of the year when the ground is not frozen. If carefully dug, strings of 
four score tubers can be achieved.
Yields and economics — According to Elliott,Asa Gray once said that if advanced 
civilization had started in North America instead of the Old World, the groundnut would 
have been the first tuber to be developed and cultivated. Femald, Kinsey, and Rollins^^"^ 
recount an anecdote indicating the economic value of the groundnuts to the pilgrims, “ The 
great value to the colonists of this ready food is furtlier indicated by a reputed town law, 
which in 1654 ordered that, if an Indian dug Groundnuts on English land, he was to be set 
in stocks, and for a second offence, to be whipped.’’ Yields of 30 MT per acre were 
erroneously reported (should have been 30 MT/ha) for cranberry bog weed populations. 
Reynolds has attained the equivalent of ca 40 MT/ha from tubers in 1-year studies in 
Louisiana.Some of his plants yielded more than 3 kg tubers.
Energy — Currently, this looks like a poor prospect for biomass production. However, 
one should at least consider the possibility of developing the crop for marginal habitat 
(swamp), the tubers as the main crop; the aerial biomass, as residue, might be used for 
production of rubber, leaf protein, and power alcohol. The nodulated roots fix nitrogen. 
Around Rocky Gorge Reservoir, in Maryland, the plant is most commonly intertwined in 
N-fixing 
Alnus species. Nodules were recorded on A. americana, but root-nodule location 
relative to tuber formation was not specified. Root hairs are said to be lacking on secondary 
roots of mature plants. Four rhizobial strains isolated from A. americana nodules were not 
tested on the host, but since they produced nodules on cowpea plants, the species was 
considered a member of the cowpea miscellany. The rhizobia are described as monotrichously 
flagellated rods with cowpea-type, slow cultural growth.® H. Keyser-^^ suggests conserva
tively that Apios fixes > 1(X) kg N per ha. With no idea of the solubility of N fixed by the 
groundnut, I recommend it be studied as a potential intercrop for marsh and aquatic plants, 
especially rice and wild rice. It might also be considered for cultivation around the edges 
of reservoirs used for irrigation, hence adding a small token of nitrogen to the irrigation 
waters. Because of their tolerance to both acidity and waterlogging, they might be especially 
advantageous around impoundments in strip-mine reclamations. Certainly the scorings by 
Roth et al.^^*^ do not speak well for the energy potential of Apios. They give it a score of 
14, in a system whereby only species receiving scores of 11 or less were regarded as potential 
renewable energy sources.
Biotic Factors — Agriculture Handbook No. 165"^ lists the following diseases affecting 
this species: Alternaria sp. (leaf spot), Cercospora tuberosa (leaf spot), Erysiphe polygoni 
(powdery mildew), Microsphaera dijfusa, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, and Puccinia an- 
dropogonis var. onobrychidis (rust). Reynolds^^^ reported powdery mildew, virus, possibly 
anthracnose, root-knot nematodes, mealy bugs, spider mites, aphids, white flies, leaf-eating 
caterpillars, cucumber beetles, grasshoppers, stink bugs, and fire ants. In some cases, the 
fire ants are responsible for mealy bug infestations. Although most Erythrinae are bird 
pollinated, Apios seems to be mostly bee pollinated.
26 Handbook of Nuts
ARECA CATECHU L. (ARECACEAE) — Betel-Nut Palm, Areca, Areca-Nut
Uses — Chief use of Betel-nut is as a breath sweetening masticatory, enjoyed for centuries 
by about one-tenth the human population. Often slices of the nut, together with a little lime 
and other ingredients (cardamom, camphor, cutch, clove, gambier, tobacco) according to 
taste, are folded in a Betel Pepper leaf {Piper betel) and fastened with a clove. Sometimes 
nuts are ground up with other materials and carried about in a pouch similar to a tobacco 
pouch. Betel chewing is often considered as an after-dinner or social affair. Chewing colors 
the saliva red and stains the teeth and gums black, eventually destroying the teeth, at least 
according to one school of thought. Used in the tanning industry. An extraction of areca- 
nuts makes black and red dyes. Dried nuts are said to sweeten the breath, strengthen the 
gums, and improve the appetite and taste. Husks are the most important by-product, being 
used for insulating wool, boards, and for manufacturing furfural. Innoculated with yeast 
{Saccharomyces cervisiae), leaves used as fermentation stimulant in industrial alcohol pro
duction. Large, tough, sheathing parts of leaf-bases, used as substitute for cardboard or 
strawboard for protecting packages; also used in the Philippines for hats, inner soles for 
slippers, book-covers, and makes an excellent paper pulp.®^
Folk medicine — The nut, in the form or ghees, powders, bolmes, or enemas, is said 
to be a folk remedy for abdominal tumors,Reported to be astringent, carminative, deob
struent, dentrifrice, detergent, diaphoretic, diuretic, intoxicant, laxative, masticatory, miotic, 
panacea, poison, preventative (malaria; mephitis), stomachic, taeniacide, taenifuge, tonic, 
and vermifuge, betel nut is a folk remedy for ascariasis, beriberi, cancer (esophagus), cholera, 
circulation problems, colic, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eruption, fistula, im
petigo, malaria, oliguria, rhagades, scabies, smallpox, sores, stomachache, syphilis, and 
tumors (abdomen).^' Nuts are astringent, stimulant, and a powerful anthelmintic, especially 
in veterinary practice. They are also considered digestive, emmenagogue, and are recom
mended as cardiac, nervine tonic, and as an astringent lotion for eyes, causing dilation of 
the pupil; once used for glaucoma. Externally, applied to ulcers, bleeding gums, and urinary 
discharges. Burned and powdered nuts used as a dentifrice in Europe. Once used as antidote 
to abrin poisoning. Mixed with sugar and coriander, the nuts are given to induce labor in 
Iran.‘^® Unripe fruits are cooling, laxative, and carminative.®^
Chemistry — Nuts contain the alkaloids, arecoline, arecaine and arecolidine, isoguvacine, 
guvacine, guvacoline; tannins (18%), fats (1417%), carbohydrates, and proteins, and some 
Vitamin A.
27
Toxicity — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 43 calories, 86.4 g H2O, 3.3 g 
protein, 0.3 g fat, 9.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.0 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 89 mg P, and 2.0 mg Fe. 
Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 394 calories, 12.3 g H2O, 6.0 g protein, 
10.8 g fat, 69.4 g total carbohydrate, 15.9 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 542 mg Ca, 63 mg P, 5.7 
mg Fe, 76 mg Na, 446 mg K, 0.17 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and 
a trace of ascorbic acid. Classified by the FDA {Health Foods Business, June, 1978) as an 
Herb of Undefined Safety. Excessive use of betel-nut causes loss of appetite, salivation, 
and general degeneration of the body. Arecaine is poisonous and affects respiration and the 
heart, increases peristalsis of intestines, and causes tetanic convulsions.^^’^^^
Description — Tall, slender-stemmed palm, up to 30 m, 30 to 45 cm in diameter; stem 
smooth, whitish, surmounted by crown of pinnate leaves; leaves 0.9 to 1.5 m long, dark- 
green, with the upper pinnae confluent; lower portion of petiole expanded into a broad, 
tough, sheath-like structure; inflorescence a spadix encased in a spathe, rachis much-branched 
bearing male and female flowers; male flowers small and numerous, female ones much 
larger; fruit a nut, varying in shape from flat to conical or spherical, 5 to 6.5 cm long, 3.7 
to 5 cm across, yellow, reddish-yellow to brilliant orange when ripe, size of a nutmeg and 
with similar internal markings; pericarp hard and fibrous (husk), 65% of fruit mass; kernel 
(areca-nut), 35% of fruit, grayish-brown, 2.5 to 3.7 cm in diameter, single per fruit, with 
thin seed-coat and large ruminate endosperm. Flower and fruit seasons variable.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, the betel 
palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, insects, laterite, poor soil, shade, and 
slope. Varieties are selected on basis of size and shape of fruits and nuts, hardness and 
astringency of nuts, and various properties of the nuts. Some varieties have large, flat, 
almost bitter nuts, while others are conical or spherical and so bland in taste as to be called 
“ sweet areca-nuts” (A. catechu var. deliciosa). Areca catechu forma communis — fruits 
orange-red, globose-ovoid, or ovoid-ellipsoid, 4 to 5 cm long, 3 to 4 cm broad; seed 
subglobose, with a more or less flattish base. Areca catechu var. silvática — fruit ovoid- 
ellipsoid, rather ventricose, smaller than usual, 4 cm long, 3 cm or less broad; seed globose- 
form from which the commonly cultivated palm has been derived. Areca catechu var. 
batanensis — stems shorter and thicker than in forma communis, spadix denser, with shorter 
floriderous branches. Areca catechu var. longicarpa — fruit narrowly ellipsoid, 5.5 to 7 
cm long, 2.5 cm broad; seed ovoid-conical, with blunt apex and flat base, slightly longer 
than broad. Areca catechu var. semisilvatica, A. catechu var. alba and A. catechu var. 
portoricensis are other varieties commonly cultivated. (2n = 32.).®^’^^*
Distribution — Areca-nut palm is considered native to Malaysia, where it is cultivated 
extensively. It is also found throughout the East Indies and Philippines In India, Sri Lanka, 
Assam, Burma, Madagascar, and East Africa, it is cultivated from the coastal areas up to 
about 1,000 m. Plants are often spontaneous and occur in second-growth forests, but are 
rarely found distant from cultivation.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, betel nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 dm 
(mean of 13 cases = 20.6, annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.5°C (mean of 13 cases = 
25.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4). It requires a moist tropical climate, 
thriving best at low altitudes, but will tolerate moderate elevations on mountains. Grows in 
areas with rainfall of 50 cm, if soil is well-drained, but will grow in drier areas with only 
5 dm annual rainfall, if suitably irrigated. Uniform distribution of rainfall is very important. 
Grows in many types of soil varying in texture from laterite to loamy, provided soil has 
thorough drainage, yet has the ability to retain optimum moisture required by the palm. 
Light and sandy soils are unsuitable unless copiously irrigated and manured. Maximum 
temperatures should not exceed 38°C, the optimum temperature for growth being a continuous 
temperate range from 15.5 to 38°C. These palms are unable to withstand extreme temperatures 
or a wide variance of daily temperature.
Handbook of Nuts
28
Cultivation — Propagation is exclusively from seeds. In southern India and Malaysia, 
fruits from carefully selected trees are gathered from 25- to 30-year-old trees. In Assam and 
Bengal, no selection is made. In other areas the middle bunch of fruits is used for seed, 
and in still other areas the last bunch of the season is preferred. In any case the ripe fruits 
are gathered in November, dried in the sun for 1 to 2 days, or in shade for 3 to 7 days 
before being sown. Drying the nuts does not increase germination of seeds. Well-tilled land 
in a well-drained area in the garden or along an irrigation channel makes a good bed for 
sowing seed. Seeds sown in rows 15 to 22 cm apart, or in groups of 20 to 50 seeds in pits, 
or tied up in plantain leaves in rich moist soil to germinate; rarely planted in situ. However, 
seeds may fall from tree and germinate in situ. Growth rate of seedling varies, and in about 
3 months to 2 years after planting, seedlings are ready to transplant to nursery beds; sometimes 
up to 4 years may be needed for this stage. Areca-nut is a shade-loving plant and is usually 
grown as a mixed crop with fruit trees, such as mango, guava, jackfruit, orange, plantain, 
or coconut. Usually a shade crop, such as bananas, is planted first, spaced about 2.7 m 
apart in a north-south direction, and allowed to become well-established before transplanting 
the areca-nut seedlings. Young seedlings are planted in nursery beds 30 x 30 cm, with 3 
rows per bed, about 1000 to 1500 trees per ha. After about 20 years, young seedlings are 
planted between trees and between rows to replace older palms which have become unpro
ductive. After seedlings are planted, the bed is mulched with green or dry leaves, cattle 
dung, wood ashes, or groundnut cake. Beds are made only in the rainy season and are kept 
well-irrigated in the summer. Hoeing, weeding and interculture may be practiced. Pepper 
vines {Piper betel) and cardamon may be trained to the trees or grown between them. 
Farmyard manure, groundnut cake, ammonium sulfate, superphosphate and potassium sulfate 
have been found to be beneficial. Also leaf manure and green manure may be used.^^*
Harvesting — Palms begin to flower about the 7th year after sowing seed, and reach full 
production in about 10 to 15 years. With best conditions, trees may begin flowering the 4th 
year. A plantation may take 30 years to reach maturity. Fruiting life of a tree is between 
30 to 60 years after maturity, but trees may live for 60 to 100 years. Economical life span 
in India is 45 to 70 years. In different regions there are well-defined seasons for flowering 
and corresponding fruiting seasons. Because of the tall, slender nature of the palm, harvesting 
the nuts requires skill and dexterity. Primitive methods are often employed. In India certain 
classes of people who climb palms fast are employed. Sometimes bamboo poles with sickles 
attached are used to cut the bunches. In Malaysia, trained monkeys are used. Leaves of the 
palm (usually 4 to 7) begin to drop in December at intervals of 3 weeks, until June. 
Inflorescences appear in the axils of such leaves, and although as many as five spadices 
may appear, usually there are only 2 or 3 mature fruits. Spathes open soon after shedding 
of leaves, and fruits ripen 8 to 11 months later. (Fruits take 6 to 8 months to ripen.) Nuts 
harvested when bright red. Usually the shedding of a few nuts from a bunch is sufficient 
indication to harvest the whole bunch. Harvesting season varies with 2 or 3 pickings made 
in each season: Bombay and Sri Lanka, from August to March; Mysore, from August to 
January; Bengal, from October to January. In India, areca-nuts are consumed raw or cured; 
in other areas ripe nuts are masticated during the harvest season. Surplus nuts are stored in 
pits in soil or water in earthenware jars for 5 to 7 months, and during the off-season are 
taken out and chewed. Ripe nuts may also be dehusked, cut and dried, or just dried whole 
in the sun for 6 to 7 weeks, or may be perfumed by smoke or benzoin. Nuts may be 
processed, a costly and laborious operation on a commercial scale, to improve their color, 
taste, palatability, and keeping quality. When properly cured and dried, nuts are dark-brown 
with glossy finish.
Yields and economics — Each tree yields 2 to 3 bunches per year, containing 150 to 
250 fruits; varieties with larger fruits may have 50 to 100 fruits per bunch. Fruits weigh 
from 1.4 to 2.2 kg per 100 fruits. Yield per hectare with 1,000 trees is 440,000 to 750,000
29
fruits, or about 15 to 25 cwt of dried areca-nuts. Average yield of dried or cured nuts per 
annum in Mysore is about 17.5 cwt/ha. India and Pakistan are the major producers of areca- 
nuts, where most of the production is consumed domestically. It is also an item of internal 
commerce in the Malay Archipelago and the Philippines. Nuts are exported in large quantities 
from Java, Sumatra, Singapore, and other Malaysian regions to India. Sri Lanka exports to 
India and the U.S. In 1969 to 1970 Pakistan grew about 1,000,000 acres of betel-nut, 
producing about 26,500 long tons of nuts. Bavappa et al.^^ suggest that there are 184,000 
ha cultivated to Areca, with production of ca. 191,000 MT/year with a value of 2,500 million 
rupees. Improved cultural practices are leading to higher yields of nuts. Higher-yielding and 
more disease-resistant plants are being developed through breeding.
Energy — Debris from the plants could serve as a crude energy source. With 2000 to 
3000 trees per hectare or more, there might be 8,000 to 21,000 leaves falling between June 
and December.^® Fallen spathes and spadices might also be viewed as energy sources. Much 
energy is consumed in the boiling and drying of this widely used narcotic. On top of this, 
there might be 1,500 to 2,500 kg/ha dried nuts. In preparing the kernels for market, there 
is much husk remaining as a by-product, containing nearly 50% cellulose. The wood of cull 
trees may be used for firewood.
Biotic factors — The two most serious fungal diseases of this palm are Phytophthora 
omnivorum var. arecae (Koleroga disease, a fruit rot) and Ganoderma lucidum (Foot rot). 
Other fungal diseases include: Alternaría tenuis, Aspergillus niger arecae (causing a storage 
disease), Botryodiplodia theobromae, Brachysporum arecae, Ceratostomella paradoza, Col
letotrichum catechu (seedling blight), Coniothyrium arecae, Dendryphium catechu, Exo- 
sporium arecae, Gloeosporium catechu, Lenzites striata, Lichenophoma arecae, Melanconium 
palmarum, Montagnellina catechu, Mycosphaerella sp., Nigrospora sphaerica, Phyllosticta 
arecae, Polyporus ostreiformis, P. zonalis, Stagonospora arecae, Thielaviopsis paradoxa 
(causes length-wise splitting of stem), Torula herbarum, Ustulina zonata. Areca-nut is also 
attacked by the bacterium Xanthosomas vasculorum. In Thailand, the following nematodes 
are known to attack arecanut: Rotylenchulus sp., Tylenchorhynchus dactylurus, Tylenchus 
sp., and Xiphinema insigne. In Mysore and Malaysia, the Rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhi
noceros), leaf-eating caterpillar (Nephantis serinapa), borer {Arceerns fasciculatus), white 
ants, and mites cause minor damage.
Handbook of Nuts
30
ARENGA PINNATA (Wurmb) Merr. (ARECACEAE) — Sugar Palm, Kaong, Black Sugar 
Palm
Syn.: Arenga saccharifera Labill.
- RDuHe^
Uses — Sugar palm is grown for its sugar, starch, and fiber. Sap contains 20 to 40% 
more sucrose than average sugarcane. Juice of the outer covering of fruit is highly corrosive 
and may cause pain and skin inflammation. Pith of the stem is source of sago starch. Sap 
may be made into a refreshing fresh drink, or fermented into palm wine, upon distillation 
yielding Arrack. Alcohol and vinegar may also be made from the sap. Terminal bud or 
“ cabbage” is eaten in salads, raw or cooked. Etiolated leaves, petioles, and pith of young 
stems eaten in soups or fried, or used as a pickled preserve. Half-ripe fruits are pruned to 
remove irritating crystals in pericarp; seeds washed and seedcoat removed; endosperm is 
soaked in lime water for several days and finally boiled in sugary or spicy solutions and 
eaten as sweetmeats. Young leaf-sheaths produce a valuable fiber used in industrial work. 
Leaves are used to thatch roofs and are quite durable; leaflets are used for rough brooms 
and are sometimes woven into baskets. “ Wood” is used for water p i p e s .J u i c e of outer 
fleshy covering of fruit is used as a fish poison.
Folk medicine — Reported to be intoxicant and piscicide.^^ Sap considered lactogenic 
in Malaysia. Javanese use a root decoction for kidney stones. Fermented sap taken for 
tuberculosis in the Philippines and Indonesia; for sprue, dysentery, constipation, and he
morrhoids in Java. The felt-like tomentum at the leaf-base is used as a styptic.^ Roots used 
to make a medicine for stone in the bladder in Java. The fresh, sweet toddy used for chronic
31
constipation, phthisis, and dysentery; lactagogue. Applied to wounds as a hemostatic. 
Diuretic and antithermic; fresh unfermented sap is a purgative and a remedy for sprue in 
Indonesia. Juice of ripe fruit is poisonous. Roots are a treatment against bronchitis and 
gravel.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the shoot is reported to contain 19 calories, 94.7 g H2O, 0.1 
g protein, 0.2 g fat, 4.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 0.1 g ash, 21 mg Ca, 3 mg P, 
00.5 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 7 mg K, 0.01 mg riboflavin, and 0.1 mg niacin.*^
Description — Tall, stout palm, 8 to 15 m tall, bole solitary, straight, 40 to 50 cm in 
diameter; old leaf-bases covering trunk with mat of tough, black fibers and long spines; 
leaves ascending, pinnate, up to 9.1 m long, 3.1 m wide, with 100 or more pairs of linear 
leaflets, leaflets whitish or scurfy beneath, dark-green above, 1 to 1.5 m long, 6 to 8 cm 
(or more) wide, lobed or jagged at apex, auricled at base; petioles 1.5 to 2 m long, very 
stout, base covered with black fibers and weak spines; plants monoecious, bearing very 
large pendulous interfoliar inflorescences arising from leaf axils; female inflorescence usually 
preceding male; male and female inflorescence, which eventually become 1 to 3.3 m long, 
at first ensheathed in bud by 5 to 7 lanceolate oblong, imbricated, caducous bracts; inflo
rescence emerging from spathes in 6 to 9 weeks; peduncle large; flowers opening first at 
base of each branch and successively toward apex; flowers numerous, sessile, either male 
or female; female flowers usually solitary, male solitary or paired, rarely in threes, occurring 
in separate inflorescences; in bisexual flowers, stamens usually abortive; male flowers scent
less, with 3 green imbricated, persistent sepals, one-fourth length of petals, apex broadly 
acute, thin-margined; petals 3 to 4, navicular, valvate, 2.5 cm long, red-brown or red-purple 
on outside, yellow on inside; stamens yellow, numerous, with elongated apiculate anthers, 
borne on short filaments; no rudimentary ovary; female flowers scentless, 3 unequal green 
imbricated orbicular sepals, one-third length of petals, persistent; petals coriaceous, 1.5 to
2.5 cm long, light-green,ovate, or triangular, valvate, persistent with sepals as cupule at 
base of fruit; staminodes absent, or if present, sometimes producing nectar; fruit obovoid 
to subglobose, smooth, 5 to 6 cm in diameter, with depressed trigonous upper surface; 
exocarp yellow or yellow-brown, coriaceous; mesocarp fleshy, whitish, gelatinous, very 
acid due to stinging crystals; endocarp black, smooth, thin, stony; seeds 2 to 3 per fruit, 
dull-metallic gray-brown, trigonous, oblong, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 2.5 cm wide, with 
copious endosperm. Flowers and fruits year-round.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani Centers of Di
versity, sugar palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fungus, high 
pH, insects, poor soil, shade, and slope.Several forms of the sugar palm exist in Malaya, 
varying mainly in how long is required for plants to begin flowering.(2 n = 26,32.)
Distribution — Native from eastern India and Ceylon, through Bangladesh, Burma, 
Thailand, southern China, Hainan, Malay Peninsula to New Guinea and Guam. Extensively 
cultivated in India.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, sugar palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm (mean of 
8 cases = 19.1), annual temperature of 19 to 2TC (mean of 8 cases = 24.5), and pH of 
5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.4).®^ More or less a forest tree, but not restricted to jungles; 
it can be grown on very poor rocky hillsides and in waste places. It flourishes best in humid 
tropics in a rich moist soil, from sea-level to elevations of 1,200 m, being grown at higher 
elevations than coconut. It is little subject to drought damage, typhoons, insect pests, or 
fungal diseases. Trees are hardy, self-sustaining, growing readily in well-drained soil of 
dark cool valleys, along banks of mountain streams, along forest margins and on partially 
open hillsides. It develops more slowly in flat, exposed, or sunny habitats.
Cultivation — In forests of Indo-Malaysia, ripe fruits are distributed by various fruit 
bats, civet cats, and wild swine. Trees are only in semi-cultivation, mainly since trees require
32 Handbook of Nuts
many years to begin to be useful. When propagated, seed are used, but it has never been 
scientifically cultivated. Growing it in plantations for its fiber is too costly.
Harvesting — Various products may be harvested from the sugar palm. Trees reach 
maturity (flowering stage) in 6 to 12 years and continue to flower for about 15 years before 
replanting. Flowering is quite irregular. From flowering to ripe fruit takes about 2 years, 
so the harvest period for the fruit extends over the entire year. Most important industrial 
product is the black, horsehair-like tough fiber, called gomuta, yunot, or cabo negro, pro
duced at base of petioles in large quantities. It is used in manufacture of a very durable rope 
used in fresh-and salt-water and for thatching houses; known to last 100 years in the Phil
ippines. Fiber also widely used for filters and for caulking ships. Cost of fiber is high, 
depending on grade and length of fiber, but is in demand in Europe for industrial purposes. 
Stiffer fibers are used in Philippines to make floor and hair brushes, and brushes for grooming 
horses. Thatch-like raincoats are sometimes made from it. Associated with the fibers at basal 
parts of petiole is a soft, dry, light, punky substance, called barok, varying in color from 
white to dark shades, used in caulking boats and as a tinder, made by soaking in juice of 
banana or lye made from ashes of Vitex negundo and then dried; 60 to 75 tons of this 
exported annually from Java to Singapore. Palms commonly tapped for the sweet sap used 
for producing sugar, vinegar, wine, or alcohol. Trees for sugar production are selected and 
the young inflorescences beaten with a stick or wooden mallet for a short time each day for 
2 to 3 weeks, thus producing wound tissue and stimulating the flow of sap to the injured 
area. Starch in the trunks is converted into sugar and moves into the inflorescence when it 
begins to develop. Thus by wounding young inflorescences, the flow of sugar to the wounded 
tissue can be regulated. The stalk is then cut off at base of the inflorescence and the exuding 
sap collected. A thin slice is removed from the wounded end of the stalk once or twice a 
day during sap flow. Flow generally diminishes from 10 to 12 to 2 €/day after 2 1/2 months; 
some plants yield about 2.8 €/day for about 2 years. Fresh sap is clear with pleasant taste 
and makes a refreshing drink. Kept awhile, it becomes turbid and acid, and upon fermen
tation, acquires an intoxicating quality. Flavored with bark of other trees, large quantities 
of the liquor are consumed. Sap is allowed to ferment, producing “ tuba” , a palm wine, a 
popular drink in Philippines; it is supposed to have curative properties. Fermentation begins 
in the bamboo’s tubes in which sap is collected and is usually well-advanced when the 
product is gathered. Much is converted into a good quality vinegar; alcohol is also distilled 
from the “ tuba” . Sugar is made by boiling the sweet, unfermented sap, using a new bamboo 
joint for the sap each day. To prevent fermentation in the tube, a little crushed ginger or 
crushed chili-pepper fruit is added to the bamboo joint. Sometimes in Java, bamboo joints 
are smoked first to reduce fermentation. Sugar is manufactured by boiling thickened juice 
in an open kettle until the liquid solidifies when dropped on cold surface. Sugar in the 
Philippines is brown and enters into local commerce in very limited quantities. Yield of 
sugar is about 20 tons/ha, with 150 to 200 trees/ha. In Java and elsewhere, old trees no 
longer productive of sugar are felled and cut up into short sections, or the pith is scooped 
out of trunks cut lengthwise. Fibrous pith is pulverized and washed to remove fibrous material 
and other impurities. Starch particles in suspension are drawn off and sago starch removed 
and dried in sun. Starch is light gray-white. A type of tapioca may be prepared from this 
starch by dropping wet pellets of it on hot plates. Debris, after starch is removed, is boiled 
and used for hog feed. In Luzon, starch is obtained only from male or sterile trees. Yield 
of sago meal is about 67.5 kg per tree. Yields of starch vary greatly, with an average yield 
of 50 to 75 kg per tree.^^^
Yields and economics — Specific yields are stated above for each product. Products of 
this palm are widely used in areas where it grows, but only the fibers are in international 
commerce. Sugar and starch, and their by-products are consumed locally, and in very large 
quantities.
33
Energy — In Palms as Energy Sources, Duke^' reports that a single sugar palm can yield 
2.8 € (sugar content 5 to 8%) toddy per day over a period of about two months. Sugar 
yields of 20 MT per ha are suggested, all of which could be converted to renewable alcohol. 
Once flowering, male trees go on producing tappable spadices for 2 to 3 years, until the 
lowest leaf axil is utilized and the tree is exhausted.^® A single tree, upon felling, can yield 
up to 75 kg “ sago starch” (true sago may yield 5 times as much). Trees that have been 
tapped for sugar yield little or no sago). Energy planners cannot then add the sugar and 
starch, but plan for one or the other. The black reticulate leaf-sheaths have hair-like fibers 
that are used for tinder.
Biotic factors — Flowers are presumably wild-pollinated. Sugar palm is virtually in
sect-, pest-, and disease-free, one fungus attacking the palm being Ganoderma pseudofer- 
reum. In the East Indies, leaves are damaged by the rhinoceros beetle {Orcytes rhinoceros), 
and dead palms are reported to harbor these beetles, which cause serious damage to coconut 
palms.
34 Handbook of Nuts
Breadfruit, Breadnut, Pana
ARTOCARPUS ALTILIS (Parkins.) Fosb. (MORACEAE) 
Syn.: Artocarpus communis Forst.
Uses — Cultivated extensively for its fruits and seeds, breadfruit is used as a staple food 
with Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. When fruit is not fully ripe, being very 
starchy, it is peeled, cut into sections, and baked or boiled, and seasoned with salt, pepper, 
and butter. When fully ripe, the meat is soft and can be baked like sweet potato. Green 
fruits are roasted, ground into a meal, and used to make breads. Breadfruit can also be used 
in salads, made into soup, and, when ripe, made into a pulp (coconut milk and sugar being 
added) and baked as a pudding. Seeds are eaten roasted or boiled. Bark cloth is made from 
the bark. Leaves furnish fodder for livestock. Wood is used locally for house-building. 
Latex from the trunk is used in native medicines, as bird lime and to caulk canoes.
Folk medicine — Fruits and leaves used as a cataplasm for tumors in Brazil.Powder 
of roasted leaves applied for enlarged spleen; ashes of the leaves applied in herpes^^ (Am- 
boina). Reported to be anodyne, laxative, and vermifuge, breadfruit is a folk remedy for 
backache, blood disorders, boils, bums, diabetes, diarrhea, dysentery, eye ailments, fever, 
fracture, gout, headache, hypertension, oliguria, rheumatism, sores, stomach-ache, swelling, 
testicles, worms, and wounds.West Indians have great faith in the leaf decoction for high 
blood pressure. Colombians cook the fmit with sugar for colic. Virgin Islanders take the 
plant for coronary ailments, Jamaicans dress liver spots with the latex, Costa Ricans apply 
it to w o u n d s .C h in e s e use the seeds to aid parturition and to treat typhoid and other 
fevers. Indonesians use the bark in parturition, poulticing the leaves on splenomegaly. Heated 
flowers, after cooling, are applied to the gums for toothache, fmits are used for cough, root- 
bark for diarrhea and dysentery, seeds as an aphrodisiac. Philippinos use the bark decoction 
for stomach-ache. New Guineans use the latex for dysentery.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fmit is reported to contain 103 calories, 70.8 g H2O,
35
1.7 g protein, 0.3 g fat, 26.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 33 mg Ca, 32 
mg P, 1.2 mg Fe, 15 mg Na, 439 mg K, 24 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.22 mg thiamine, 
0.03 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg niacin, and 29 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the leaf is reported 
to contain 75 calories, 75.5 g H2O, 5.0 g protein, 2.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g ash, 2.0 
mg Ca, 170 mg P, 60 mg Fe, 17.5 mg Na, 0.10 mg thiamine, and 70 mg ascorbic acid. 
Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 434 calories, 20.2 g H2O, 15.1 g protein, 
29.0 g fat, 34.0 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7 g ash, 66 mg Ca, 320 mg P, 6.7 mg 
Fe, 41 mg Na, 380 mg K, 280 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.88 mg thiamine, 0.55 mg 
riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. Quijano and Arango^^^ report wetter 
seeds (56.3% moisture) with (ZMB): 3 to 4 g ash, 12.8 g fat, 16 g soluble carbohydrates, 
20 g total protein, and 3.9 g fiber. Of the protein (20%), 6.4 g was nonglobular protein,
13.5 g globular (1.8 g albumins, 3.7 globulins, 3.3 prolamins, and 4.6 g glutelins). The 
amino acids of the seeds contain 13.04 g/100 g leucine, 12.10 isoleucine, 5.28 g phenyl
alanine, 15.90 g methionine, 7.24 g tyrosine, 3.62 g proline, 7.68 g alanine, 4.93 g glutamic 
acid, 3.91 g threonine, 10.43 g serine, 4.78 g glycine, 3.33 g arginine, 4.56 g histidine, 
and 3.12 g cystine per 100 g protein. Fruits contain papayotin and artocarpin.^®^ Leaves 
contain quercetin and camphorol.^^"^ Some HCN is reported in the leaves, stem, and root, 
cerotic acid in the latex.
Description — Handsome tree, 12 to 20 m tall; leaves large, ovate, leathery, rough, 
glossy, most often lobate or incised, 30 to 90 cm long, 30 to 40 cm broad, dark-green; 
flowers minute, male and female flowers in separate catkins on the same tree, in axils of 
newly formed leaves; male inflorescences club-shaped, 15 to 30 cm long, dropping to the 
ground in a few days; female inflorescences in globose heads about 5 cm in diameter, 
developing into seedless fruits; some varieties of breadfruit have seeds in profusion; fruit 
(syncarp) ovoid, spherical, or pear-shaped, 10 to 15 cm long, 10 to 15 cm in diameter, 
weighing 1 to 4 kg, with white sticky latex, rind yellowish-green or brown, divided into a 
series of low projections, bearing short spines in some varieties; pulp white or yellowish; 
in breadnut, rind covered with fleshy spines, with brownish seeds 2.5 cm or more in length 
and about 2.5 cm in diameter. Flowers and fruits at nearly all stages on the tree at the same 
time, almost throughout the year.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, breadfruit, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat, laterite, sodium or salt, slope, 
and virus.Many cvs have developed wherever breadfruit has been long grown. Seeded 
CVS are of little economic value but are eaten by natives; the seeds, when roasted, taste like 
chestnuts. Most cvs are seedless. In Ponape, over 50 cvs are known; in Tahiti, about 30; 
and in the South Pacific area, 165.^^* (2n = 56.)
Distribution — Probably originated in Indonesia and perhaps in New Guinea, where 
large, spontaneous stands occur. Breadfruit is cultivated throughout the islands of the South 
Seas. It has been introduced into many tropical areas of the world, including India, West 
Indies, Mauritius, and southern Florida.
Ecology — Ranging fromWarm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Dry to 
Wet Forest Life Zones, breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm 
(mean of 19 cases = 23.0), annual temperature of 17 to 29°C (mean of 19 cases = 24.1), 
and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 14 cases = 6.2). Breadfruit thrives only in humid tropics, 
where the temperature varies from 16 to 38°C with a humidity of 70 to 80%, and a well- 
distributed annual rainfall of 250 to 275 cm. Climatic requirements vary according to cv. 
In Indonesia, some cvs are adapted to moist climates; others endure 6 months of dry weather. 
It is usually intolerant of climatic extremes in inland regions or high elevations, but grows 
on high islands (up to 700 m in New Guinea) and on atolls throughout the Pacific. It does 
not tolerate shade, and irrigation has been unsuccessful. It thrives on alluvial and coastal 
soils, and can be grown and produced on coral soils of atolls. Some cvs (“ Maitarika” )
36 Handbook of Nuts
grown on atolls such as Gilbert Islands are said to tolerate salinity. Wind easily breaks the 
branches and may cause many flowers and young fruits to fall.^^’^^®
Cultivation — Seeded cvs are propagated from seed; however, seeds lose their viability 
soon after fruit falls. For seedless varieties, if roots are bruised near soil surface, plants send 
up root-suckers, which can be removed and planted in a permanent site. Root-cuttings 20 
to 25 cm long and 12 to 60 mm in diameter may be laid horizontally in a 12-mm-deep 
trench and watered daily. Remove and plant sprouts when 20 to 25 cm tall in rainy season. 
Natural suckers can be air-layered for root initiation planted in a nursery for 2 to 3 months, 
then transplanted to permanent site. At all times, trees should be spaced about 12 m each 
way, or about 100 trees per hectare. Trees should be watered for first and second years, 
given shallow intercultures, and generally no manuring. Some intercropping is practiced.
Harvesting — Trees start bearing in 5 to 6 years, when vegetatively propagated, 8 to 10 
years from seed. Under good soil and climatic conditions they will continue to produce well 
for 50 years. Time of harvest differs in various localities: in Caroline Islands, May to 
September; Gilbert Islands, May to July; Society Islands, November to April and July to 
August. For culinary purposes, harvest when still hard. Harvesting is done with a long pole, 
having a hooked knife and basket at the end so fruits do not fall to ground. Fruits ripen in 
4 to 6 days.^^^
Yields and economics — Adult trees yield 50 to 150 fruits, each producing 23 to 45 kg. 
An 8-year-old tree can bear 800 fruits over the three seasons of a year.*^^ A fruit may weigh 
1 to 3 kg. Breadfruits are gathered and sold locally where the trees are grown. They rarely 
enter international trade.
Energy — If an adult tree bears 100 2-kg fruits, and if the fruits contain 70% water, that 
is still 60 kg dry matter (DM) per tree per year. If one could crowd 100 such productive 
trees into a hectare that indicates 6 MT DM in fruits alone, a reasonable renewable biomass 
production. There is a sizable annual accumulation of leaves and limbs as well.
Biotic factors — Hand-pollinated fruits are twice the size of normally developing fruits. 
The following fungi are known to attack breadfruit: Capnodium sp., Cercospora artocarpi, 
Colletotrichum artocarpi, Cephaleuros virescens, Corticium salmonicolor, Gloeosporium 
artocarpi, G. mangiferae, Orbilia epipora, Pestalotiopis versicolor, Phytophthora palmi- 
vora, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P. artocarpicola, Mycosphaerella artocarpi, Rhizopus arto
carpi, Sclerotium rolfsii, Uredo artocarpi, Zygosporium oscheoides. Nematodes infesting 
the tree are Boledorus sp., Helicotylenchus concavus, H. cavenessi, H. dihystera, H. mi- 
croc ephalus, H. pseudorobustus, Heterodera marioni, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Ro- 
tylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema calthricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus triglyphus, and 
Xiphinema ifacola}^^'^^^
37
ARTOCARPUS HETEROPHYLLUS Lam. (MORACEAE) — Jackfruit 
Syn.: Artocarpus integra (Thunb.) M err., Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.
Uses — Few, if any, tropical fruits can excel the jackfruit in size and usefulness. Cultivated 
for its multiple fruit, the pulp may be cooked or fried before ripening, or eaten raw when 
ripe. Fruits I sampled in Brazil were quite adequate, right off the tree. Pulp is sometimes 
boiled with milk, or made into preserves or curries. Leaves and bark contain a white latex. 
Leaves are fed to sheep, goats, and cattle as fodder, especially in the dry season. Flower 
clusters are eaten in Java with syrup and agar-agar or coconut milk. Young fruits may be 
eaten in soups. When properly fermented, pulp produces a vinegar. Seeds are mealy and 
are tasty when boiled or roasted. Half-ripe fruits are fed to pigs and used for fattening cattle 
and sheep. Wood is bright yellow when fresh, darkening on exposure, used for furniture, 
cabinet work, house-building, doors, window frames, and cart work. The wood chips are 
distilled in Burma and Sri Lanka to produce the yellow dye used for Buddhist robes. Trees 
are usually cut for lumber when upwards of 30 years old; wood takes a high polish and is 
ornamental. Heartwood contains a brilliant yellow dye, similar to fustic. Cyanomaclurin is 
also present, producing an olive-yellow with chromium, dull yellow with aluminum, and a 
brighter yellow with tin mordant. Green and red dyes may also be prepared. Sawdust and 
shavings of wood, when boiled in water, yield a yellow dye used for dying silk. Milky juice 
is used in some countries as a bird-lime. Bark yields a 
fiber.Shedding nearly 10 MT 
leaves a year and bearing fruits weighing up to 11 kg each, this species deserves consideration 
as a shade tree for cardamoms.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell, the plant is used in folk remedies for tumors. 
Reported to be astringent, demulcent, laxative, refrigerant, and tonic, jackfruit is a folk 
remedy for alcoholism, carbuncles, caries, leprosy, puerperium, smallpox, sores, sterility, 
stomach problems, toothache, and tumors.^' Burmese, Chinese, and Filipinos use the sap 
to treat abscesses and ulcers, and the bark to poultice on such afflictions. Burmese also use 
the roots for diarrhea and fever. Indochinese use the wood as a sedative in convulsion, the 
boiled leaves as a lactagogue, the sap for syphilis and worms. Filipinos use the ashes of the 
leaves to treat ulcers and wounds.Cambodians used the wood to calm the nerves. Munda 
of India use the leaves for vomiting. Both Ayurvedics and Yunani consider the fruit and 
seeds aphrodisiac. Ayurvedics use the ripe fruit for biliousness, leprosy, and ulcers. India 
uses the roots for hydrocoele.*^^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the leaves contain (ZMB) 18.5 g protein, 5.0 g fat, 66.3 g total 
carbohydrate, 26.2 g fiber, 10.2 g ash, 2,000 mg Ca, and 110 mg P. Per 100 g, the fruits 
(ZMB) contain 347 calories, 6.3 g protein, 1.1 g fat, 87.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.3 g fiber, 
5.2 g ash, 100 mg Ca, 140 mg P, 2.2 mg Fe, 7.4 mg Na, 1,502 mg K, 867 ug beta-carotene 
equivalent, 0.33 mg thiamine, 0.41 mg riboflavin, 2.58 mg niacin, and 33 mg ascorbic 
acid. Per 1(X) g, the seeds contain 51.6 g H2O, 6.6 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 38.4 g carbohydrate,
1.5 g fiber, 1.5 g ash, 0.05% Ca, 0.13% P, and 1.2 mg Fe.^ The latex consists of 65.9 to 
76.0% moisture and water solubles and 2.3 to 2.9% caoutchouc. The coagulum contains 6 
to 10% caoutchouc, 82.6 to 86.4% resins, and 3.9 to 8.1% insolubles. Dried latex contains 
the steroketone artostenone C30H50O, which has been converted to artosterone, a compound 
with highly androgenic properties. Seeds, though eaten, contain the hemagglutinin, con- 
cavalin A. Hager’s Handbook gives structures for six flavones isolated therefrom: artacar- 
panone, artocarpetin, artocarpin, cyanomaclurin, cycloartocarpin, and morin (Ci5Hio07).*®^ 
The wood contains a yellow pigment, morin, and cyanomaclurin; the bark has tannin, the 
latex cerotic acid.^"^^
Description — Low or medium-sized evergreen tree, 10 to 25 m high, without buttresses, 
with dense, rather regular crown. Branchlets terete, with scattered, retrose, crisped hairs, 
becoming glabrous. Leaves alternate, shortly stalked, oblong or obovate, with cuneate or
38 Handbook of Nuts
obtuse base, and obtuse or shortly acuminate apex, entire (lobed only on very young plants), 
coriaceous, rough, glabrescent, shining dark-green above, pale-green beneath, 10 to 20 cm 
long, 5 to 10 cm wide, with 5 to 8 pairs of lateral veins, petiole 2 to 4 cm long. Stipules 
ovate-triangular, acute, hairy on the back, glabrous on the inner side, pale, 1 to 2 cm long, 
on flowering branches much larger, up to 5 cm. Inflorescences peduncled, solitary in the 
leaf-axils of short, thick branchlets which are placed on the trunk or on the main branches, 
unisexual, 4 to 15 cm long; the male ones near the apex, fascicled in the higher axils, 
oblong-clavate, rounded at both ends; the female ones in the lower axils, solitary or in pairs 
on longer and thicker peduncles. Flowers very numerous, small, the male ones with a two- 
lobed perianth and one stamen; the female ones cohering at the base, tubular, style obliquely 
inserted, stigma clavate. Spurious fruits very large, oblong, glabrous, with short, 3 to 6 
angular, conical acute spines.
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, jackfruit, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate aluminum, latentes, limestone, low pH, and shade.Varieties such 
as “ Soft” or “ Hard” , are selected mainly according to the thickness of the rind.
Distribution — Native to the Indian Archipelago, jackfruit is now widely cultivated 
throughout the Old and New World tropics, being known in India, Burma, Bangladesh, Sri 
Lanka, Java, and in South America from the Guianas as far south as Rio de Janeiro, in 
Brazil, West Indies, and southern Florida.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, jackfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 42 dm (mean 
of 14 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 19 to 29°C (mean of 14 cases = 24.8), and 
pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 11 cases = 6.0).^^ As a tropical tree, jackfruit grows well in 
most soils, but not in moist low places. Cultivated below 1,000 m altitudes, it grows best 
in deep well-drained soil, but will grow slowly and not so tall in shallow limestone soil. 
Sensitive to frost in its early stages, it cannot tolerate drought or “ wet feet” .^^^
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds (viable only 2 to 4 weeks), budding after the modified 
Forkert method, inarching, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds retain viability for about 30 days 
at room temperature; however, soaking them in water for 24 hr improves their longevity. 
Budding with eyes of nonpetioled budwood on stocks from 8 to 11 months old gives best 
results. The best stock is Artocarpus champeden, but A. rigida Bl. can also be used. Stock 
should be slightly shaded. For grafting-tape, dry bark-fibers of Musa textilis are used. 
Budding may be performed throughout the year, provided stocks are old enough. Can be 
propagated through root shoots. Trees should be spaced 12 to 14 m apart each way. Cattle 
manure is helpful.
Harvesting — Trees start bearing fruit when 4 to 14 years old; once established, they 
continue to bear for several decades. Ripe fruits, available almost throughout the year, are 
much relished. About 8 months is required from time the flowers begin to expand until fruit 
matures.
Yields and economics — A tree may bear 150 to 250 fruits per year and fruits may weigh 
10 to 40 kg. Two hundred 20-kg fruits a tree indicate an incredible 4 tons per tree per year. 
If 50 trees could bear at this rate, that would be 200 tons fruit per ha. But 75% of this is 
water. Cultivation in Bangladesh in 1969 to 1970 amounted to 17,760 ha, because of greater 
demand, producing 212,635 tons of fruit. Because of the fruit, it is marketed locally.
Energy — Grown as a shade tree for cardamom, jackfruit contributed annually 9,375 
kg/ha leaf mulch.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack jackfruit: Ascochyta sp., 
Botryodiplodia theohromae, Capnodium sp., Cephaleuros sp., Circinotrichum sp., Corti- 
cium salmonicolor (pink disease), Diplodia artocarpi, Ganoderma applanatum, Gloeos- 
porium artocarpi, G. caressae, Kernia furcotricha, Marasmius scande ns, Marssonia indica, 
Meliola artocarpi, Pestalotia elasticola, Phomopsis artocarpi, Phyllosticta artocarpi, P.
39
artocarpina, Phytophthora palmivora, Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizopus artocarpi, R. stolonifer, 
Rosellinia bunodes, Septoria artocarpi, Setella coracina, Torula herbarum, Uredo artocarpi. 
Trees are also parasitized by Dendrophthoe falcata and Viscum album. Among the nematodes 
known to infest jackfruit trees are Aphelechus avenae, Cr icone ma taylori, Criconemoides 
birchfieldi, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Heterodera marioni, Hoplolaimus seinhorsti, Lep- 
tonema thornei, Meloidogyne sp., Oostenbrinkella oostenbrinki, Peltamigratus sp., Praty- 
lenchus zeae, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Trichodorus sp., Tylenchorhynchus acutus, T. mar
tini, T. triglyphus, Xiphinema americanum, X. pratense, and X. setariae.^'^^'^^
40 Handbook of Nuts
BALANITES AEGYPTIACA (L.) Delile (SIMARUBACEAE) — Desert Date, Soapberry 
Tree, Jericho Balsam
Uses — Monks of Jericho regarded Balanites as the balm of the Biblical verse. An oily 
gum made from the fruit is sold in tin cases to travelers as the balm of Gilead. Both Balanites 
and Pistacia are common in old Palestine, and both are called balm. A desert-loving plant, 
Balanites is also revered by the Mohammedans in western India.The wood is used for 
axes, cudgels, Mohammedan writing boards, mortars and pestles, walking sticks, and wooden 
bowls. Since it gives little smoke, it is a favorite firewood for burning indoors. Spiny 
branches are used to pen up animals. The bark yields a strong fiber. The fruit is fermented 
to make an intoxicating beverage. In West Africa and Chad, the seed is used for making 
breadstuffs and soups, while the leaf is used as a vegetable, the pericarp is crushed and 
eaten.Flowers are eaten in soups in West Africa. The comestible oil, which constitutes 
40% of the fruit, is used to make soap. African Arabs use the fruit as a detergent, the bark 
to poison fish. The active principle, probably a saponin, is lethal to cercarla, fish, miracidia, 
mollusks,^^ and tadpoles. One fruit weighing 25 g has enough active ingredient to kill the 
bilharzial mollusks in 30 € water.^^^ The Douay Bible of 1609 renders Jeremiah 8:22 to 
read, “ Is there no rosin in Gilead?“ , resulting in this edition being termed the Rosin Bible. 
The Bishop’s Bible of 1568 reads, “ Is there no tryacle in Gilead?“ , and is termed the 
Treacle Bible. The tree is recommended for arid zones by UNESCO because of its food
41
value, fixed oil, and protein in the kernel (“nut”) and as a raw material for the steroid 
industry.®^
Folk medicine — Fruits are pounded and boiled to extract the medicinal vulnerary oil. 
The oil was poured over open wounds and apparently acted as an antiseptic and protective 
covering against secondary infections. One Turkish surgeon regarded Inis as one of the best 
stomachics, a most excellent remedy for curing wounds. In Ethiopia, the bark is used as an 
antiseptic, the leaf to dress wounds, and the fruit as an anthelmintic laxative. In Palestine, 
the oil is said to be used in folk medicine. Ghanans used the leaves as a vermifuge, whereas 
Libyans use them to clean malignant wounds. Powdered root bark is used for herpes zoster 
while the root extracts are suggested for malaria. Ghanans use the bark from the stem in 
fumigation to heal the wounds of circumcision. Nigerians consider it abortifacient. The oil 
from the fruits is applied to aching bones and swollen rheumatic joints by the Lebanese. 
Extracts of the root have proven slightly effective in experimental malaria. The bark has 
been used in treating syphilis. In Chad, the plant is used as a fumigant in liver disease, the 
seed as a febrifuge, and the fruit for colds. Ugandans use the oil for sleeping sickness, but 
the efficacy is questioned. Ayurvedics apply the fruit oil to ulcers, the fruit for other skin 
ailments and rat bites, regarding the fruit as alexipharmic, alterative, analgesic, anthelmintic, 
antidysenteric. Unanis use the fruit also for boils and leucoderma.^^’^^ ’^^
Chemistry — A chloroform fraction of the stem bark, chromatographed over a column 
of silica gel, yielded beta-sitosterol, bergapten, marmesin, and beta-sitosterol glucoside. 
None of these compounds were active in eight 9KB5 (in vitro) or P0388 (in vivo) systems.^®' 
Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 339 calories, 6.1 to 11.1 g protein, 0.0 
to 1.7 g fat, 79.1 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.2 g fiber, 5.2 to 8.1 g ash, 130 to 380 
mg Ca. 400 mg P, and 39 mg ascorbic acid. Shoots contain (ZMB): 27.5 g protein, 1.5 g 
fat, 64.4 g total carbohydrate, 23.3 g fiber, 6.6 g ash, 480 mg Ca, and 380 mg P; leaves 
contain 11.6 g protein 4.2 g fat, 71.5 g total carbohydrate, 13.6 g fiber, and 12.7 g ash. 
Seeds or “ nuts” contain (ZMB): 21.9 g protein, 45.7 g fat, and 3.3 g ash (21). The fruit 
flesh contains 1% saponin, 38 to 40% sugar. The saponin from the pericarp contains glucose 
and rhamnose; from the seeds, glucose, rhamnose, xylose, and ribose. The seed kernel 
yields the steroid balanitesin, identical with the sapogenin C27H42O3 called diosgenin. The 
seed oil (30 to 55%), colored yellow with alpha-carotene has 19% palmitic-, 14% 
stearic-, 27% oleic-, 40% linoleic-, and traces of arachidonic-acids. Traces of yamogenin, 
25-alpha-spirosta-3:5-diene and beta-sitosterol.'*^
Description — Savanna tree, 5 to 7 (to 21) m tall; bark gray to dark-brown, with thick 
ragged scales and long vertical fissures in which new yellow bark is visible; branchlets 
green, smooth, armed with green straight forward-directed supra-axillary spines to 8 cm 
long; leaves gray-green, 2 foliolate; leaflets obovate to orbicular-rhomboid, usually 2.5 to 
5 cm long, 1.3 to 3 cm broad, flowers green to yellow-green, small, ca. 1.3 cm in diameter, 
in supra-axillary clusters or rarely subracemose; fruit a plum-sized drupe, green at first, 
turning yellow, broadly oblong-ellipsoid, with large, hard, pointed stone surrounded by 
yellow-brown sticky edible flesh.
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, desert date, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, insects, savanna, and waterlogging.*^
Distribution — Widespread across North Africa, south to Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, 
Chad, Nigeria, Arabia, and Palestine.^^*
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Desert (with water) 
to Dry Forest Life Zones, desert date is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.5 to 
17 dm (mean of 9 cases = 10), annual temperature of 18.7 to 27.9°C (mean of 9 cases = 
24.3), and pH of 5.0 to 8.3 (mean of 6 cases = 6.9).*^ Commonly found in dry areas 
occasionally subject to inundation. Sandy well-drained soil with slightly acid pH may be 
most productive.*^
42 Handbook of Nuts
Cultivation — Propagates widely by seeds naturally. Seeds germinate readily. Sometimes 
planted in villages for the fruit and other parts.
Harvesting — Fruits are collected when ripe and spread out, often on roofs, to dry until 
needed. Other parts of plants collected as needed. Available nearly year round.
Yields and economics — When steroid prices were volatile, this was viewed as an 
alternative source. World consumption was expected to exceed 1000 MT diosgenin or 
yamogenin by 1973 and 60 MT hecogenin. Seeds from Nigeria (42.8 to 48.4% oil) yielded 
1.11 to 1.74% total sapogenins; from Tanzania (43.1% oil) 0.95% sapogenins; and, from 
India (50.3%) 0.74% total sapogenins.
Energy — Roots have been used for producing charcoal. The wood, burning with little 
smoke, is used for fuel wood. The oil could be used for fuel, better transesterified.
Biotic factors: — Desert date trees are attacked by the following fungi: Phoma balanites, 
Septoria balanites, Diplodiella balanites, Metasphaeria balanites, and Schizophyllum 
commune.
43
BARRINGTONIA PROCERA (Miers) Kunth (MYRTACEAE) — Nua Nut
Uses — While nuts of many species are said to be used as fish poisons {B. asiatica, B. 
cylindrostachya, B. racemosa), others are used for food (B. butonica, B. careya, B. edulis, 
B. excelsa, B. magnifica, B. niedenzuana, B. novae-hiberniae, B. procera). The nua nut 
is a common component of native meals on Santa Cruz, also eaten in between-meal snacks. 
Smoked whole fruits can be stored.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Tree, sparingly branched, to 5 m tall or taller, the broad shiny leaves 
clustered near the ends of the branches. Flowers in long pendulous cylindrical racemes, 
yellow. Fruit an ovoid drupe; seed and kernel also ovoid.
Germplasm — Reported from the New Guinea Center of Diversity. The fruit epidermis 
may be green or purple, the seed coat white or pink. In the Solomon Islands, it is generally 
believed that the kernels from Santa Cruz are bigger than those elsewhere (see Figures 6 
and 7 in Yen^"^^). Other edible species known as cut-nuts in the Solomons are similar or 
closely related.
Distribution — Limited to the Huon Peninsula of New Guinea, the New Guinea Islands, 
the Solomons, and New Hebrides, grown as a village tree in Fiji.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist 
to Wet Forest Life Zones, nua nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 60 
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.4.
Cultivation — Propagated from seed or stem cutting. Seedling trees “ are said to reflect 
the characteristics of the parental tree, as, of course, do cuttings, but the latter tend to grow 
branched closer to the ground’’. ^
Harvesting — Seasons of production are indefinite and nuts are available all year round. 
The growth rate of fruit after fertilization is fast. There are only 6 weeks between the 
flowering time of the upper part of the inflorescences and the harvest of such fruits.
Yields and economics — No data available.
Energy — No data available.
Biotic factors — No data available.
44 Handbook of Nuts
BERTHOLLETIA EXCELSA Humb. and Bonpl. (MYRTACEAE) — Brazil Nut, Para Nut, 
Creme Nut, Castañas, Castanhado Para
Uses — Nutritious Brazil nuts are eaten raw, salted, or roasted. Seeds are consumed in 
large quantities and are used in international trade. Kernels are the source of Brazil nut oil, 
used for edible purposes and in the manufacture of soap. The wood is light pinkish-brown, 
neither very hard nor heavy, and it is limited to cheap work.*^^^^^
Folk medicine — There has been a flurry of interest in one certain formula of one Dr. 
Revici, the formula containing selenium and vegetable oils or natural fatty acids. This 
combination has been tried with cancer patients and, according to one Washington physician, 
in AIDS. I am frankly skeptical, but would not hesitate to increase my consumption of 
Brazil nuts were I suffering AIDS or cancer.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature seed is reported to contain 644 calories, 4.7 g H2O, 
17.4 g protein, 65.0 g fat, 9.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.9 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 169 mg Ca, 620 
mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 2 mg Na, 5 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.69 mg 
riboflavin, 0.20 mg niacin, and 2 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Hager’s Handbook notes ca. 1.8% 
myristic, 13.5% palmitic, 2.5% stearic, 55.6% oleic, and 21.6% linoleic acid glycerides, 
and 0.24 to 0.26% barium.Hilditch and Williams‘S® tabulate the component fatty acid 
percentage as 13.8 to 16.2% palmitic, 2.7 to 10.4% stearic, 30.5 to 58.3% oleic, and 22.8 
to ^4.9% linoleic acids. An analysis by Furr et al.‘^s reports the edible portion of the nuts 
to contain 5.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 2.7 B, 1,764 Ba, 87 Br, 1,592 Ca, 0.03 Cd, 1.2 Ce, 246 
Cl, 1.9 Co, 0.6 Cr, 1.3 Cs, 18 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.7 F, 93 Fe, 0.01 Hg, 0.2 I, 5,405 K, 0.1 
La, 0.01 Lu, 3,370 Mg, 8.0 Mn, 7.2 Na, 5.8 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 103 Rb, 0.1 Sb, 0.02 Sc, 11 Se, 
1,770 Si, 0.04 Sm, 3.5 Sn, 77 Sr, 0.1 Ta, 6.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.2 Yb, and 41 ppm 
Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are 50 
ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2,000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb, 
3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in barium, bromine, cerium, 
cobalt, cesium, magnesium, nickle, rubidium, scandium, selenium, silicon, strontium, tin.
45
titanium, and ytterbium, and equal to or higher in europium, lanthanum, and tantalum than 
any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*°^ Of 529 nuts analyzed for Se, 6% contained 
100 ppm Se or more. The mean value for all nuts was 29.6 ppm, and the median value was 
13.4 ppm. Hexane-extracted high-Se Brazil nut meal in a corn-based diet fed to rats produced 
toxicity similar to that obtained from seleniferous com, selenomethionine, or sodium selenite 
as assessed by weight gain, visually scored liver damage and liver, kidney, and spleen 
weights. The Se in Brazil nuts may be as biologically potent as that from other sources. 
Other nuts in this family (Lecythidaceae) contain so much selenium that overingestion can 
lead to hair loss. Apparently selenium, an anticancer element, is essential in traces, toxic 
in excess. However, the homeostatic human may cope with moderate excesses. “ . . . an
imals regulate their selenium content through excretion. When the element is in short supply, 
excretory metabolite production is minimal. When the needs of the organism are being met, 
excess selenium is eliminated by conversion to the excretory metabolites.” ^"^
Description — Large forest tree, up to 40 m tall; leaves alternate, short-petioled, leathery, 
oblong, with wavy margin, 30 to 50 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm broad; flowers in large erect 
spike-like racemes, white to cream, sepals united but finally separating into two deciduous 
sepals; fruit large, brown, woody, globose, 10 to 15 cm in diameter, weighing up to 2 kg, 
with an aperture at one end which is closed by a woody plug and must be broken open to 
extract the “ nuts” inside; fruit may remain on the trees several months after ripening; seeds 
12 to 24 per fruit, triangular, with a brown homy testa.
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, Brazil nut, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate lateritic soils.
Distribution — Native to the Amazon basin of Northern Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Pern, 
Venezuela, and Guianas, mainly along banks of the Amazon and upper Orinoco Rivers and 
their tributaries. Introduced into Sri Lanka in 1880 and Singapore in 1881.^^^
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life 
Zones, Brazil nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.5 to 41.0 (mean of 7 
cases = 29.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 27.4°C (mean of 7 cases = 25.4), and pH 
of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 6 cases = 5.8).®^ A tropical tree, sometimes gregarious, preferring 
high land, beyond reach of periodical floods. Thrives best in rich alluvial soil, in a hot moist 
climate.
Cultivation — Brazil nuts are collected from wild trees and are nowhere cultivated for 
commercial production. Trees are propagated from seed or by layering. From 10 to 25 years 
are required for fmiting to begin. Attempts to establish Brazil nut plantations have met with 
mediocrity, at best.^^^
Harvesting — After fmits have fallen and are gathered, usually during the dry season, 
the nuts are extracted and shipped to Manaos or Belem do Para, where they are graded and 
exported to the U.S. and Europe.
Yields and economics — A good tree will yield 300 fruits at a time, ca. 15 months after 
flowering. An adult tree may yield, in normal years, from 30 to 50 kg of fruits, but yields 
of more than 2000 kg per tree are reported. Early in the 20th century, with the fall of 
Brazilian rubber prices in 1910 due to Asian competition, Brazil nuts became a vital export. 
The first U.S. customs entry recorded was 1873, when more than 1,800 MT unshelled nuts 
entered at an average price less than $0.15/kg. By 1982, spot prices for unshelled nuts were 
over $3.00/kg. By 1978, 15,472 MT of in-shell nuts were exported, contrasted to 5,367 
shelled nuts. The U.S. is the largest importer, followed by the U.K., West Germany, Italy, 
France, Australia, and the Netherlands. Brazilian output is predicted to remain steady at 
around 40 to 60 thousand MT in shell-nuts for both internal and external consumption. The 
principal producer of Brazil nuts is Brazil. In 1971, the Brazil nut crop in Brazil was 22,500 
MT, and in 1970, 40,000 MT. Domestic consumption in Brazil is 1,000 to 2,000 MT per 
year. Shelled assorted nuts commanded $0.55/lb; unshelled, dehydrated nuts $0.23/lb; and 
natural unshelled nuts $0.18/lb.^^^’^^^
46 Handbook of Nuts
Energy — Shells and spoiled kernels supplement firewood in the power plants providing 
heat for the diy'ers. Imperfect nuts are used for oil extraction, the press-cake employed as 
feed for animals, whose manure could be used to extend fuel.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack this tree: Actinomyces brasi- 
liensis, Aspergillus flavus, Cephalosporium bertholletianum, Cercospora bertholletiae (Gray 
spot), Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Fusarium sp., Myxosporium sp., Pellionella macros- 
pora, Phytophthora heveaef Piptocephalus sphaerocephala, Phomopsis bertholletianum, 
and Thamnidium elegans. Albuquerque et al.^ recommend Cuprosan copper oxychloride 
or difolatan-80-captafol for control of Phytopthora leaf blight. The nematode, Meloidogyne 
incognita, has been found causing heavy galling on the roots.
47
BORASSUS FLABELLIFER L. (ARECACEAE) — Palmyra Palm, Brab Tree, Woman’s 
Coconut
Syn.: Borassus flabelliformis Roxb. {l)Borassus aethiopum Mart.
Uses — Palmyra palm is grown for the juice or toddy, extracted from the inflorescence 
from which sugar or jaggery is made. Tender fruits resembling pieces of translucent ice are 
eaten during hot season. Seeds are eaten as well as fruits. Fleshy scales of young seedling 
shoots are eaten as a delicacy, especially in northern Sri Lanka, or dried to make a starchy 
powder (reported to contain a neurotoxin). Salt prepared from leaves. The inflorescence is 
a source of sugar, wine, and vinegar. Five types of fiber are obtained from different parts 
of the plant, used for hats, thatching houses, books, writing paper, mats, bags, and all types 
of utensils for carrying or storing water and food. Timber is black, sometimes with yellow 
grain, strong, splits easily; said to withstand a greater cross-strain than any other known 
timber; used for boat making, rafters, water pipes, walking sticks, umbrella handles and 
rulers. Tree also yields a black gum. A Tamil poem enumerates 801 ways to use this palm. 
Sometimes planted as a windbreak.
Folk medicine — An emollient made from the root is said to be a folk remedy for 
indurations. Flower or root is a folk remedy for tumors of the uterus (Cambodia). Sprouting 
seed used as a diuretic and galactagogue. Petiole used as a vermifuge in Cambodia. Root 
regarded as cooling. Ash of spathe given for enlarged spleens. Juice drunk before breakfast 
has important medicinal properties, and is stimulant and antiphlegmatic. Juice is diuretic, 
stimulant, antiphlegmatic, useful in inflammatory affections and dropsy; pulp is demulcent 
and nutritive.^*
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the mature fruit is reported to contain 43 calories, 87.6 g H2O,
0.8 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 10.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 0.6 g ash, 27 mg Ca, 30 
mg P, 1.0 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.02 mg riboflavin, 0.3 mg niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic 
acid. Sap contains about 12% sugar. Spontaneous fermentation produces ca. 3% alcohol 
and 0.1% acids during the first 6 to 8 hr. Beyond this, fermentation goes to 5%, but there 
is too much butyric acid. A cheap source of vinegar. Accordingto the Wealth of India, the 
nira (fresh sap) contains 85.9% moisture, 0.2% protein, 0.02% fat, 0.29 ash, 13.5% car
bohydrates, 12.6% total sugar, and 5.7 mg Vitamin C per 1(X) g; the gur (boiled-down 
molasses) contains 8.6% moisture, 1.7% protein, 0.08% fat, 1.8% ash, 88.5% carbohydrate.
48 Handbook of Nuts
(84% total sugar); the seed pulp contains 92.6% moisture, 0.6% protein, 0.1% fat, 0.3% 
ash, 6.3% carbohydrates, and 13.1 mg/100 g vitamin The mannocellulose of the
endosperm is transformed to glucose via mannose.
Toxicity — Fleshy scale leaves of the germinating seeds, eaten by humans, contain a 
neurotoxin.
Description — Tall palm, 20 to 30 m high; trunk cylindrical, 30 to 35 cm in diameter, 
very hard, black, mainly composed of stiff longitudinal fibers, central portion soft and 
starchy, with crown of 30 to 40 fan-like leaves. Leaves glaucous, palmate, up to 3.3 m 
wide, stiff, with numerous free pointed tips, petiole 11.3 m long, channeled above, with 
hard saw-like teeth on margins. Inflorescence stalks among the leaves, long, much-branched; 
male and female flowers on separate trees; male flowers borne on thick digitate processes, 
female flowers appearing like small fruits. Fruit a large drupe, 15 to 20^ cm in diameter, 
depressed-globular, brown; exterior smooth, enclosed in a tough matted fiber; interior very 
fibrous, with 2 to 3 seeds; seeds rounded, but flattish, 3.7 to 5 cm across. Spathes begin 
to appear in November or December, but flowers in March; fruits July-August.
Germplasm — Reported from the African and, secondarily, the Hindustani Centers of 
Diversity, palmyra palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, fire, high 
pH, salt, sand, slope, savannah, waterlogging, and wind. The genus Borassus is believed 
to contain one or as many as eight species, depending on your taxonomic point of view. 
Kovoor maintains that the African B. aethiopum is distinct from B. flabellifer. No dwarf 
mutants have been reported. (2n = 36.)^^’^^^
Distribution — Said to be native to Africa, but also claimed to be indigenous to tropical 
India and Malaysia, where it is both wild and cultivated, especially in coastal areas. Widely 
cultivated throughout tropical Asia and Africa (Congo, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea- 
Bissau, Ivory Coast, Malagasy, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Upper 
Volta), with huge stands covering thousands of hectares. Grown in comparatively dry parts 
of Burma, India, Sri Lanka, and Malaya.Kovoor^^^ estimates that there are 10,615,000 
palmyra in Sri Lanka, 60 million in India, 2,350,000 in Burma, 1,800,000 in Kampuchea, 
5 million in east Java.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, palmyra palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 42.9 
dm (mean of 11 cases = 18.8), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.5°C (mean of 11 cases 
= 24.3°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 6.4).^^ Palmyra palm is grown in 
regions with a pronounced dry monsoon, being especially abundant in all sandy tracts near 
the sea, on embankments, and in mixed coconut and date palm jungles of Bengal.Though 
drought-tolerant, it suffers little from prolonged flooding. Kovoor^^^ suggests that “ its natural 
preference is for rich alluvial soil” .
Cultivation — Plants develop from self-sown seed. Seeds germinate, producing a “ sinker” , 
which grows downward 1 m before producing growth at top. “ Once sprouted, the seedling 
cannot be transported. Trees are slow-growing, taking 15 to 20 years before showing a 
stem above ground; in the early stages only the underground portion of the stem increases 
in thickness. Male and female trees cannot be distinguished until they flower. For food, the 
seed-bed is prepared and nuts planted as close together as possible about June or July, about 
50 seeds to the square meter. In about 3 to 4 months the nuts are dug up, by which time 
they have germinated, and the sprouts are eaten as a vegetable. Actually, the nut is broken 
open and the embryo eaten dry or made into a flour, tasting similar to tapioca.
Harvesting — Trees begin to flower when 12 to 15 years old, depending on the region, 
and continue to flower for about 50 years. Female trees yield about twice as much sap as 
male trees. Fresh sap, called “ sweet toddy” or “ nira” , containing about 12% sucrose, is 
obtained by tapping the flower stalk. Juice may be used fresh as a beverage, or, if not treated 
promptly, begins to ferment into an intoxicating liquor. Fresh juice boiled down into a sugar 
called jaggery or gur, with about 80% sucrose and 2.5% glucose, is an important sugar in
49
southern India and Burma. Tapping does not injure the tree. However, every 3 years the 
sap-drawing process is omitted; otherwise the tree would die. A toddy collector climbs the 
tree, tightly binds the spathes with thongs to prevent further opening, and then thoroughly 
bruises the embryo flower within to facilitate the exit of juice. This operation is repeated 
for several days, and on each occasion a thin slice is removed from spathe to facilitate 
running of sap and to prevent it bursting the bound spathe. In about 8 days, sap begins to 
exude into an earthen pot placed for that purpose. Pots are emptied twice daily, the pots 
coated with lime inside to prevent fermentation. In factories, raw gur is heaped on platforms 
for about 2 months to drain away most of the molasses. Then it is dissolved in water and 
refined in the usual manner to make crystalline sugar. Molasses obtained during crystalli
zation is used for producing arrack. Five types of fibers may be obtained from the Palmyra 
palm, each with specific characteristics and uses:
1. Fibers about 60 cm long, separated from leafstalks, called “ Bassine” , are used for 
making rope, twine, and sometimes paper.
2. A loose fiber surrounds the base of the leafstalk.
3. “ Tar” , prepared from the interior of stem without any spinning or twisting, is plaited 
into fishtraps.
4. A coir is derived from the pericarp.
5. Fibrous materials of the leaves, are tom into strips, prepared, dyed, plaited into braids, 
and worked up into basketware, fancy boxes, cigar cases and hats. In Bengal, long 
strips of leaf are employed by children as washable slates.
Kovoor^^^ gives good details of various methods for tapping this and other palms.
Yields and economics — Trees yield 4 to 5 quarts of sap daily for 4 to 5 months; one 
gallon of sap yields about 680 g jaggery sugar, which is about 80% saccharose or sucrose. 
Joshi and Gopinathan‘^^ suggest that Asian Indians can more cheaply get nearly twice as 
much sugar per hectare from palm as sugar cane, i.e., ca. 6,000 kg/ha vs. 3,500 kg/ha. 
Comparing B orassus with other Indian sugar palms, they note that B orassus is longest lived 
(90 to 120 years), and can be tapped more than twice as many years (70 to 95 years) as 
others, yielding 20 to 70 kg tree, with 1,250 trees per hectare. At one time, one-fourth of 
the inhabitants of northern Sri Lanka were dependent on this tree for subsistence; in India 
many also depend on it. Most of the trade in Palmyra goes through the Port of Madras.
Energy — Ironically, the palmyra is better as a fire-breaker in arid regions of West 
Africa prone to wild fires. Its timber bums very poorly as firewood, and young palms are 
said to be more fire resistant than old ones. The relatively high yields of sugar could be 
converted renewably to alcohol for energy purposes. Kovoor^^^ notes that low bearers may 
produce only about 1 €, average ones 6 to 10 €, and exceptional trees 20 Í sap per day. 
Natural fermentation can take these liters to 5 to 6% ethanol.
Biotic factors — The most serious fungus attacking palmyra palm is Pythium palm ivorum 
(Bud-rot, which grows into the growing point and ultimately kills the tree). Other fungal 
diseases include: C ladosporiu m bora ssii, C urvularia lunata, G raphiola boras si, M icroxy- 
phium sp., P en icillopsis clavariaeform is, P estalotia palm arum , P hytophthora palm ivo ra , 
S phaerodothis b o ra ssi, R osellinia cocoes. Palmyra is attacked by insects which affect coconut 
palm: Rhinoceros beetle (O ryctes rh in oceros)’, Black headed caterpillar {N ephantis serin o p a ),’ 
and Red palm weevil (R hynchophorus ferrugineus).^^^’^^^ Termites and grubs of the Rhi
noceros beetle can be very destmctive to germinating seeds. In Guinea-Bissau, several insects 
“ commence their destructive careers by turning saprophytic on dead palms” . The most 
predominant of them is O ryctes g ig a s, whereas others like O. ow arien sis, O. m on oceros, 
R h yn ch ophoru sph oen icis, P latygen ia barbata, and P achnoda m arginella are common. Still, 
Kovoor^^^ concludes that the palm is extraordinarily disease-resistant. One study showed 
that more than 2% of the trees were infested with scorpions or snakes.
50 Handbook of Nuts
BROSIMUM ALICASTRUM Swartz (MORACEAE) — Breadnut, Ramon, Capomo, Masico
Uses — Branches and leaves used as an important cattle fodder, especially during the 
drier months in regions where trees are plentiful. Lopped branches (ramón) are relished by 
cattle; fallen leaves and nuts are also relished by cattle and pigs. Feeding ramón forage is 
said to augment milk production 1 to 2 € a day in dairy cattle. The milky latex, which flows 
freely when the trunk is cut, is mixed with chicle or drunk like cow’s milk. Sweet pericarp 
of fruit eaten raw by humans. Fruits boiled and eaten in Costa Rica. The seeds, or breadnuts, 
with chestnut-like flavor, are eaten raw, boiled, roasted, or reduced to a meal often mixed 
with com meal for making tortillas, or baked with green plaintain. They are eaten alone or 
with plantain, maize, or honey, or boiled in symp to make a sweetmeat. Seeds used as a 
coffee substitute. Wood is hard, compact, white, grayish, or tinged with pink, easy to work 
and used in carpentry, a valuable timber sometimes used in constmction, cabinet work, and 
other purposes in Yucatan.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the plant is used in folk remedies for cancer 
of the utems. Reported to be lactagague and sedative, ramón is a folk remedy for asthma 
(latex, leaves), bronchitis, and chest ailments.^’ Guatemalans drink the latex as a pectoral 
for stomach disorders. Crushed seeds are taken in sweetened water as a lactagogue. The 
bark shows CNS-depressant activity Leaf infusions are used in cough and kidney ailments. 
The diluted latex is used to aid tooth extraction.
Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the leaf is reported to contain 127 calories, 62.0 g H2O, 3.2 g 
protein, 1.2 g fat, 30.6 g total carbohydrate, 8.9 g fiber, 3.0 g ash, 530 mg Ca, 68 mg P, 
5.4 mg Fe, 820 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 mg thiamine, 0.51 mg riboflavin, 1.4 
mg niacin, and 55 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 56 calories, 
84.0 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.5 g fat, 12.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.2 g fiber, 0.9 g ash, 45
51
mg Ca, 36 mg P, 0.8 mg Fe, 840 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.5 mg thiamine, 1.52 mg 
riboflavin, 0.8 mg niacin, and 28 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 
363 calories, 6.5 g H2O, 11.4 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 76.1 g total carbohydrate, 6.2 g fiber, 
4.4 g ash, 211 mg Ca, 142 mg P, 4.6 mg Fe, 128 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg 
thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, and 2.1 mg niacin. Another seed analysis shows, per 100 g 
(oven-dry basis), 361 calories, 40 to 50 g H2O, 12.8 g protein, 4.6 g fiber, 178 mg Ca, 
122 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe, KX) (xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.1 mg thiamine, 0.1 mg riboflavin, 
1.6 mg niacin, and 50 mg ascorbic acid. Seed contains an essential oil, resin, wax, mucilage, 
dextrin, and glucose. The crude protein content of the seeds in higher than com, the tryp
tophan content is four times higher, significant among corn-fed L atins.P eters and Pardo- 
Tejeda^^® report the seeds to contain 10.4% leucine, 9.7% valine, 3.3% isoleucine, 4.0% 
phenylalanine, 2.3% lysine, 2.4% threonine, 2.3% tryptophan, 1.0% hisitidine, 0.7% me
thionine, 5.1% arginine, 15.3% aspartic acid, 6.7% proline, 9.9% cystine, 2.9% serine, 
2.3% glycine, 3.7% tyrosine, and 2.5% alanine.
Description — Evergreen, dioecious, tropical tree, 20 to 35(to 40) m tall, trunk to 1 m 
in diameter, sometimes with buttresses; latex white to yellow; leafy twigs 1 to 4 mm thick, 
glabrous or sparsely pubemlent; leaves alternate, elliptic to oblong or lanceolate, slightly 
inequilateral, often broadest above to below the middle, 4 to 28 cm long, 2 to 11 cm broad, 
chartaceous to coriaceous, acuminate, nearly acute, also acute at the base, or obtuse, tmncate 
or subcordate; margin entire, rarely denticulate; glabrous to sparsely pubemlent beneath, 
and pubescent on the costa, 12 to 21 pairs of secondary veins, with or without some parallel 
tertiary veins; petioles 2 to 14 mm long; stipules nearly fully amplexicaul, 5 to 15 mm long, 
glabrous to pubescent; inflorescences solitary, in twos or several together, subglobose to 
ellipsoid, subsessile or pedunculate, the peduncle up to 1.5 cm long; bracts 0.2 to 2 mm in 
diameter, pubemlent, the basal ones sometimes basally attached; staminate influorescence 
3 to 8 mm in diameter, with one central abortive pistillate flower; staminate flowers nu
merous, perianth absent or minute one, 1 stamen; pistillate inflorescence 2 to 4 mm in 
diameter, with 1 or 2, occasionally many, abortive flowers, style 1.5 to 8.5 mm long, 
stigmas 0.2 to 8 mm long; infmctescences subglobose, 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, at maturity 
yellow, brownish, or orange; seeds small, roundish, yellow or brownish, 1.3 cm or less in 
diameter, borne singly or in twos, in a thin, paper-like, stout shell, surface of seed smooth 
or somewhat granular. Flowers throughout the year.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, 
ramón, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, fungi, insects, limestone, slope, and 
waterlogging.®^ Besides the typical form with the anthers peltate with fused thecae, found 
in West Indies and Central America, there is a subsp. bolivarense (Pittier) Berg, called 
Guaimoro (Colombia and Venezuela), and Tillo (Ecuador), in which thecae are free, growing 
from Panama through the Andes to Guyana and in Brazil to Acre Territory.
Distribution — Native from the Pacific Coast of Mexico (Sinaloa) south through Central 
America to Ecuador, Guyana, and parts of Brazil; also in the West Indies. Introduced and 
planted in Singapore, Trinidad, and Florida.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, ramón is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual tem
perature of 19 to 26°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0. Nearly pure stands may occur on steep 
calcareous slopes.®^ In evergreen, semi-evergreen or deciduous forests in tropical climates, 
from 50 to 8(X) m (to 1,0(X) m) altitudes, sometimes in cloud-forests, regionally abundant, 
but also planted. Trees are extremely tolerant of drought, and grow well in dry habitats as 
well as in seasonally flooded places as along rivers and in swampy areas. Common on 
limestone in Jamaica. Thrives on various types of soils in tropical regions.^^®
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, cuttings, and air-layering. Seeds germinate readily. 
After trees are established, they grow well without much care. Often form a large portion 
of the forest tree population in some regions.^^®
52 Handbook of Nuts
Harvesting — Branches are cut by men who climb the trees with machetes, and cut down 
limbs for stock to browse upon. To increase the yield of fodder, it is suggested that close
planting and regular coppicing may be tested. Nuts collected from the ground by natives 
are used for food, or for making a black meal for making tortillas and other food-stuffs. 
Timber is harvested from mature trees and used, especially in the Yucatan.
Yields and economics — Fodder yield of natural and coppiced trees is not known but 
should be ascertained. There seems to be plenty of fodder material about when it is needed 
during dry spells.Peters and Pardo-Tejeda^^® put yields at 50 to 75 kg fruit per female 
tree per year. Based on a rough estimate of the distribution in Vera Cruz, Mexico, it is 
estimated that 80,000 MT seed could be collected annually with an annual production of 
10,000 MT crude protein, leaving the trees standing strong against erosion. Yucatan plantings 
are producing 10 to 15 MT forage per ha at each lopping. Thus ramón plantations produce 
almost twice as much (lactogenic) forage as established pasture.O f great value since 
ancient times in Central America, the West Indies, and northern tropical South America for 
a fodder food for stock and as a source of seeds for meal, latex for food, and timber for 
construction and other purposes. Not a commercial trade crop, but very important locally 
for these many purposes.
Energy — Assuming that the 80,000 MT seed was gathered for the production of 10,000 
MT crude protein, there would, of course, be a 70,000 MT biomass available for energy 
production. I would estimate that litter-fall from this species might approach 5 to 10 MT/ha. 
Although not a leader among firewoods, the wood could also be renewably gathered for 
fuel wood. As Gomez-Pampa^'^ notes, “ With a year-round, food-producing plant, we can 
liberate a good part of the energy that is currently spent on the production of grain for basic 
food products in tropical regions,” where “ weakness of tropical soils for annual crops has 
always been a limiting factor.”
Biotic Factors — Seeds stored when fresh are promptly infested by Aspergillus, some 
of which contain toxic compounds.
53
BROSIMUM UTILE (H.B.K.) Pitt. (MORACEAE) — Cow Tree, Palo de Vaca 
Syn.: B rosiu m g alactoden dron D. Don in Sweet, G alactoden dron utile H.B.K.
Uses — Latex from trunk, considered to be highly nutritive, is used by natives as a milk
like beverage, as a cream substitute in coffee, made into a kind of vegetable cheese, and 
made into a dessert after being chilled, whipped, and flavored. Laborers soak their bread 
in it. Used as a base for chewing gum. Bark used by Indians for making cloth, blankets, 
and sails. Plants grown in tropical areas for fruit or nuts and for leaves used for fodder. 
Fleshy outer layer of fruit eaten by parrots. Humans also eat the fruits, raw or cooked.^® 
The soft, white wood, though not durable, has been used for concrete forms, boxes, and 
sheathing.
Folk medicine — According to Hartw ell,a plaster of the milk is said to be a folk 
remedy for swelling of the spleen and indolent tumors. Reported to be lactagague and 
masticatory, cow tree is a folk remedy for asthma, inflammation, and tumors.^’ The latex 
is taken for asthma in Venezuela, and as an astringent for diarrhea in Costa Rica.^^'^
Chemistry — The latex contains 3.8% wax, 0.4% fibrin, 4.7% sugar and gum, and 
31.4% resins.Garcia-Barriga*®^ states that the latex contains 57.3% water, 0.4% albumen, 
31.4% wax of the formula C35H66O3, 5.8% wax of the formula C35H58O7, and 4.7% gum 
and sugars.
Description — Laticiferous tree, 20 to 25 m tall, with simple trunk 40 to 50 cm in 
diameter at base, bark thick, grayish, smooth or verrucose, crown elongate; young brancelets 
subangular, more or less pubescent; leaves coriaceous; petioles 0.5 to 1.5 cm long, thick, 
canaliculate, sparsely pubescent; blades ovate, elliptic, rounded at base, abruptly acuminate 
at apex in a drip tip, 10 to 25 cm long, 3.5 to 9.5 cm broad, glabrous on both surfaces, 
green above, golden-brown beneath, margin entire, venation impressed on upper surface, 
prominent and slightly pubescent on lower one; primary veins 27 to 30, parallel, straight, 
almost transverse; stipules about 2 cm long, acute-lanceolate, silky pubescent, canducous, 
leaving a circular scar at each node; receptacles globose with 1 female flower, solitary in 
axils of leaves, long-pedunculate, about 7 mm in diameter in flowering stage; bractlet 
orbicular, thick, sessile, pilose-pubescent; staminal bractlets short (0.5 mm long), broad and 
ciliate; stamens 0.7 to 1.4 mm long, solitary, with smooth filaments, anthers ovate and 2- 
celled; ovary inserted 2.5 to 3 mm deep in receptacle; fruit depressed-globose, 2 to 2.5 cm 
in diameter, epicarp fleshy, 4 to 6 mm thick, yellow at maturity, mesocarp woody, rugose 
on surface, entirely filled with a single almond-like, white seed. Flowers and fruits 
September.
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle and South American Centers of Diversity, cow 
tree, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope.
Distribution — Native to tropical America from Nicaragua and Costa Rica south into 
northern South America, Colombia, and Venezuela, sometimes being the common tree in 
upland forests.
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, cow tree is reported 
to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 25 to 27°C, and pH 
of 8.0.^^ Thrives in wet and subtropical climates, especially on hillsides bordering rivers.^^®
Cultivation — Propagation by cuttings over heat. When cuttings are rooted, they are 
planted in the forest where they soon became established. Plants rarely cultivated as a pure 
crop, because the trees freely propagate naturally in the forest.
Harvesting — Incisions are made in trunk of tree, after which there is a profuse flow of 
gluey, thick milk, destitute of acridity and giving off a very agreeable balsamic odor. When 
exposed to air, the fluid displays on its surface, probably by absorption of atmospheric 
oxygen, membranes of a highly animal nature, yellowish and thready, like those of cheese. 
These, when separated from the more watery liquid, are nearly as elastic as those of caoutch
54 Handbook of Nuts
ouc, but in time they exhibit the same tendency to purify as gelatin. The milk itself, kept 
in a corked bottle, only deposits a small amount of coagulum and continues to give off the 
balsamic scent. Large quantities of this vegetable milk are drunk by the natives and it has 
been noted that workers gain weight during that time of year when the tree produces the 
most milk.‘^ ’^^^
Yields and economics — No yield data available. Widely used in the areas where the 
tree grows native, namely southern Central America and northern South America. Not known 
to be of international commercial value.
Energy — The wood can serve as a fuel wood, said to bum green. Resin extracted from 
the fmits is used to make candles. The latex is mixed with balsa charcoal and wrapped in 
palm leaves to serve as a torch.
Biotic factors — I find no reports of pests or diseases on this tree.
55
BRUGUIERA GYMNORRHIZA (L.) Savigny (RHIZOPHORACEAE) — Burma Mangrove 
Syn.: B ru g u iera con ju gata Auct.
Uses — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.87 to 1.08) is durable, but hard to saw and work. 
It is used for construction, furniture, house-posts, and pilings.Thousands of tons of 
Bruguiera wood chips are exported annually from Indonesia, Sabah, and Sarawak for pulp 
and for rayon manufacture.Fruits are eaten, but not when anything better is available. 
More often, they are chewed as astringent with the betel quid. Since it is mostly the seed 
or embryo of this one-seeded indéhiscent fruit that is eaten, this can be called a tropical 
nut. Embryos of several species are eaten, usually after processing.Chinese in Java make 
a sweetmeat therefrom. In the South Pacific, fruits are peeled, sliced, and soaked in water 
for several hours, then steamed or boiled and eaten with coconut cream.Dutch Indians 
use the bark to flavor raw fish. The leaves and peeled hypocotyls are eaten in the Moluccas 
after soaking and boiling.In the Loyalty Islands, the embryo is kept for months after 
sundrying.The phlobaphene coloring matter is used in China and Malaya for black dye.^^ 
In South Africa, the tree has been planted to stabilize dunes and in fresh-water swamps.
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent,^* the bark is used for diarrhea and fever in 
Indonesia.Cambodians use the astringent bark for malaria.
Chemistry — In Burma, leaves may contain 18.3% H2O, 13.5% tannin; outer cortex 
(small trees) 14.6 and 7.9, outer cortex (large trees) 14.2 and 10.8; twig bark 13.1 and 
14.8, bole bark (small trees) 16.3 and 31.7; whereas the bole bark of large trees contains 
12.5% H2O, 42.3% tannin. Bark contains from ca.4 to 53.12% tannin, according to Watt 
and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ and The Wealth of India 
Toxicity — Eating too much (bark) is dangerous.The skull and crossbones indicate 
that Menninger^^ considers the “ nuts” to be poisonous.
Description — Evergreen tree 8 to 25(to 35) m high, with straight trunk 40 to 90 cm in 
diameter, buttressed at base, and with many upright pneumatophores rising to 45 cm from
Handbook of Nuts
56
long horizontal roots. Bark gray to blackish, smooth to roughly fissured, thick; inner bark 
reddish. Leaves opposite, elliptical, 9 to 20 cm long, 5 to 7 cm wide, acute at both ends, 
entire, without visible veins, thick, leathery, glabrous. Petioles 2 to 4.5 cm long. Flowers 
single in leaf axils, 3 to 4 cm long, usually drooping on stalk of 1 to 2.5 cm, red to yellowish 
or cream-colored, with red to pink-red bell-shaped hypanthium. Calyx with 10 to 14 very 
narrow, leathery lobes. Petals 10 to 14, 13 to 15 mm long, white turning brown, each with
2 narrow lobes ending in 3 to 4 bristles. Stamens 2, nearly hidden at base of each petal. 
Pistil with inferior 3- to 4-celled ovary, each cell with 2 ovules; style slender; stigma with
3 to 4 short forks. Berry drooping, ovoid or turbinate, 2 to 2.5 cm long. Seed 1, viviparous, 
finally 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter.
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani, African, Australian, and Indonesian-In- 
dochina Centers of Diversity, Burma mangrove, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, 
disease, high pH, insects, pest, salt, shade, waterlogging.
Distribution — Tropical South and East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, 
southeastern Asia, Ryukyu; throughout Malaysia to Philippines, Australia, Micronesia, and 
Polynesia. Introduced into Hawaii.'**
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Rain through Subtropical Moist 
to Rain Forest Life Zones, Burma mangrove is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 
10 to 80 dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. One of the largest 
trees in the Malayan mangroves, usually on drier well-aerated soils toward the landward 
side, often dominating with occasional stems >35 m tall. It is probably the longest-lived 
of the mangroves. It can stand “ any amount of shade,M ostly on brackish or saline silts 
of depositing shores and marshes.
Cultivation — According to the NAS,^^^ planting is usually not needed, because natural 
regeneration is so successful. In Avicennia and Rhizophora, direct seeding results in ca.90% 
survival.
Harvesting — Mostly harvested from natural stands. Species of Rhizophoraceae, growing 
only from the tips of the branches, are often killed by indiscriminate lopping of branches. 
After felling, its regeneration is often very scant and there is danger of overgrowth by 
Acrostichum (but once seedlings have established themselves, the “ fern acts rather as a 
nurse, forcing the seedling up.“ ).''^®
Yields and economics — A good mangrove stand can show annual productivity of 10 
to 20(to 25) MT/ha/year, but for firewood purposes, I would reduce that to 10 to 20 (to 25) 
m^/ha/year, figuring that as optimal rather than average. Litter-fall may account for 1/3 to 
1/2 of above-ground productivity. Because of the heaviness of the wood, a cubic meter of 
mangrove wood is generally more valuable than the wood of other species.
Energy — Wood widely used for charcoal and fuel.'** For charcoal, the tree seems to 
rank with Rhizophora, with an even higher calorific value. According to The Wealth of 
Indiaf^ the calorific value of moisture-free sapwood is 5,169 cals, heartwood 5,019.
Biotic factors — No data available.
57
BUCHANANIA LANZAN Spreng. (ANACARDIACEAE) Chirauli Nut, Cuddapah Almond, 
Cheronjee, Chironjii, Almondette 
Syn.: B. latifolia Roxb.
Uses — Cuddapah almond is cultivated for the fresh fruit, which has a very agreeable 
flavor. The delicate nutty-flavored seed is very nutritious, especially when roasted. Seeds 
are consumed by natives of India and Burma, roasted with milk or as sweetmeats. Seeds 
are also the source of an excellent oil, which is light yellow, sweet, mild with pleasant 
aroma, and used as a substitute for olive oil or almond oil in confectionery, and in medicinal 
preparations — especially applied to glandular swellings of the neck. A gum (Chironji- 
kigond) is sold at bazaars in India and has adhesive properties. Kernels are used as important 
articles of trade, in exchange for salt, grain, and cloth. Leaves are used as fodder in Bombay 
and Punjab. Bark and fruits furnish a natural varnish. A pellucid gum, obtained from wounds 
on stems, is used in diarrhea. Used to tan leathers of dark reddish-brown color with a 
somewhat stiff, harsh texture. Wood is light gray to grayish-brown, sometimes with a faint 
yellow tinge, to dark-brown in heartwood of old trees, rough, very light, straight-grained, 
coarse-textured, moderately strong, used for boxes, yokes, doors, cheap furniture, posts, 
and bedsteads. Berar females use the pounded kernels to remove facial spots and 
blemishes.
Folk medicine — Reported to be antidotal for fish poisoning and scorpion stings, al
mondette is a folk remedy for asthma, bronchitis, bums, cholera, consumption, cough, 
diarrhea, dysuria, fever, gingivitis, phthisis, and snakebite.Describing the genus Buck- 
anania as therapeutically inert, Kirtikar and Basu^^^ go on to describe the almondette as 
used in the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicines. Ayurvedics use the roots for 
biliousness and blood disorders; the fruits for blood diseases, fevers, impotence, thirst, and 
ulcers; the aphrodisiac cardiotonic seeds for biliousness. Yunani consider the seed aphro
disiac, expectorant, stomachic, and tonic. Useful in fever, gleet, and urinary concretions,
58 Handbook of Nuts
it is believed to cause headache. Yunani regard the leaf juice as antibilious, aphrodisiac, 
depurative, digestive, expectorant, purgative, and refrigerant. The seed oil is applied to 
glandular swellings on the neck. It is also used for itch, pimples, and prickly heat. In Madras, 
the gum is given with goat’s milk for intercostal pain. Hakims apply the fruit to inflamed 
or indurate tongue.^'
Chemistry — Seeds contain 51.8% oil, 12.1% starch, 21.6% protein, 5% sugar;^^^ bark 
contains 13.4% tannin.Kernels also contain 152 mg Ca and 499 mg P (per 1(X) g); deficient 
in amino acids lysine and methionine.The fatty acid composition of B. lanzan seed oil, 
determined by urea complex formation and GLC, was found to be: myristic, 0.6%, palmitic, 
33.4%, stearic, 6.3%, oleic, 53.7%, and linoleic, 6.0%. Triglyceride compositions of the 
native seed oil were calculated from the fatty acid compositions of the triglycerides and of 
the corresponding 2-monoglycerides produced by pancreatic lipase hydrolysis. The oil is 
composed of 3.2, 35.8, 45.5, and 15.5% trisaturated, monounsaturated disaturated, diun- 
saturated monosaturated, and triunsaturated glycerides, respectively. The special character
istics of B. lanzan seed oil is its content of 22.7, 31.0, and 11.3% dipalmitoolein, 
dioleopalmitin, and triolein, respectively. The percent trisaturated glyceride content of the 
oil increased from 3.2 to 7.5 by the process of randomization. On directed interesterification, 
the oil yielded a product with a slip-point of 41.5°C which may be suitable as a coating 
material for delayed action tablets. The oil also appears to be a promising commercial source 
of palmitic and oleic acids.
Description — Moderate-sized tree, up to 17 m tall and a girth of 1.3 m; young branches 
pubescent; leaves alternate, simple, leathery, entire, 12 to 25 x 6 to 12.5 cm, petioled; 
flowers small, sessile, white, monoecious, in terminal or axillary panicles, crowded; calyx 
short, persistent, the lobes ciliate; petals 4 to 5, ca. 2.5 mm long, oblong, recurved; stamens 
8 to 10, free, inserted at base of disk; fruit black, single-seeded drupe, 1.3 cm in diameter, 
with scanty flesh; stone crustaceous or bony, 2-valved; seeds (kernels) gibbous, acute at 
one end, size of small cherries. Flowers spring; fruits summer.
Germplasm — Reported for the Hindustani Center of Diversity, almondette, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate savanna, slope, and dry deciduous forests.
Distribution — Native to Southeast Asia, mostly India, Burma, and Indochina, especially 
in mountainous regions, almondette is widely cultivated throughout India, ascending to 10(X) 
m in northwestern India and Nepal, spreading towards Malaya, Thailand, and Yunan.^^^
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Dry through Wet Forest Life 
Zones, almondette is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 40 dm, annual tem
perature of 23 to 25°C, and pH of 5.0 to 6.0. Trees are found in dry deciduous forests. 
Within its natural habitat it is a useful tree for covering dry hillsides.
Cultivation — Propagated from seed; not formally cultivated.
Harvesting — Harvested from the wild.^®
Yields and Economics — In Madras, a tree will yield ca.0.4 kg gum/year. Wood is 
rather cheap; in 1937, Bombay Rs 25 to 35 per ton, in Orissa, Rs 19 per ton. Fruits are 
frequently sold at bazaars in India, at about 4 to 6 annas per It takes 36 kg nuts to 
yield 10 kg oil as expressed in India.
Energy — In Tropical Dry Forest near Varanasi, Shorea robusta may be dominant, 
followed by Buchanania lanzan, with standing biomass of 26.8 and 8.3 MT/ha and annual 
net production of 2.21 and 0.79 MT/ha respectively. Litter amounts to 1.51 MT and 0.58 
MT/ha respectively A seedling in its first year will produce only 0.19 g biomass, compared 
to 5.98 g for Butea monosperma, 12.43 g for Areca catechu.^^^
Biotic factors — Tree attacked by the fungus Marasmius sp. and by the parasitic flowering 
plant, Dendrophthoe falcata.^^^
59
BUTYROSPERMUM PARADOXUM (Gaertn.f.) Hepper (SAPOTACEAE)
Shea Nut,
Butterseed
Inch: B, parkii
Uses — An important oil-producing tree, it is the source of shea butter, an edible fat or 
vegetable butter extracted from the ripe seeds. Natives use shea butter as cooking fat, an 
illuminant, a medicinal ointment, dressing for the hair, and for making soap. Shea nut meal 
used for hog-feed, having 60% carbohydrate and 12% protein. Gutta-shea is a reddish 
exudation obtained by tapping the tree with removal of pieces of bark with a narrow axe. 
Latex is removed on the following day, boiled and cleaned of dirt and bark; it is a mixture 
of resin and gutta, called “ balata” or “ Red Kano rubber’ Wood is dull red, very heavy, 
termite-proof, difficult to work, but takes a good polish and is very durable. Used for wooden 
bowls, mortars and pestles; used as firewood, producing great heat and making charcoal. 
In Sierra Leone, used for ribs of boats and in marine workshops. Ashes from burning of 
wood commonly used as the lye in indigo dyeing. Flowers provide bee nectar.
Folk medicine — Nakanis of West Africa use the bark decoction to bathe children and 
as a medicine. On the Ivory Coast, it is used in baths and sitz-baths to facilitate delivery. 
Lobis use the leaf decoction as an eye bath. Young leaves are used in steam vapors to 
alleviate headache. Oil used as a topical emollient and vehicle for other pharmaceuticals. 
Medicinally, butter used for rubbing on rheumatic pains or mixed with other medicines to 
replace other oils. Also used both internally and externally on horses for galls and other 
sores. Root-bark, boiled and pounded, applied to chronic sores in horses. Crushed bark used 
as a remedy for leprosy. Latex is not poisonous, but a decoction of the bark is lethal. Root 
mixed with scourings of tobacco as a poison.^’
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 622 calories, 7.3 g protein, 
52.6 g fat, 38.2 g total carbohydrate, 5.6 g fiber, 1.8 g ash, 107 mg Ca, 43 mg P, 3.2 mg
60 Handbook of Nuts
Fe, and 0.56 mg thiamine.®^ The fat contains 45.6% oleic acid, 44.3% stearic acid, 5.5% 
linoleic acid. Of the 2 monoglycerides, 82.1% was oleates and 14% linoleates.^^^ Another 
report puts it at 5.7% palmitic, 41.0% stearic, 49.0% oleic, and 4.3% linoleic. Allantoin 
and its intermediary products constitute 24 to 28% of the total N of a water extract of defatted 
shea kernel meal.^* Alpha- and beta-amyrin, basseol, parkeol, and lupeol are also reported. 
According to Roche and Michel,the seed protein contains 8.2% arginine, 1.0% cystine, 
9.9% leucine, 2.9% phenylalanine, 1.1% tryptophane, and 1.4% valine.
Description — Stout, much-branched tree to 20 m tall; crown spreading, bark usually 
gray or blackish, deeply fissured and splitting into squarish or rectangular corky scales; 
short-shoots with conspicuous angular leaf-base scars; young shoots, petioles and flower 
buds with rusty pubescence. Leaves oblong to ovate-oblong, 10 to 25 cm long, 4.5 to 14 
cm broad, rounded at apex, base acute to broadly cuneate, margin undulate and thickened; 
the petioles one-third to one-half the length of lamina; both surfaces either pubescent or 
glabrescent, lateral veins 20 to 30 on each side, regularly and closely spaced, slightly arcuate; 
leaves reddish when young flowers fragrant, in dense clusters, at tips of branchlets, above 
leaves of previous year; pedicels up to 3 cm long, puberulous to densely pubescent; outer 
sepals lanceolate, 9 to 14 mm long, 3.5 to 6 mm broad, pubescent or more or less floccose 
externally; inner sepals slightly smaller; corolla creamy white, tube 2.5 to 4 mm long, 
glabrous or pilose externally, lobes broadly ovate, 7 to 11 mm long, 4.5 to 7 mm broad; 
filaments 7 to 12 mm long, anthers more or less lanceolate, up to 4.5 mm long; staminodes 
up to 8 mm long; style 8 to 15 mm long. Fruit ellipsoid, greenish, up to 6.5 cm long, 4.5 
cm in diameter, subglabrous or with pubescence persistent in patches, containing a sweet 
pulp surrounding the seed. Seed up to 5 cm long, 3.5 cm in diameter, usually solitary, 
sometimes up to 3 per fruit, shining dark-brown, with a large white scar on one side. 
Germination cryptocotylar.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, shea nut, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate drought, fire, grazing, laterite, savanna, and slope.Several mor
phological and physiological forms differ in shape and size of fruits and seeds, and in 
chemical analysis of kernels and fruit, thickness of pericarp, and early fruiting period. Besides 
the common type, there are two recognized varieties or subspecies: subsp. parkii (G.Don) 
Hepper {Butyrospermum parkii (G.Don) Kotschy, Brassia parkii G.Don) is less dense a 
plant, with shorter indumentum, smaller flowers, and the style is 8 to 12 mm long; subsp. 
niloticum (Kotschy) Hepper has densely ferrugineous parts, with a corolla tube pilose ex
ternally, lobes 9.5 to 11 mm long, 6.5 to 7 mm broad, filaments 10 to 12 mm long, and 
the style 12 to 15 mm long.^^®
Distribution — Widespread throughout tropical Africa from West Africa (Liberia, Gold 
Coast, Nigeria, Togo, Dahomey, Senegal, Sierra Leone) to Sudan and Uganda, south to 
eastern Congo.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, shea nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 25 dm, annual 
temperature of 23 to 2TC, and pH of 4.9 to 6.5.®^ Frequent in savanna regions or as scattered 
trees in grasslands across central Africa from West Africa to East Africa. Often protected 
and preserved in cultivated land. Common on dry laterite slopes, but not in alluvial hollows 
or land subject to flooding. Grows from 950 to 1,500 m elevations.^^®
Cultivation — Seeds germinate readily on the ground under natural conditions. Fresh 
seed is essential. Seedlings develop a very long taproot, making transplanting hazardous. 
Trees grow very slowly from seed, bearing fruit in 12 to 15 years, taking up to 30 years to 
reach maturity. Natural propagation is chiefly from root-suckers.^^®
Harvesting — Fruits mostly harvested at end of July, usually during the rainy season. 
Shea oil is the native product expressed from kernels in Europe; shea butter is material 
prepared by native methods. In West Africa, the preparation of shea butter is woman’s work.
61
In Nigeria, nuts are collected by one tribe, sold to another, and the butter bartered back. 
Preparation of shea butter consists of pounding usually roasted kernels in mortar to a coarse 
pulp, and then grinding this into a fine oily paste with chocolate aroma. Tannin present 
makes this form inedible. In some areas, this mass is further worked with a little water in 
a large pot in the ground, followed by hand-kneading and washing in cold water. From this 
the butter is extracted by boiling and skimming; then it is boiled again to purify further, 
after which it is transferred to molds. Locally, nuts are boiled before cracking; extraction 
is made from the sun-dried kernels. Ordinary oven-drying causes no loss of oil. Clean nuts 
may be roasted until the latex coagulates and the dry nuts stored. In other areas, fruits are 
spread in the sun until the pulp separates, or they are fermented by being kept moist for 
weeks or months in earthenware jars, and then the nuts are subsequently roasted.
Yields and economics — Using native processing approaches, it takes about 4 kg kernels 
to yield 1 kg butter. Thoroughly dried kernels represent about one-third the weight of the 
fresh nuts. By native standards, a kerosene tin containing about 12.23 kg (27 lb) kernels 
yield 3.17 kg (7 lb) shea butter. Kernels contain 45 to 55% by weight of fat, but may be 
as high as 60%, and 9% proteins. The Giddanchi type of kernel averages 3.2 to 6 cm long, 
yielding 52.4% of fat. The shea butter tree has economic importance as an oil-seed produced 
under natural conditions in great abundance in regions where the oil palm does not grow 
and in areas which are otherwise unproductive. A large volume of shea nuts is exported 
annually from West Africa, mainly to Holland and Belgium, the chief importers. Belgium 
imports most of the shea butter. In Uganda, a small local market developed during World 
War 11.^^’^""’^"«
Energy — As fuel, the wood gives out great heat. Charcoal is prepared from it in some 
districts.
Biotic factors — Where trees are subjected to annual grass-burning, they are frequently 
stunted and twisted. The thick corky base gives some protection against fire. Trees are 
frequently grazed by wild animals and the sugary pulp is eaten by them, but not the nut of 
the fallen fruit. Unripe fruit exudes latex which remains in the ripe nut but disappears from 
the ripe pulp. In Senegal, caterpillars of C irina butyrosperm i cause defoliation; dried, these 
caterpillars have long been an article of food in Nigerian markets under the name of mone- 
mone (Yoruba). Fungi attacking this tree include: A spergillu s fla vu s, A. niger, A. tam arii, 
B otryodiplodia theobrom ae, C ephaleuros m y coidea, C ercospora butyrosperm i, F usicladium 
butyrosperm i, M eliola butyrosperm i, H elm inthosporium cojfeae, O othyrium butyrosperm i, 
and P estalotia h eterospora. Parasitic on the tree are L oranthus dodon aefoliu s, L. globiferus 
var. salicifoliu s, and L. rufescens; and F icus may be epiphytic on the tree, causing reduction 
in fruit yield.
62 Handbook of Nuts
CALAMUS ROTAN G L. and other species (ARECACEAE) — Rattan Cane, Rotang Cane
Uses — Tender shoots and seed edible. The sweet pulp around the seeds is also edible. 
Stems provide drinking water, especially in the rainy season.^'® Sturtevant^*^ describes the 
fruit as roundish, large as a hazelnut, and covered with small, shining, imbriate scales. 
Natives generally suck out the subacid pulp which surrounds the kernels to quench the thirst. 
Sometimes the fruit is pickled with salt and eaten at tea time. Seeds are eaten by aborigines. 
Stems and branches form rattan cane of commerce, used as props for crop plants, for 
manufacture of furniture, baskets, wicker-work, umbrella ribs, cables, and ropes. Rattan 
ropes are used for dragging heavy weights and for tethering wild animals. Cordage and 
cables are made by twisting together two or more canes. Canes also are used for building 
boats, suspension bridges, and as a substitute for whale-bone. Jungle experts make fire by 
rubbing them backwards and forwards as fast as possible under a branch of dry soft wood 
in which a hole has been scooped and lined with wooden dust.^^"^
Folk medicine — Used for abdominal tumors in India,Root given for chronic fevers, 
and used as antidote to snake venom. Leaves used in diseases of blood and in biliousness. 
Wood is a vermifuge.Serrano,"^*® without mentioning species, cited asthma, diarrhea, 
enterosis, rheumatism, and snake-bite as ailments treated with rattan.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of the figured species (C. ornatus) is reported to contain 
79 calories, 79.0 g H2O, 0.6 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 18.6 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 g fiber, 
0.6 g ash, 19 mg Ca, 10 mg P, 1.7 mg Fe, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.01 mg riboflavin, 0.9 mg 
niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^
Toxicity — Scrapings from the bark of glossy-coated cane species may contain enough 
silica to act as an irritant to the mucous membranes.
Description — Stems scandent or climbing, very slender; to as much as 200 m long.
63
leaf-sheaths sparingly armed with short, flat spines, glabrous. Leaves 60 to 90 cm long, on 
short petioles with small, straight or recurved spines; leaflets numerous, narrowly lanceolate, 
20 to 23 cm long, 1.3 to 2 cm broad, median costa unarmed on both surfaces, or armed 
beneath only, lateral costa unarmed on both surfaces. Male spadix slender, very long, 
branched, whip-like, sparingly spinous; female flowers scattered along slender branches of 
spadix; spikelets 1.3 to 2.5 cm long, recurved. Fruit globose to subglobose, very pale, 1.6 
to 1.8 cm in diameter; scales many, in vertical rows, straw-colored.
Germplasm — Reported to tolerate slope and shade, the rattan genus is from the Hin
dustani and Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity. It contains ca.300 difficulty distin
guishable species of the moister tropics of the Old World (Asia, Africa). Perhaps rattans, 
climbing spiny palms, represent 600 species in ca.l5 genera, more used for furniture and 
construction than for the nuts. Lapis"^“ discusses the 12 major Philippine species, illustrating
3 species of Calamus.
Distribution — Native to India, Bengal, Assam, and Sri Lanka^^^ (Calamus rotang), 
with other species, extending to Borneo, the Philippines.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Tropical Moist through Wet Forest Life 
Zones, rattan is reported from areas with annual precipitation of 17.3 to 42.9 dm (mean of
4 cases = 32.1 dm), annual temperature of 23.5 to 27.4°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.7°C), 
and pH of 4.5 to 5 (mean of 2 cases = 4.8). Once common in moist localities, in tropical 
to subtropical climate, now locally overharvested. Does not tolerate any frost. Apparently 
fares better in primary than secondary forest.Young plants thrive in soil containing a 
large quantity of leaf mold. Older plants need soil of a more lasting nature.
Cultivation — A quantity of bonemeal and charcoal in the soil may be advantageous.“^ 
Young plants thrive in rooting media rich with leaf mold. Older trees need more substantial 
soil with ground bone, charcoal nutrients, and plenty of water.Loams are best, clay loams 
okay. For seed extraction, the fruits are peeled and fermented in water for ca.24 hr., then 
squeezed, after which clean seeds settle to the bottom. These are then removed to dry in 
the shade. Then they are stratified or mixed with moist sawdust for several days. To prevent 
fungal infestation, seeds are treated with ca.0.5 lb sodium pentachloropentate, and dissolved 
in 3 gallons distilled water. Germination starts after 68 to 85 days. Nursery-grown seedlings 
or earthballed wild plants, as well as young suckers, can be used as planting stock. Seedlings 
15 cm tall are ready for planting, if they have 4 to 5 leaves. Two seedlings are placed in 
each hole, 2m x 2m, at the beginning. Fertilization at 6 g per plant 20:10:5 is recom
mended.During the first 2 to 3 years, humus mulching encourages growth. At this point, 
more light is desirable. Some Borneo farmers, in abandoning their temporary forest food 
plots, plant rattans, letting the forest reclaim the plot, returning 7 to 15 years later to harvest 
rattan and begin food cropping again.
Harvesting — Some cultivated trees yield usable canes in 6 years. Full production occurs 
in 15 years. At this age, canes average about 30 m long, 2.5 cm in diameter. Mature rattans 
can be cut at the base and divided into sections 4 to 5 m long. Thereafter, canes can be cut 
about every 4 years, from suckers. Canes should be harvested during the dry season, and 
dried and processed promptly. Canes are scraped to remove the thin silicious coating, bringing 
out its yellowish luster. Canes should then be dried to less than 20% moisture. Kilns at dry 
bulb temperatures of ca.65°C, wet bulb temperatures of ca.45°C, will bring moisture contents 
to 12 to 14% in ca.5 days. A dryer design is discussed by Serrano.Stain fungi may be 
avoided by treatment of 7 pounds sodium pentachlorophenate in 100 gallons water, applied 
the same day the canes are cut. Post-powder beetles may be prevented by soaking the poles 
for 3 min in 0.5% aqueous solutions of Lindane or Dieldrin. The canes may also be steeped 
in a mixture of diesel oil and coconut or palm oil prior to a final drying.
Yields and Economics — Rattan cane is important in India and elsewhere for the man
ufacture of cane-bottom chairs, etc. Many species of the large genus are used in various
64 Handbook of Nuts
parts of the world for similar purposes.In the Philippines, the rattan industry employs 
10,000 workers. One Philippine joumaP*^ suggested that, already, raw rattan was worth 
$50 million (U.S.), with the finished manufactured rattan products worth $1.2 billion. In 
the Philippines, in 1977, there was a report of nearly 66 tons split rattan and nearly 4,000,000 
linear meters of unsplit rattan.B y 1983, it was closer to 5,000,000 linear meters."^'® 
Among Tagbanua ethnics in the Philippines, rattan collecting returned ca. $1.00 to $5.00/day 
whereas agriculture returned closer to $1.00/day."^’^ But in the 1950s and 1960s, a worker 
could collect 200 5-m canes a day, while in 1981, 35 to 50 canes was par, each worth little 
more than $0.05.
Energy — In Peninsular Malaysia, mean stem lengths of C alam us m anan was only 1.3 
m after 6 years, but the longest stem was ca.l8 m. C alam us caesius can grow as much as 
5 to 6 m/year for the first 5 years of planting. In Sabah, the number of aerial stems doubled 
each year for the first 3 years in C. caesius, first 4 years for C. t r a c h y l o p h e u s Trial 
cultivation"^'^ of C alam us ornatus in the Philippines yielded canes less than 2 m long, not 
suggesting much biomass potential. Rejects and prunings might be useful for fuel.
Biotic factors — Rattan plants are attacked by the fungi C atacaum ella calam icola, 
D oratom yces tenuis, and Sphaerodothis coimbatorica,^^^ Undesirable stains are caused by 
C eratocystis an d D iplodia.
65
CANARIUM INDICUM L. (BURSERACEAE) — Java-Almond, Kanari, Kenari 
Syn.: Canarium amboinense Hochr., Canarium commune L., Canarium mehenbeth-
ene Gaertn., Canarium moluccanum Bl., Canarium subtruncatum Engl., Can
arium shortlandicum Rech., Canarium polyphyllum Krause, Canarium 
grandistipulatum Lauterbach, and Canarium nungi Guillaumin.
Uses — Seeds are highly regarded in Melanesia as a food, a delicacy, and in pastries as 
a substitute for almonds. Mature fruits, dried over fires, are an important stored food in the 
Solomon Islands. Nuts are ground and added to grated taro and coconut c re a m .A n 
emulsion of seeds is used in baby-foods. Oil from the seeds is used as a substitute for 
coconut oil for cooking and illumination. Resin from the stems (Getah kanari) has the scent 
of eugenol and is used in printing inks and varnishes. It is the source of a Manila elemi, a 
resin, used as an incense and fixative in the perfume industry, and for varnishes. Oil derived 
from the resin is also employed in soap and cosmetics. Old stems are used as fuel and when 
burning lime. Wood may be used in canoe building and paddles are made from the buttresses. 
Parts of the plant are used to make cloth and to make moth-repelling bookcases. The tree 
is planted as a shade-tree in nutmeg plantations and as a road-side tree.^^®
Folk medicine — Resin is applied to indolent ulcers.The fruit is laxative. Medicinally 
(in Java), it is used as an incense for sick persons to keep the atmosphere clean.
Chemistry — Seeds contain 3.8% moisture, 19.6% protein, 72.8% fat, and 3.8% ash.®^ 
The oil contains 10.2% stearic, 30.5% palmitic, 39.9% oleic, 18.7% linoleic, and 0.7% 
linolenic acids. The oleoresin which oozes from the trunk contains 10.4% essential oil, 
81.8% resin, 3.7% water solubles, and 2.5% water. The essential oil contains ca. 34% 
anethole and a small quantity of terpenes.^®’^*"*
Description — Tree grows up to 40 m, to 1 m in diameter, with buttresses; branchlets 
7 to 13 mm thick, glabrescent. Leaves are compound, 3-8 pairs of leaflets, glabrous, with
66 Handbook of Nuts
persistent ovate to oblong stipules 1.5 to 2 cm long and 1.2 to 1.4 cm wide, pulverulent to 
glabrous; leaflets oblong-obovate to oblong-lanceolate, 7 to 35 cm long and 3.5 to 16 cm 
wide, on long slender petiolules (to 3 cm long); blades herbaceous to coriaceous, the base 
oblique, rounded to broadly cuneate, the apex gradually to bluntly acuminate, margin entire; 
inflorescences terminal, many-flowered, 15 to 40 cm long, minutely tomentose. Flowers 
tomentose, male ones subsessile, about 1 cm long, females short-stalked, up to 1.5 cm long, 
with a concave receptacle; calyx in male flowers 5 to 7 mm long, in females 7 to 10 mm; 
stamens glabrous, in male flowers free; in females adnate to disk; pistil in male flowers 
minute or none, in female glabrous; fruiting clusters with up to 30 fruits; fruits ovoid, round 
to slightly triangular in cross-section, 3.5 to 6 cm long and 2 to 4 cm in diameter, glabrous; 
pyrene rounded triangular in cross-section, smooth except the 3 more-or-less acute ribs at 
base and apex; lids 3 to 4 mm thick; seeds usually 1, the sterile cells slightly reduced. 
Flowers mainly October to December fruits July to December.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, Java 
almond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.®^ Several races are cultivated in 
Melanesia, varying in form and size of fruits. Two botanical varieties are recognized: (1) 
var. indicum , with branchlets up to 13 mm thick; stipules up to 6 by 5 cm, dentate; leaves 
up to 7 jugate; leaflets up to 28 by 11 cm, herbaceous; and fruits up to 6 x 3 cm. This is 
the more widespread variety and the more cultivated form. (2) var. platycerioideu m Leen- 
houts, with branchlets up to 2.5 cm thick; stipules sometimes inserted on the bases of the 
petiole only; leaves 5 to 8 Jugate, 80 to 135 cm long; leaflets inequilateral, ovate, 25 to 35 
X 13 to 16 cm; fruits 6 by 3.5 to 4 cm. Found only on New Guinea up to altitudes of 30
178, 179,278
m.
Distribution — Native to Moluccas (Temate, Sula, Ceram, Ambon, Kai), the North 
Celebes (where it may be naturalized), and Indonesia (New Guinea, New Britain, New 
Ireland, Solomon Islands, and New Hebrides).
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, Java almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 24 dm (mean 
of cases = 18), annual temperature of 24 to 2 T C (mean of 3 cases = 25.5), and pH of 
5.3 to 8.1 (mean of 2 cases == 6.7).^^ Java almond is found in rain-forest at low altitudes, 
rarely native above 250 m. However, it is planted up to 600 m or more.^^®
Cultivation — Sprouted seeds or larger seedlings are transplanted.
Harvesting — Fruiting peaks at August to October and February to April in Santa Cruz, 
Solomon Islands, but fruits are available year-round. In the Solomon Islands, where Can- 
arium is ‘’probably the most important economic tree species” , the plants are usually 
accepted as wild forest species, exploited by gathering, on the basis of recognized individual 
ownership.
Yields and economics — Large fruited forms or species on Santa Cruz are said to yield 
fewer fruits than the smaller fruited forms.
Energy — Seed oil and resin might be viewed for energy potential, over and above the 
fuel wood. The resin was used for illumination in the Solomon Islands. The abundance of 
Canarium on Ndenia Island may explain why A gathis resin was not exploited.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Java almond: A edicium pu l- 
neyensis, M eliola canarii, O udesm ansiella canarii, Skierka canarii, and U stilina zonata. 
Seeds dispersed by fruit bats (P ter opus).
67
CANARIUM OVATUM Engl. (BURSERACEAE) — Pili Nut, Philippine Nut
Uses — The pulp is edible when cooked and yields a cooking oil. The nut or kernel is 
also edible and excellent after roasting. It also yields a good cooking oil.^ Menninger^®^ 
describes this as the “ most important of all the nuts in the world to the millions of people 
who depend on it for food.” Abarquez' says pili is second only to cashew as a food nut in 
the Philippines, where it is considered superior to almonds. The nuts have been used to 
adulterate chocolate.This species is one source of the commercial resin traded as Manila 
elemi. Spaniards repaired their ships, in colonial days, with gum elemi. Manila elemi is a 
yellowish-greenish-white, sticky, soft, opaque, fragrant oil mass which gradually becomes 
hard when exposed. It is a source of a kind of paper for window-panes as a substitute for 
glass, and is used in the preparation of medicinal ointment. It is an important ingredient in 
plastics, printing inks for lithographic works, perfumes, and plasters. This resin gives tough
ness and elasticity to lacquer, varnish, and paint products. Locally, it is used to caulk boats 
and as an illuminant for native torches. Recently, the possibility of extracting fuel from 
resin has proved enticing, suggesting the possibility of driving a car “ run by a tree.“ ' 
According to Garcia, pili plantations, in pure stand, can be interplanted with cassava, ginger, 
papaya, pineapple, coffee, cacao, bananas, and taro.
Folk medicine — The “ elemi” was once used as an ointment for healing wounds. 
Filipinos use the crushed emulsion of the kernels as a substitute for milk for infants. Uncooked 
nuts are purgative.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 699 to 714 calories, 12.2 
to 15.6 g protein, 73.2 to 75.9 g fat, 6.0 to 10.8 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 3.5 g fiber, 
3.0 to 3.6 g ash, 130 to 180 mg Ca, 71 to 591 mg P, 2.9 to 4.8 mg Fe, 3.2 to 3.3 mg Na, 
521 to 537 mg K, 26 to 35 |xg beta-carotene equivalent. 0.75 to 1.04 mg thiamine, 0.07 
to 0.13 mg riboflavin, 0.44 to 0.58 mg niacin, and 0 to 25 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Campbell 
reports the kernel contains 74% fat, 12% protein, and 5% starch.^ Rosengarten reports 
71.1% fat, 11.4% protein, and 8.4% carbohydrates.^®^
Description — Buttressed dioecious trees to 20 m tall, 40 cm DBH, leaves alternate, 
compound, with 5 to 7 leaflets each 10 to 20 cm long; inflorescences and axillary terminal, 
many-flowered, flowers yellowish, fragrant, ca.l cm long; fruits ellipsoid to oblong, 3 to 
7 cm long, with thin, oily pulp, greenish, turning black when ripe; seed solitary, triangular 
in cross-section with pointed ends, thin, hard shell and a single large kernel.
Germplasm — Reported from the Philippine Center of Diversity, the pili nut, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate slope and strong winds. Campbell says no cultivars are 
described,^ but Menninger says 75 kinds grow in enormous quantities from Africa through 
India to northern Australia, Malaya, and in the Pacific Islands. Menninger may mean the 
genus rather than the species.
Distribution — Endemic to the primary forests of Luzon at low and medium altitudes 
in the Philippines; widely distributed, yet little-known.^ Introduced successfully into El 
Zamorano and Lancetilla, Honduras.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist 
to Wet Forest Life Zones, pili nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 80 
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of 5.0 to 7.0. Best adapted to the hot, wet, 
tropics.
Cultivation — Generally grown from seed; superior selections may be grafted. It can be 
marcotted and budded as well. In the Philippines, it is often planted between rows of coconut. 
Seedlings, wrapped in banana sheath or bark, are transported carefully to the transplant site 
at the onset of the rainy season. Spacing is generous, 12 to 15 m apart for densities of only 
40 to 50/ha.
Harvesting — Vegetatively propagated pilis may bear at age 7 to 8. Rosengarten^®^ says
68 Handbook of Nuts
female trees start bearing at age 6, but full production is not reached until 12 to 15. From 
seed, it takes 7 to 10 years to fruiting, 12 to 13 according to Garcia.*®^ Fruits are usually 
shaken or knocked from the tree. Fresh nuts do not store well, becoming rancid in weeks, 
if not roasted. Abarquez* states, “ Integrating resin tapping with nut production, that is, the 
possibility of getting 2 products without disabling the tree, can be studied. As practiced, it 
is observed that flogging, girdling, or wounding the bark of trees on the lower trunk part 
usually increase the production of fruits in some trees like mango . . . Controlling the 
downward translocation of carbohydrates and other hormones from the canopy to the root 
system, by wounding the bark on the trunk, would induce the production of flower hormones, 
and consequently, fruits. Timing the tapping activities so that it complements with the natural 
budding and fruiting season would give us the desired result.”
Yields and economics — Sometimes trees may yield as much as 33 kg nuts. Garcia*®^ 
puts peak yield at 2.5 MT/ha/yr. Other species can yield nearly 50 kg resin per year. Manila 
exported more than 1000 MT as long ago as 1913. But Abarquez^ shows only a little more 
than a ton around 1975. In 1950, the Philippines had more than 8,000 ha planted to pili, 
reduced to ca. 2,500 by the end of 1976.
Energy — If the seeds were copiously produced, their 75% oil could be viewed as an 
oil source. Other species of Canarium exude valuable resins “ which could be a promising 
alternative for the oil industry.Such species are said to average 45 kg resin per year. 
But Roecklein and Leung^^^ put yields of C. luzonicum resin at only 4 to 5 kg/yr. The shells 
of the nuts are said to be an excellent fuel, a handful enough to cook a simple dish. Garcia^®^ 
describes the wood of the pili as an excellent firewood.
Biotic factors — Campbell^ states that pests and diseases have not been described.
69
CARYA ILLINOENSIS (Wangenh.) K. Koch (JUGLANDACEAE) — Pecan 
Syn.: Caryapecan (Marsh.) Engl, and Graebn., Carya oliviformis Nutt., and Hicoria
pecan Britt.
Uses — Kernels of nuts eaten raw, roasted, or salted and used in candies, confections, 
ice cream, mixed nuts, and for flavoring in baking and cookery. Pecan oil, expressed from 
kernels, is edible and sold for the drug, essential oil, and cosmetic trade. Lumber is hard, 
brittle, not strong, but is occasionally used for agricultural implements, wagons, and for 
fuel.^^® More recently, pecan timber has been used for veneer and lumber, flooring, and 
still for firewood. Smith^*® notes that “ the pecan has great possibilities as a shade (and 
timber) tree in a large area where it cannot be a commençai dependence, but may produce 
an occasional crop.” Doubtless, the deep-rooted pecan can contribute to erosion control. 
To quote S m i t h , “During the regime of the tribal leaders in the old Seminole Nation in 
Seminole County, Oklahoma, they had a law that fined a person five dollars or more for 
mutilating a pecan tree. Yet some people call the Indian a savage. Whoever calls the Indian 
a savage should go look at the gullies we white men have made in Oklahoma where the 
Indian made none!"' Southerners are intercropping pecans with cattle successfully. Pecan 
has been described as the number three hardwood in the U.S., behind walnut and black 
cherry.
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, pecan is a folk remedy for blood ailments, 
dyspepsia, fever, flu, hepatitis, leucorrhea, malaria, and stomach-ache.^^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 711 to 718 calories, 9.5 
to 9.7 g protein, 73.7 to 75.3 g fat, 13.4 to 15.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber, 
1.6 to 1.7 g ash, 75 to 76 mg Ca, 299 to 334 mg P, 2.5 mg Fe, 0 to 3 mg Na, 624 to 1499 
mg K, 20 to 82 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.74 to 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.13 mg 
riboflavin, 0.93 mg niacin, and 2.1 mg ascorbic acid. Leaves and leaf stalks contain a 
phytosterol similar to squalene, capric-, lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, arachidic-, 
oleic-, linoleic-, and linolenic-acids. Tannins containing phloroglucin and catechin have 
been identified; also inositol and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid. The bark contains azaleatin 
(quercetin-5-methyl ether) (Ci6Hi207*H20), and caryatin (quercetin-3,5-dimethylether)
70 Handbook of Nuts
(C,7H,407).'^^ According to Hilditch and Williams,'^* the component acids of the seed fats 
are 3.3 to 7% palmitic-, 1 to 5.5% stearic-, 51 to 88% oleic-, 14 to 38% linoleic-, and I 
to 2% linolenic-acids.
Toxicity — Langhans, Hedin, and Graves'^^ report that leaves and fruits contain juglone, 
a substance toxic to Fusicladium effusum at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/m€ (roughly 
0.1 ppm). They also report linalool as fungitoxic. Schroeder and Storey^^^ report aflatoxins 
in pecans with sound shells. The mycotoxin zearalenone was extracted from kernels with 
sound shells after 28 days. For reasons unclear to this author, Hager’s Handbook*®^ calls it 
a poisonous plant. The pollen is allergenic.
Description — Deciduous tree, 33 to 60 m tall, with massive trunk to 3.5 m in diameter, 
buttressed at base, crown round-topped; bark light-brown tinged red, twigs with loose pale- 
reddish tomentum, becoming glabrous or puberulent, lenticels numerous, oblong, and orange; 
leaves compound, 30 to 50 cm long, petioles glabrous or pubescent; leaflets lanceolate to 
oblong-lanceolate, more-or-less falcate, long-pointed, doubly serrate, 10 to 20 cm long, 2.5 
to 7.5 cm broad, veins conspicuous; staminate flowers in slender clustered aments 7.5 to 
12.5 cm long, from axillary buds of previous year’s growth, sessile or nearly so, yellow- 
green, hirsute on outer surface, bract oblong, narrowed at ends, slightly 4-angled, with 
yellow pubescence; fruits in clusters of 3 to 11, pointed at apex, rounded at base, 4-winged 
and angled, 1.5 to 6.5 cm long, up to 2.5 cm in diameter, dark-brown, with yellow scales; 
husk splitting at maturity to nearly the base, often persistent on tree after nut fallen out; nut 
ovoid to ellipsoidal, rather cylindrical toward apex, rounded at base, reddish-brown with 
irregular black markings; shell thin with papery partitions; seed sweet, red-brown, kernel 
separating rather readily. Flowers early spring; fruits fall.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, pecan, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH, mycobacteria, salt, slope, smog, and weeds.Many 
selected cvs have been made, some of the “ paper-shell” or “ thin-shell” cvs include: ‘Curtis’, 
‘Frotscher’, ‘Moneymaker’, ‘Pabst’, ‘Schley’, and ‘Stuart’. (2n = 32.)^^^
Distribution — Native to the valley of the Mississippi River from southern Indiana and 
Illinois, western Kentucky and Tennessee, to Mississippi and Louisiana, west to Texas; 
reappearing in mountains of northern Mexico. Largely cultivated in southeastern U.S., most 
abundant and of its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. Improved cvs are 
widely cultivated.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Moist through Subtropical Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, pecan is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 to 13 dm 
(mean of 11 cases = 8.7), annual temperature of 9 to 21 °C (mean of 11 cases = 16.5), 
and pH of 5.0 to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.4). Low rich ground along streams is favorite 
habitat, especially in fertile soil, rich in humus, on land that has been under cultivation for 
many years. Quite hardy in the north, it has been successfully planted up to the 43rd parallel. 
While favored by alluvial soils, pecan is by no means restricted thereto.^*® Thrives on a 
variety of soils, from sandy soils of acid reaction to heavy soil with alkaline reaction, and 
gradations between these. All soils should be well-drained and pervious to water. Pecan is 
deep-rooted and requires plenty of water, but will not tolerate water-logged soils.Relative 
humidity above 80% prevents effective pollination. Pecans require 150 to 210 frost-free 
days, but have not fared well in the tropics. Madden, Brison, and McDanieP^^ suggest a 
possible chill requirement of 750 hr below 45°F (7°C). Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^
Cultivation — Pecans do not come true from seeds and are difficult to start from cuttings. 
Therefore, propagation is mainly by budding and grafting, in order to perpetuate desirable 
varieties. After soil with the proper requirements for pecan production has been selected, 
young trees are set on 11-m squares; in Texas, squares up to 23 m may be used, especially 
on river valley soils. In some areas 75 to 1(X) cm annual rainfall may be sufficient, but 
usually much more is required. Where the rainfall is abundant, growth of trees is rapid and
71
crowding may be a problem. Trees usually do not begin bearing as early in humid areas 
because of greater rate of growth. In western pecan orchards, trees are used in the manner 
of interplanted fruit trees since the trees do not grow so fast and cvs may be selected that 
are prolific at a relatively young age and size. Western cvs apparently lend themselves to 
dwarfing by pruning, and can be kept relatively small, preventing crowding. Unlike most 
trees, pecans do not show a deficiency of moisture by wilting of leaves or shoots. This may 
be due to the deep taproot which absorbs sufficient moisture from the subsoil to prevent 
wilting, but when weeds and other plants growing near pecan trees show signs of water 
deficiency, water should be applied. Trees are often intercropped with cotton, com, or 
peaches until trees come into bearing. Planting of trees originally varies from 11 to 33 m, 
but after a first thinning in 12 to 15 years and a second at the end of 20 to 25 years, trees 
will be spaced 23 to 66 m apart. Nursery trees usually planted in commercial orchards when 
rootstocks are 4 to 6 years old and budded or grafted trees are 1 or 2 years old, although 
older trees are used sometimes. Pecan trees are set in both large and small holes. In heavy 
soils, holes about 1 m in diameter at top give better results. In lighter soils, post-holes have 
proven satisfactory. For larger trees, larger holes should be used to accomodate the larger 
root systems. Trees should be planted about 5 cm deeper than they were in the nursery. 
After they are set, tops should be cut back and the trunks loosely wrapped for a distance 
of 30 to 45 cm from ground with burlap of heavy paper, which is tied loosely. Pecan trees 
are very slow to develop new roots after transplanting and should be supplied with adequate 
moisture during the first summer to help establish the root system. Young trees must be 
protected from sunscald and winter injury. Pmning and training trees to proper shape is 
essential. Young pecan orchards require more frequent cultivation than older orchards, 
because older trees tend to hold weed growth in check by shading and by competition for 
moisture and nutrients. Disking or plowing should be frequent enough to prevent rank growth 
of weeds or grass, the number of cultivations depending on the fertility of the soil. If an 
orchard is on land subject to overflow and bad erosion, it may be sodded with some suitable 
grass; during the growing season, it may be mowed, or sheep and cattle may be allowed to 
graze the land to keep down the vegetation. Where soils are poor, intercropping with legumes 
and adding fertilizer may be useful.
Harvesting — Pecan nuts are harvested when fully ripe and coming out of hulls with 
little beating of branches. From bloom to harvest varies from 5 to 6 months. Frequently, 
the harvest of nuts is facilitated by the use of sheets spread under trees beyond the spread 
of branches. Such sheets are usually made of heavy cotton sheeting in rectangular pieces 
ca. 5 X 10 m. Nuts are stored in bags or bins after being cured on trays with hardware 
cloth bottoms. They trays are placed across supports to allow air circulation. Nuts may also 
be cured in small burlap bags, provided the bags are arranged so air circulates freely around 
them. Bags should be turned upside-down occasionally to insure more uniform curing. Much 
of the work of curing can be eliminated if nuts are allowed to cure in husk before harvesting. 
Nuts may be stored 2 years without appreciable deterioration, if stored at a temperature of 
0°C to 3.5°C. They should be stored as soon as curing is completed, since their quality is 
impaired at ordinary temperatures, long before rancidity is apparent.
Yields and economics — Trees 8 to 10 years old yield from 2 to 12 (to 350) kg per tree. 
Improved cvs often yield greater amounts. Trees yielding 1500 to 1600 nuts per tree may 
have yields of 1,000 to 1,200 kg/ha. As Rosengarten^®^ notes, most edible nuts are essentially 
one-state crops: almonds, pistachios, and walnuts are produced in California; filberts in 
Oregon, and macadamia nuts in Hawaii. The pecan, on the other hand, is a multi-state crop, 
stretching across the country from the Southeast to the Southwest throughout some 20 states. 
U.S. production is tabulated in Table 1. By 1981, a record harvest of nearly 175,000 tons 
was reported.
Energy — Even native pecans (up to 75% oil) are estimated to yield 750 to 800 kg/ha
72 Handbook of Nuts
Table 1
UTILIZED PECAN PRODUCTION TONS
(ap p rox.)
1978 1979 1980
Alabama 11,000 2,000 10,000
Arkansas 1,600 750 450
Florida 2,100 1,300 3,000
Georgia 67,500 32,500 52,500
Louisiana 4,500 8,000 7,000
Mississippi 5,000 1,250 2,250
New Mexico 7,500 7,350 7,350
North Carolina 2,000 650 850
Oklahoma 7,750 5,000 1,750
South Carolina 3,000 1,000 1,100
Texas 13,000 45,500 5,500
Total U.S. Production 124,950 105,300 91,750
After Rosengarten, Jr., F. The Book of Edible Nuts, Walker and 
Company, New York, 1984, 384.
in T e x a s .Cultiváis may exceed 1000 kg. Prunings and thinnings make very good fuel 
wood. Perhaps even the leaves could be investigated as sources of lauric acid, juglone 
(herbicide), leaf protein, with the residues going into ethanol production.
Biotic factors — Squirrels may destroy large quantities of nuts during the season, since 
they start feeding on them while the nuts are immature and continue until the nuts are 
harvested. They also gnaw the bark off new shoots so that they die. Squirrel guards on trees 
may effectively control squirrel damage. Because pecan trees are not sufficiently self- 
pollinating, various cvs should be interplanted. Orchards should be laid out and cvs planted 
to allow pollination to occur in the direction of prevailing wind. Although the pollinating 
CVS need be only about 100 m from female trees, they are often alternated with each other. 
Phillips et al.^^^ give an interesting illustrated account of the insects and diseases of the 
pecans. The following are known to cause diseases of pecans: A grobacterium tum efaciens, 
A rticularía quercina, A spergillus chevalieri, B otryosphaeria bergeneriana, B. ribis, C ar- 
yospora m inor, C ephaleuros virescens, C ercospora fusca, C ladosporium effusum, Conio- 
thyrium caryogenum , E lsinoe randii, Eutypa heteracantha, G lom erella cingulata, G nom onia 
caryar, G. dispora, G. nerviseda, H elicobasidium purpureum , M icrocera coccophila, M i- 
crosphaera alni. M icrostrom a ju glan dis, M ycosphaerella caryigena, M . dendroides, M y- 
riangium duriaei, M . tuberculans, N em atospora coryli, P ellicu laria koleroga, P estalotia 
uvicola, P h yllosticta convexula, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P h ysalospora fu sca, P. rhod- 
ina, P hytophthora cactorum , Schizophyllum com mune, Septoria caryae, and Trichothecium 
roseum.'^'^^^'^''^ Pecan is attacked by the parasitic flowering plant, mistletoe, P horadendron 
serrulata. Insect pests attacking pecan include: M yzocallisfum ipennellus (black pecan aphid), 
C hrysom phalus obscurus (obscure scale), C urculio varyae (pecan weevil), H yphantria cunea 
(fall webworm), Synanthedon scitulae (pecan borer), A crobasis caryae (pecan nut-case 
borer), A crobasis p a llio lella (pecan leaf-case borer), L aspeyresia caryana (hickory shuck 
worm), C oleoph orae caryaefoliella (pecan cigar-case borer), G retchena bolliana (pecan bud 
moth). P hylloxera devastatrix (leaf and stem galls), Strym on m elinus (cotton square borer). 
Nematodes isolated from pecan trees include: Caconem a radidicola, D itylenchus interm e
dins, D olichodoru s heterocephalus, H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne spp., P ratylenchus 
penetrans, R adopholus sim ilis, and Xiphinem a americanum^'^^^
73
CARYOCAR AMYGDALIFERUM Mutis (CARYOCARACEAE) Mani, Achotillo, Cagui,
Chalmagra
Uses — Fruits edible, said to taste like almonds. Pulp of fruit is also used as a fish poison. 
According to the NAS,^^^ Caryocar kernels are said to be the best edible nuts in the tropics. 
Oil used for cooking in tropical America.
Folk medicine — Fruits are used as a medicine for leprosy.
Chemistry — Wood, possibly of this species, possibly of C. brasiliense, contains 1.5 
to 1.8% essential oil.
Description — Trees to 55.0 m tall, the trunk buttressed up to 3.0 m, the young branches 
sparsely puberulous-glabrescent. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 2.5 to 11.0 cm long, glabres- 
cent, terete; leaflets shortly petiolulate, the terminal petiolule 5.0 to 7.0 mm long, the lateral 
petiolules slightly shorter than the terminal one, the petiolules sparsely puberulous, shallowly 
canaliculate; the laminas elliptic to oblong, slightly asymmetrical, acuminate at apex, the 
acumen 1.0 to 1.5 cm long, cuneate to subcuneate and often markedly unequal at base, 
unevenly coarsely serrate at margins, glabrous on both surfaces, the terminal lamina 7.5 to
12.0 cm long, 2.5 to 5.5 cm broad, the lateral laminas slightly smaller than the terminal 
one; primary veins 10 to 11 pairs, plane to prominulous beneath; venation prominulous 
beneath; stipels to 5.0 mm long, ellipsoid, inflated, persistent. Peduncles ca. 3.5 to 7.0 cm 
long, glabrous. Inflorescences clustered racemes, the rachis tomentose, the pedicels elongate, 
ebracteolate. Calyx cupuliform, ca. 6.0 mm long, glabrous on exterior, the lobes 5, small, 
rounded, the margins ciliate. Corolla lobes 5, ca. 2.0 to 2.5 cm long, oblong, glabrous, 
greenish-yellow. Stamens numerous, ca. 200, the filaments shortly united at base in a ring, 
but into groups, white, sparsely pubescent, the apical portion tuberculate, the innermost 
filaments much shorter than the rest, the anthers small. Ovary globose, glabrous on exterior, 
4-locular. Styles 4, filamentous, shorter than filaments. Fruit globose-ellipsoid, ca. 5.5 cm 
long, exocarp glabrous, smooth; pericarp thick, fleshy; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping 
the seed to form an ovoid stone; the exterior of mesocarp not seen, the interior enveloping 
the endocarp tubercules; endocarp with numerous flattened tubercules ca. 5.0 mm long, and 
a hard woody interior ca. 1.0 mm thick, glabrous within.
Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, achotillo has been reported 
to tolerate acid soils.Regrettably, this has been confused in the literature, due to ortho
graphic similarities, with Peruvian C. amygdaliforme Don. (almendro blanco). The mani 
has inflated stipels to 5 mm long, the Peruvian species lacks stipels.
Distribution — Native to the forests of the Magdalena River Valley of Colombia. 
Sturtevant^^^ assigns it to Ecuador and says it is the “ almendrón” of Mariquita.
Ecology — Tropical forest tree, thriving in rich loam in river valleys.Duke®^ reports 
the species from Tropical Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, annual precipitation of 23 to 40 
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3.
Cultivation — Not known in cultivation.^^®
Harvesting — Fruits collected in season for food and medicinal purposes by natives.
Yields and economics — Of limited use by natives in Colombia.
Energy — Like other tropical tree species, this one probably can produce 25 MT biomass 
per year. Prunings could be used for energy production.
Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases reported for this tree.^^® Probably bat 
pollinated.
74 Handbook of Nuts
CARYOCAR NUCIFERUM L. (CARYOCARACEAE) — Suari Nut, Butternut
Uses — This is probably one of the most popular edible nuts in the genus Caryocar. 
Without voucher material, we can only guess to which species the various data refer. After 
reading Prance and da Silva’s excellent monograph,this author has done his best. Certainly 
this is the largest, if not the oiliest and tastiest, of the nuts in the genus. The timber of the 
roots is used for making crooks in boats and for canoes.
Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered 
diuretic and febrifuge.
Chemistry — Apparently all the species have a high oil content in the pericarp and kernel. 
The pericarp oil is suggestive of palm oil.‘^^
Description — Large tree to 45.0 m tall, young branches glabrous. Leaves trifoliolate, 
petioles 4.0 to 9.0 (to 15.0) cm long, terete to flattened, glabrous; leaflets petiolulate, 
terminal petiolule 7.0 to 20.0 mm long, lateral petiolules about equal to the center one; 
petiolules glabrous, shallowly canaliculate; laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, acumen 5.0 
to 15.0 mm long, entire to weakly crenate at margins, rounded to subcuneate at base, 
glabrous on both surfaces, terminal lamina 12.0 to 30.0 cm long, 6.0 to 18.0 cm broad, 
lateral laminas equal or slightly smaller than terminal one, primary veins 8 to 13 pairs, plane 
above, prominent beneath; venation prominulous beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 6.0 to
10.0 cm long, glabrous, sparsely lenticellate towards base. Inflorescences of clustered ra
cemes, rachis 1.0 to 4.5 cm long, glabrous; flowering pedicels 4.0 to 6.0 cm long, 5.0 to
8.0 cm thick, glabrous, ebracteolate. Calyx campanulate, ca. 2.0 cm long, glabrous on 
exterior, lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, elliptic, glabrous, deep-red on 
exterior, paler within. Stamens extremely numerous, over 700, filaments caducous as a unit, 
united at base up to 2.0 mm, dividing into fused groups before becoming free above, outer 
ones 7.0 to 8.5 cm long including base, yellow, apical portion tuberculate, with many shorter 
inner filaments from 3.5 cm long and of all intermediate sizes, inner filaments tuberculate 
at apex only, anthers small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, fila
mentous, 8.0 to 9.0 cm long, glabrous. Fruit subglobose to sublobate, to 15.0 cm long, 
exocarp glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp very thick and fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and 
endocarp; mesocarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a large stone ca. 7.0 cm broad,
5.0 cm long, mesocarp becoming lignified and hard, the exterior undulate with short, rounded 
tubercules; endocarp with tuberculate exterior and hard, thin, woody interior ca. 1.0 mm 
thick; with 1 to 2 subreniform seeds only developing.
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity. The tuberculate 
large fruits and large flowers are larger than those of any other Caryocar.
Distribution — Native of the primary forests of the Guianas and adjacent Venezuela and 
Brazil. Recently collected in Panama and Choco, Colombia. Apparently abundant in Choco. 
Cultivated in the West Indies, and grown in botanical gardens in Nigeria, Singapore, and 
Sri Lanka.
Ecology — According to MacMillan, the tree grows well in the moist low country of 
Sri Lanka, especially in rich deep loams or alluvial soils.
Cultivation and Energy — No data available.
Harvesting — According to Burkill,^^ it may fruit at 5 years of age, but usually takes 2 
to 3 times as long. Introduced into Singapore in 1899, it did not fruit until 20 years old, 
but flowered years before. At Peradeniya and Henaratgoda, where it was introduced in 1891, 
the trees had not fruited when MacMillan‘S^ went to press, though the Peradeniya specimen 
started flowering after 19 years. These do not seem to be much more precocious than Brazil 
nuts. However, MacMillan mentions another specimen from British Guiana which fruited 
6 years from planting.
Yields and economics — The nut is exported commercially from the Guianas.
Biotic factors — Probably bat pollinated.
75
CARYOCAR VILLOSUM (Aubl.) Pers., CARYO CAR BRASILIENSE Camb., and CARY- 
OCAR C O R IA C E U M Wittmack (CARYOCARACEAE) — Pequi
Uses — Several species go under the common name pequi and pequia, said to be one of 
the best edible nuts in the tropics. But Sturtevant^^^ calls it is a sort of chestnut eaten in 
times of famine. C a ryo ca r has several nut-bearing species. These are somewhat more prom
ising because some species are smaller and easier to harvest. The orange-sized fruit contains 
an oily pulp and kernel that are used for food. So far, they have been employed only in 
home cooking. The fruit is made into a tasty liqueur, well known in Brazil, especially in 
the State of Mato Grosso. There is both the fruit oil and the kernel oil. After refining the 
taxonomy of those species called Pequi and Pequia, Prance and da Silva^^ state that the 
fruit of C. villosum (a huge tree) has an edible pulp and edible cotyledons. The pulp is most 
often eaten and has a faint smell of rancid butter. It is also used to produce an edible oil. 
Wood of C. villosum is so durable as to be used in boat-building and in heavy construction. 
Brazilian Indians obtain a yellow dye from C. brasiliense.^^
Folk medicine — The bark of this or one of the species confused with this is considered 
diuretic and febrifuge.^*
Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,the wood of C. brasilien se (or C. 
am ygdaliferum or C. glabrum ) contains 1.5 to 1.8% essential oil. According to a report 
quoted in Burkill,^^ the inner part of the fruit-wall contains a reddish-orange oil, up to 72.3%. 
The kernel contains 61.4% (ZMB) or 45% (APB) oil, composed largely of glyceride esters
76 Handbook of Nuts
of palmitic and oleic acids. Ripe fruits must be treated as soon as harvested, or enzymes 
will induce the development of free fatty acids. Lane'^^ reported a comparison with Malayan 
palm oil:
Palm oil (%) Pequi pericarp I Pequi kernel (%)
Myristic 1.5
2.5 1.5
48.4
Palmitic 40.8 41.2
Stearic 3.6 0.8 0.9
Oleic 45.2 53.9 46.0
Linoleic 7.9 2.6 3.3
Hilditch and Williams'^^ present somewhat different data. The fruit-coat fat of Caryocar 
villosum is interesting, because its fatty acids closely resemble those of palm oils, namely: 
myristic 1.8, palmitic 47.3, stearic 1.7, oleic 47.3, linoleic 1.9%. It contained only 2% of 
fully saturated components (tripalmitin), thus differing somewhat from palm oils of similar 
fatty acid composition. No tristearin was detected in the completely hydrogenated fat and 
the components of the fat (in addition to 2% tripalmitin) were therefore 42% oleodipalmitins 
and 56% palmitodioleins — an instance of pronounced “ even distribution.” Intensive crys
tallization of the pequia fruit-coat fat yielded five fractions very rich in oleodisaturated 
glycerides and three more soluble fractions which consisted largely of diunsaturated gly
cerides. Oleodipalmitin was isolated separately from each of the five fractions and agreed 
in its transition and melting-points with 2-oleodipalmitin, while the hydrogenated products 
in each case were 2-stearodipalmitin. The symmetrical form of oleodipalmitin was thus 
exclusively present. Similar examination of the palmitodistearins obtained by hydrogenation 
of the palmitodioleins in the three more soluble fractions showed, in contrast, that the latter 
were present in both the symmetrical and the unsymmetrical configuration, the amounts of 
each positional isomeride being probably of the same order.
Description — Large tree to 40.0 m tall and up to 2.5 m diameter, the young branches 
villous-tomentose, becoming glabrous with age. Leaves trifoliolate; petioles 4.0 to 15.0 cm 
long, villous-tomentose to puberulous, terete to slightly striate; leaflets shortly petiolulate, 
the terminal petiolule 3.0 to 6.0 mm long, the lateral petiolules 2.0 to 4.0 mm long; petiolules 
puberulous when young, canaliculate; the laminas elliptic, acuminate at apex, the acumen
3.0 to 10.0 mm long, serrate to crenate at margins, rounded to cordate at base, villous to 
glabrous above, densely villous-hirsute or with a sparse pubescence on the venation only 
beneath, the terminal lamina 8.0 to 11.0 cm long, 6.0 to 12.0 cm broad, the lateral laminas 
slightly smaller; primary veins 12 to 19 pairs, slightly impressed or plane above, prominent 
beneath; venation extremely prominent beneath; stipels absent. Peduncles 5.0 to 13.0 cm 
long, tomentellous or puberulous when young, glabrescent, lenticellate. Inflorescences of 
clustered racemes, the rachis 3.0 to 4.0 cm long, tomentose when young; flowering pedicels 
1.8 to 3.5 cm long, puberulous to glabrous, with 2 membraneous subpersistent bracteoles. 
Calyx campanulate-cupuliform, ca. 1.5 cm long, gray puberulous to glabrous on exterior, 
the lobes 5, rounded. Corolla ca. 2.5 cm long, the lobes 5, oblong-elliptic, pale yellow. 
Stamens numerous, ca. 300, the filaments shortly united into a ring at base but not into 
groups, subpersistent, of two distinct lengths with several of intermediate lengths, the longest 
ca. 6.5 to 7.0 cm long, yellow, the apical 1.0 to 3.0 mm tuberculate, the shortest ca. 55,
1.0 to 1.5 cm long, with distinct fused portion at base, tuberculate entire length, the anthers 
small. Ovary globose, 4-locular, glabrous on exterior. Styles 4, filamentous, equalling 
filaments, glabrous. Fruit oblong-globose, 6.0 to 7.0 cm long, 7.0 to 8.0 cm broad; exocarp 
glabrous, lenticellate; pericarp thick, fleshy, detaching from mesocarp and endocarp; me- 
socarp and endocarp enveloping seed to form a reniform stone ca. 5.0 cm broad, the exterior 
of mesocarp smooth and undulate, the interior enveloping endocarp spines; endocarp with 
numerous fine spines ca. 3.0 mm long, and a hard wood interior, ca. 1.0 mm thick.
77
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, the pequi is 
sensitive to wind damage. Prance and da Silva^^ key C. villosum with acuminate leaflets, 
C. brasilien se as with rounded or acute leaflets. C. coriaceum is also found in the complex 
known to Brazilians as Pequi.
Distribution — French Guiana and Amazonian Brazil (C. villosum ). Dry woodland of 
the northern and eastern part of the Planalto of central Brazil (C. coriaceum ). Brazil and 
adjacent Bolivia and Paraguay (C. brasilien se). Cultivated in Singapore and Sumatra (C. 
villosum ).
Ecology — Grows above flood level in the Amazon valley (Burkill, C. villosum ).
Cultivation — Wickhan, in Lane,*^'* figured the trees should be spaced at 100 trees per 
ha.
Harvesting — Trees have grown to 18 m in 9 years.
Yields and economics — I quote exactly from Wickhan’s letter, as quoted by Lane:*^"^ 
“ Reckoning the fruit as giving some 3/4 lb. of fat, the yield per acre should be from 1300 
lbs. to 1/2 tons, it will therefore be at once apparent that this greatly exceeds any existing 
source of supply — coconut (copra), palm kernels, etc...”
Energy — The husk of the fruit is used, like coconut husks, for fuel, either directly or 
after conversion to charcoal. Prunings could also be used for fuel.
Biotic factors — C aryocar villosum is bat pollinated, with two or three of the many 
flowers in a given influorescence opening at night, shortly after dark. The pollination process 
is described in Prance and da Silva.
78 Handbook of Nuts
CARYODENDRON ORINOCENSE Karst. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Inche, Cacay, Nambi, 
Arbol de Nuez, Kakari Taccy Nut
Uses — According to Garcia-Barriga,‘°^ the oil is used like olive oil, while the toasted 
seed is very flavorful and nutritious. According to Schultes,the oil is valued for a wide 
range of uses, from cooking to soap-making and cosmetics. The thin, brown shell surrounding 
the kernel, is easily broken with the fingers.The tree has been suggested as a plantation 
crop for Latin America.*®^
Folk medicine — In the Llanos of Colombia, the oil is painted onto skin afflictions. A 
half-ounce dose is taken as a laxative. It is believed to fortify the lungs.
Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 50% of a yellowish oil, the husk 17.1%, the pulp 82.9%. 
The pulp contains 6.6% water.
Description — Tree to 20 m tall, the crown conical; trunk yellowish-ochraceous, striate, 
with a watery pinkish-yellow latex. Leaves alternate, glabrous, narrowly elliptic or obovate, 
the margins entire, revolute, 12 to 25 cm long, 4 to 10 cm wide, apically acute, basally 
cuneate; primary veins ca. 7 to 11; biglandular at the base of the blade. Petiole glabrous, 
canaliculate above, dilated at both ends, 1 to 5.5 cm long. Flowers unisexual, the male in 
terminal racemes, with 3 concave tepals, 4 conical glabrous stamens, longidehiscent; disk 
white. Female flowers with 5 to 6 ovate tepals; ovary trilocular, triovulate, stigma short and 
trilobate, disk annular, trilobate. Fruit globose-oblong, 5 to 6 cm long, 4 to 5 cm broad, 
usually 3-seeded. Seeds 3 cm long, 1.7 cm wide.^°^’^^^
Germplasm — From the South American Center of Diversity, inche is reported to tolerate 
poor soils in lateritic and savanna situations.
Distribution — According to PIRB,^^^ the species is native to the Llanos Orientales and 
Putumayo of Colombia. I’m told there are plantations in Ecuador, and I have seen plants, 
apparently thriving, in the humid climate of Talamanca, Costa Rica.
Ecology — I estimate inche ranges from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry 
to Wet Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm, annual temperature 
of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. Said to be of the tropical humid zone,*°^ ranging from 
300 to 1000 m above sea level,where the drier season lasts at least 4 months.
Cultivation — Propagated by seed, the tree has been suggested as an oilseed plantation 
crop.
79
Harvesting — Said to start bearing in 4 to 5 years. The determinate height of the tree is 
said to facilitate harvest.
Yields and economics — According to Garcia-Barriga,*®^ each tree produces 280 to 300 
kg of fruit, which at the density of 50 trees per ha would calculate to 15 MT fruit. In round 
figures, 25 fruits would weigh 375 g, or 15 g per fruit. Of that 15 g, there would be about 
8 g husk, 1 g testa, and 6 g of kernel. That 6 g kernel should contain about 2 to 3 g oil. 
This suggests a conversion factor of 20% oil in the fruit. According to PIRB,^^^ the cost of 
establishment and maintenance should be less than that of African Oil Palm. Since the yield 
is similar, possibly inche could return equal or greater profits.
Energy — If we accept the speculative yield and conversion figures derived above, there 
could be 3 MT oil, half the expected yield of oilpalm. But, if the same yields were obtained 
with 100 trees per hectare instead of 50, there could be as good a yield here as with oil 
palm, with 6 MT oil and possibly 12 MT edible seedcake.
Biotic factors — No data available.
80 Handbook of Nuts
CAST ANEA CRENATA Sieb, and Zucc. (FAGACEAE) — Japanese Chestnut, Juri 
Syn.: Castanea stricta Sieb, and Zucc., Castanea pubinervis (Hassk.) C. K. Schneid.,
and Castanea japónica Blume.
Uses — Kernel of nut used as food by Chinese and Japanese, both for humans and for 
fattening sw ine.N ut shell extract, bur, and bark used for staining. Male flower used to 
stain cloth a red-brown color.W ood strong, very hard, heavy, durable in soil, used in 
Japan for furniture, cabinet work, railroad ties, and in ship-building. Planted in southern 
Europe for timber. Well adapted for ornamental planting.
Folk medicine — In China and Korea, flowers are used for tuberculosis and scrofula. 
Decoction of fresh leaves said to allay skin irritation caused by lacquer. Root used for hernia. 
An ointment for boils made with powdered charcoal from involucres mixed with oil.^"^^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 7.0 g protein,
1.4 g fat, 89.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 79.8 mg Ca, 188 mg P, 3.8 mg 
Fe, 37.6 mg Na, 0.89 mg thiamine, 0.42 mg riboflavin, 3.76 mg niacin, and 68.1 mg 
ascorbic acid.®^
Description — Small tree or shrub, often less than 10 m tall, but occasionally much 
larger, up to 17 m, attaining great girth, with many spreading limbs and slender branches; 
young shoots at first densely gray-white with short hairs, becoming glabrous or sparsely 
velutinous; leaves at first densely stellate pubescent all over, retaining on under-surface 
some pubescence or becoming glabrous, puberulous on veins above, elliptic to oblong- 
lanceolate, or narrowly oblong, with long acuminate tip and cordate or round at base, margin 
crenate-serrate or subentire with 10 to 25 bristle teeth on each side, 8 to 16 cm long, 3 to
5 cm broad, thick and heavy, quite crinkly, dark lustrous green above, grayish-green beneath; 
petiole pubescent, about 2 cm long, stipules soon deciduous, lanceolate, acuminate, gradually 
broaden at base; winter buds short, ovoid, glabrous, shining crimson; staminate spikes 5 to 
20 cm or more long, densely flowered, yellowish-white, erect or suberect; pistillate flowers 
clustered among the male spikes, occurring in involucres about 5 mm thick, styles exserted, 
about 3 mm long, densely covered with ascending long gray hairs; bur small in wild types, 
in cultivated types often to 6 cm in diameter, with long, almost glabrous spines; nuts 2 to 
3 per bur, hilum occupying whole basal area.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Japanese chestnut, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Several Japanese varieties 
are grown extensively, as ‘Alpha’, ‘Reliance’, and ‘Parry’, the last being a hybrid with C. 
dentata, suitable for planting in California. Other Japanese varieties include: ‘Advance’, 
‘Beta’, ‘Biddle’, ‘Black’, ‘Col’, ‘Eureka’, ‘Felton’, ‘Hale’, ‘Kent’, ‘Kerr’, ‘Killan’, ‘Mar
tin’, ‘McFarland’, ‘Prolific’, ‘Success’, and ‘Superb’. ( 2 n = 22,24.)
Distribution — Native to Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, Kyushu) and Korea. Much planted 
in Japan for the nuts. Introduced and extensively planted in southern Europe for timber. 
Introduced to the U.S. in 1876.^®® Hardy as far north as Massachusetts.^^*
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Rain through Warm Temperate to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, Japanese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of
9.4 to 23.4 dm (mean of 6 cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 9.9 to 15.8°C (mean of
6 cases = 12.9°C), and pH of 5.0 to 6.8 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).*^ Trees grow best on 
well-drained, porous soil, with deep porous subsoil. Withstand temperatures and rainfall of 
most temperate climates.Hardy to Zone 6.^^^^
Cultivation — Trees propagated by whip-grafting to American chestnut (C. dentata). 
American species usually cut down, and the sprouts springing from the remaining roots, 
when 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, are grafted with desired varieties of Japanese chestnut. Whip 
and cleft methods of grafting are used. Trees already grafted with desired varieties may be 
obtained for the orchard. Seedlings may be top-worked with the permanent kinds after they
81
have become established. Trees set out not less than 10 m apart each way. Trees may be 
planted closer at first and thinned out for permanent spacing in 10 to 15 years. Meanwhile, 
trees may be intercropped with vegetables or small tree crops. Two-year old grafts are 
commonly loaded with burs. It is good practice to keep burs picked from young trees for 3 
to 4 years to allow trees to become well-established before crop production is started. If 
trees are allowed to over-bear, nuts run down in size. Japanese varieties do not abort their 
burs, and seem to be completely self-fertile.^^^
Harvesting — Trees are very productive and begin to fruit commercially when 6 years 
old. Nuts are picked from the ground, dried, and stored until marketed or used.^^^
Yields and economics — No yield data available, but all records state that trees are 
precocious and very productive. Great quantities of Japanese chestnut are grown and con
sumed in Japan and China.
Energy — Wood, burs, and husks may be used for fuel or charcoal production.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Japanese chestnut: Actinopelte 
japónica, Botryosphaeria ribis, Capnodium salicinum, Cronartium quercinum, Cryptodia- 
porthe castanea, Daedalea que reina, Endothia nitschkei, E. parasitica, E. radicalis, F ornes 
melanoporus, Fomitopsis castanea, Gloeosporium castanicola, Helicobasidium mompa, 
Laestadia orientalis, Leszites betulina, Limacinia cheni, Microsphaera alni, Monochaetia 
desmazierii, M. pachyspora, Ovularia castaneae, Phyllactinia quercus, Phytophthora cam- 
bivora, P. cinnamomi, Polyporus cinnabarinus, P. gilvus, P. hirsutas, P. nidulans, P. 
pargamenus, P. rhodophaeus, P. tulipiferus, P. versicolor, Polystictus hirsutas, P. san
guineus, Puccineastrum castaneae, Pycnoporus coccineus, Schizophyllum commune, Sep- 
toria gilletiana, Stereum gausapatum. Trámetes dickinsii, T. vittata. Also Bacterium castaneae 
attacks trees. However, plants are resistant to Eastern Filbert B l i g h t . M o r e susceptible 
to chestnut blight fungus, Endothia parasitica, than the Chinese species, C. mollissima. 
Trees may deteriorate slowly or be killed before reaching maturity.
82 Handbook of Nuts
CAST ANEA DENT AT A (Marsh.) Borkh. (FAG ACE AE) — American or Sweet Chestnut 
Syn.: Castanea americana Raf.
Uses — Native and cultivated trees provide nuts which are sweeter than Old World types. 
Nuts are gathered and sold in eastern U.S. markets. Reddish-brown wood light, soft, coarse
grained, elastic, moderately strong, easily split, easy to work, tending to warp on drying, 
resistant to decay. Used in manufacture of cabinet work, caskets, crates, desks, furniture, 
interior finishes of houses, pianos, railway ties, ship masts, fence posts, telephone poles, 
rails, mine timbers, siding for bams and other buildings, paper pulp. Tannin in wood used 
in tanning extracts. Formerly planted in eastern U.S. as an ornamental and for timber, as 
well as for nuts.^’^^’^^'*
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, sedative, tonic, and vermifuge, American 
chestnut is a folk remedy for dysentery and pertussis.^’ Leaves have sedative properties. 
Indians used the bark to treat worms and dysentery.
Chemistry — Leaves contain 9% tannic acid, which is colored green with ferric salts, 
and a mucilage insoluble in alcohol.Wood contains from 6 to 11% tannin.Chestnuts 
are starchy nuts, containing ca. 40 to 45% carbohydrates and less than 1% oil, as compared 
with pecans with 70% oil and other tree nuts with ca. 60% oil.^^^ Nuts contain ca. 1,700 
calories/lb.^^^ According to Woodroof,^“^* chestnuts contain no oil and are very high in 
carbohydrates, especially starch, making them more easily digestible than other nuts. Ranging 
from 21 to 25% shells, 4.5 to 6.5% moisture, and 69 to 72% dry matter, native chestnuts 
are reported to contain 2.66 to 2.72% ash, 12.20 to 12.23% total protein, 2.84 to 3.63% 
fiber, 65.03 to 66.16% total nitrogen-free extract, and 16.08 to 16.42% fat.^"^^
Description — Deciduous tree, up to 50 m tall; tmnk straight, columnar, 1 to 1.3 m in 
diameter; when uncrowned the tmnk is shorter and 3.3 to 4 m in diameter; round-topped, 
with horizontal limbs spreading to 30 m across; branchlets at first yellow-green, tinged with 
red and pubemlous, becoming olive-green and glabrous, eventually becoming dark brown; 
winter-buds ovoid, about 0.6 cm long, with dark-brown scales, scarious on margins; bark
2.5 to 5 cm thick, dark-brown, deeply ridged with irregular, often intermpted fissures; leaves 
oblong-lanceolate, apex acute, acuminate, base gradually narrowed and cuneate, 15 to 20 
cm long, about 5 cm broad, when young yellow-green and pubemlous on upper surface and 
tomentose beneath, becoming glabrous at maturity, turning yellow late in fall; petioles about
1.3 cm long, slightly angled, pubemlous, often reddish; stipules ovate-lanceolate, pubem
lous, about 1.3 cm long; staminate aments at maturity 15 to 20 cm long, with crowded 
flower-clusters; androgynous aments slender, pubemlous, 6 to 12.5 cm long, with 2 or 3 
involucres if pistillate flowers near base; but 5 to 6.5 cm in diameter, covered with glabrous 
much-branched spines, opening with frost and gradually shedding nut; nut much compressed,
1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter, broader than long, with thick pale tomentum at apex or nearly 
to middle, interior of hull lined with mfous tomentum; kernel very sweet. Root system 
extensive both laterally and vertically. Flowers with strong fragrance, June to July.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American chestnut 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, heat, poor soil, sand, slope, and weeds. 
Some varieties grown for nuts are ‘Ketchem’, ‘Watson’, and ‘GriffinHybrids with 
blight-resistant Chinese and Japanese species have led to several mixed varieties not in 
cultivation. Continuous efforts to find immune or resistant strains and repeated attempts to 
produce resistant hybrids resembling it have failed to give varieties considered safe to plant. 
‘Clapper’ is a hybrid from a cross of Chinese-American hybrid backcrossed to the American 
chestnut, and is a rapid-growing timber-type.
(2n = 24.)
Distribution — Native throughout the eastern U.S. from southern Maine to southern 
Ontario, south to Delaware, Ohio, southern Indiana, and along the mountains to northern
83
Georgia and western Florida, from sea-level in Massachusetts to 1,300 m in North Carolina, 
reaching its greatest height in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Until about 
1905, chestnut was important for its durable wood and its nuts. Trees were nearly completely 
destroyed by the Chestnut Blight, a fungus bark disease (Endothia parasitica). Sprouts and 
shrubby growth from bases of wild trees still appear and sometimes persist long enough to 
produce fruit.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Moist through Warm Temperate to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, American chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 
4.9 to 11.6 dm (mean of 3 cases = 8.3), annual temperature of 8.4 to 12.5°C (mean of 3 
cases = 9.9), and pH of 5.6 to 7.3 (mean of 3 cases = 6.5).®^ Thrives on a variety of 
soils, from almost pure sand to coarse gravels and shales. Does not grow well on limestone. 
Prefers dry, well-drained, rocky land of the glacial drift to the richer, more compact alluvial 
soil of lowlands. Chestnut does not need a rich soil so much as one whose physical structure 
insures good drainage. Light is essential to the tree, since it is somewhat intolerant to shade. 
Grows best in a cool climate, but can endure heat and dry sunny situations.Hardy to 
Zone 4.^"^^
Cultivation — Propagation is by direct seedling or by use of nursery-grown seedlings. 
To prevent drying out and lowering of germination ability, collected seeds should be kept 
stratified in moist sand until the following spring. The nursery should be located on fresh, 
well-drained, fertile soil. Thorough cultivation of soil is required. Seed should be planted 
about 2.5 cm apart in rows about 45 cm apart, at a depth of 2.5 cm. Bushel contains 6,500 
to 8,000 nuts, sufficient to plant about 200 m of nursery rows, and to produce about 4,000 
plants. While in the nursery, seedlings require careful cultivation and should be kept weed- 
free. When planting in permanent sites, trees should be set 2 m apart each way. If trees are 
to be grown directly from seed without transplanting, seed spots should be prepared, spaced 
as above. Two or three seeds should be planted in each and covered about 2.5 cm deep 
with fine soil. Only one tree should be allowed to remain in each hill. Little cultivation is 
necessary after trees become established. Seedlings grow 25 to 37 cm by the end of the first 
season and 37 to 50 cm per year until the 13th year.^^®
Harvesting — Mature nuts should be gathered every other day during the period of 
maturity. Frequent and clean collection of nuts is especially important if nuts are likely to 
be infested with weevils or if weather is hot and dry. Within a week’s time, nuts on the 
ground, or those in opened burs on trees, may become dry or they may mold and spoil. In 
harvesting nuts from a tree, it is advisable to first knock nuts from opened burs with pole 
and then gather up nuts from ground. If harvested nuts are infested with weevils, they should 
be treated by immersing them in water at 49°C for 30 to 45 min, depending on size of nuts. 
After heating for proper length of time, nuts are removed immediately from hot water and 
permitted to dry. Nuts, gathered and treated, are spread out in a layer no more than 3 or 4 
nuts deep to cure, on a floor or in trays in a well-ventilated building. Nuts should receive 
no direct sunlight. Time for curing depends upon amount of moisture in air. Usually 1 or 
2 days of curing is adequate. Under proper conditions, chestnuts can be stored from time 
of harvest to late April with minimal spoilage; nuts come out of storage in the same condition 
as they went in, and they have been found to germinate promptly. Chestnuts for eating may 
be stored in deep freezers, but they must be cooked promptly after being removed. To freeze 
the nuts, they should be shelled and the kernels blanched. Nuts must not be roasted slowly, 
as they will explode in oven or they will not freeze satisfactorily. After shells have been 
removed, if any of brown skin covering kernel remains, kernels should be blanched. This 
is done by immersing kernels in boiling water for 1 or 2 min and quickly freezing them in 
freezer containers. They are then kept — 18°C or lower until ready to be cooked, like frozen 
peas or lima beans. Chestnuts are marketed packaged in cans, woven bags of cotton or jute, 
or in baskets having tight-fitting lids.^^® Leaves are collected in September and October.
84 Handbook of Nuts
With smaller nuts, the American chestnut, had it survived productive, would be expected 
to yield somewhat less than the European. Smith reports Italian yields of ca. 1100 kg/ha, 
French of 1500, and Spanish of ca. 2800 kg/ha.
Yields and economics — Yield varies from 6,500 to 8,000 nuts per bu. At present time, 
American chestnut is not an item of commercial importance, either for the nuts or for timber, 
as it was prior to 1907 to 1918, when most of the trees in the eastern U.S. were destroyed. 
Chestnuts grown at present are hybrids of Chinese chestnuts (C. mollissima) or other species, 
resistant to blight.
Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal.
Biotic factors — American chestnut is devastated by Chestnut Blight {Endothia paras
itica), and since 1918 it has not been a commercial product.Weevils in the nuts are a 
problem.Browne^^ lists the following as affecting this species: Fungi — Cryptodiaporthe 
castanea, Daedalea quercina, Endothia parasitica, Phellinus gilvas, Phytophthora dentata, 
Polyporus frondosas, P pargamenus, Urnula craterium; Acariña — Oligonychas bicolor, 
Coleóptera — Elaphidion villosanr, Lepidoptera — Acronicta americana, Alsophila po- 
metaria, Anisota virginiensis, Datana ministra, Disphargia gattivitta, Ennomos magnaria,
E. sabsignaria, Lymantria dispar, Nematocampa dentata, Symmerista albifrons; and Mam
malia — Lepas americanas, Odocoileas virginianas. According to Agriculture Handbook 
165,"^ the following are reported as affecting C. dentata: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot), 
Alearodiscas acerinas (bark patch), Anthostoma dryophilam, Armillaria mellea (root and 
butt rot), Asconidiam castaneae, Botryosphaeria ribis, B. castaneae, Cenangum castaneae, 
C. albo-atrum, Ceratostomella microspora, Chlorociboria aeruginosa, C. versiformia, 
Chlorosplenium chlora, Clasterosporiam sigmoideam, Clitocybe illudens, C. monadelpha, 
Colpoma quercinum, Corticium caeruleum, Coryneum spp., Cronartium cerebrum (rust), 
Cryptodiaporthe castanea (twig canker), Cryptospora cinctula, Cylindrosporiam castaneae 
(Leaf spot), Daedalea quercina, D. confragosa, Diaporthe eres, Didymella castañeda, 
Diplodia longispora, Discohainesia oenotherae, Discosia artocreas, Endothia gyrosa, E. 
radicalis. Fax olas alveolaris, F ene Stella castanicola, F. phaeospora. Fistulina hepática,
F. pallida, Flammula sp.. Pomes annosas (root and butt rot), F. applanatus (butt rot or on 
stumps), F. everhartii (white spongy heart rot), F. ohiensis, F. pinicola (brown crumbly 
heart rot), F. scutellatus, Gnomonia setacea, Hymenochaete rubiginosa, Laestadia castan
icola, Lenzites betulina, Leptothyrium castaneae, Marssonina ochroleaca, Melanconis mo- 
donia, Melanconium cinctum, Meraliasfagax, M. tremellosas, Microsphaerea alni (powdery 
mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii (leaf spot), M. pachyspora, Mycosphaerella maculifor- 
mis, M. punctiformis, Myxosporiam castaneam. Panas radis, P. stipticas, Pezicula par
par ascens, Pholiota adiposa, P. sqaarrosa, Phoma castanea, Phyllosticta castanea, P. 
fusispora, Physalospora obtusa, Phytophthora cinnamomi, Pleurotus ostreatas, Polyporus 
spp., Rutstroemia americana, Scolecosporiam fagi, Sphaerognomonia carpinea, Steccher- 
inum adustum, Steream spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes sepiam (wood rot), and 
Xylaria hypoxylon.^^^'^^^'^^^
85
CASTANEA MOLLISSIMA Blume (FAGACEAE) — Chinese Hairy Chestnut 
Syn.: Castanea saliva \ 2lt . formosana Hayata, Castanea formo sana (Hayata) Hayata,
and Castanea bungeana Blume.
Uses — Nut unexcelled in sweetness and general palatability by any other known chestnut. 
By far the most common food nut, almost taking the place of potato in parts of the Orient. 
Eaten raw, boiled, roasted, cooked with meat, made into confections, powdered and mixed 
with candy, dried whole. Valuable for wildlife where nut production is more important than 
timber. Recommended for hardiness, blight resistance and large nuts. Wood, leaves, and 
bark used for their tannin content.Has merit as an ornamental tree.^'*^
Folk medicine — Reported to be hemostat, Chinese chestnut is a folk remedy for diarrhea, 
dysentery, epistaxis, nausea, and thirst.The flower is used for scrofula. Stem-bark used 
for poisoned wounds; the sap for lacquer poisoning. The fruit pulp is poulticed onto animal 
bites, rheumatism, and virulent sores; husk astringent and used for dysentery, nausea, and 
thirst; charred husks applied to boils. The root is used for hernia.^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 403 calories, 11.9 g 
protein, 2.7 g fat, 83.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.2 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 168 mg P, 3.8 mg Fe, 
216 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.29 mg thiamine, 0.32 mg riboflavin, 1.44 mg niacin, 
and 65 mg ascorbic acid.*^
Description — Deciduous trees, long-lived, 15 to 20 m tall, spreading, round-topped; 
branches glabrous, branchlets covered with dense pubescence of coarse spreading hairs;
86 Handbook of Nuts
leaves with dense stellate pubescence when young, this persistent on under-surface of mature 
leaves, alternate, 10 to 20 cm long, 5 to 10 cm broad, with 12 to 20 deep serrations on 
each side, oblong-lanceolate to elliptic-oblong, base rounded or cordate, apex acute to 
scarcely acuminate; petioles 2 to 3 cm long, with few long hairs; stipules over 2 cm long, 
very veiny and rugose, abruptly broadened; staminate spikes axillary or terminal, 20 cm 
long or more; pistillate flowers in hirsute globose involucres 1 cm thick, situated at base of 
male spikes or occasionally terminating some spikes; styles about 5 mm long, densely hirsute; 
bur up to 6 cm thick, with long, very stout, strongly pubescent spines; nut about 2.5 cm 
thick, with small to rather extensive patch of tawny felt at apex; nut with thin skin which 
peels readily from kernel. Flowers late May to late June in Maryland, earlier south ward.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese chestnut, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, and slope.Many cvs have been 
introduced from China, and several hybrids with Japanese and American chestnuts have 
been produced in attempts to breed-in blight-resistance. But most of them have failed for 
one reason or another. Cultivars presently in the trade include: ‘Abundance’, which produces 
110 nuts per kg (84 to 167); ‘Ruling’, ‘Meiling’, ‘Nanking’, and ‘Carr’; the latter produces 
128 nuts per kg, has good cleaning quality, a sweet, pleasing flavor, and was the first variety 
grafted in this country, but is not grown at the present time. Most of grafted Chinese chestnuts 
have shown troublesome stock-scion incompatibility, which causes grafts to fail. Such 
failures may occur in the first year, but more often after 4 to 6 years of vigorous growth. 
Failure seems to relate to winter injury and is more frequent northward. Seedlings of selected 
trees, as ‘Hemming’ from Maryland and ‘Peter Lui’ from Georgia, are among the most 
promising. Seedlings of ‘Nanking’ come true to type and are planted commercially in the 
South. Other cvs are hardy northward to Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the 
warmer areas of New York. Two of the more recent hybrids are ‘Sleeping Giant Chestnut’ 
(C. mollissima x (C. crenata x C. dentata)) and ‘Kelsy Chestnut’ (C. mollissima x ?). 
Also, ‘Stoke’ is a natural Japanese x Chinese chestnut hybrid.
Distribution — Native to north and west China and Korea. First introduced in the U.S. 
in 1853 and again in 1903 and 1906. This species has been in cultivation in China for a 
long time. It is practically the only species of chestnut being planted in the U.S. for 
commercial purposes.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Subtropical Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.4 
to 12.8 dm (mean of 5 cases = 11.6), annual temperature of 10.3 to 17.6°C (mean of 5 
cases = 14.2°C), and pH of 5.5 to 6.5 (mean of 5 cases = 5.9).^^
Chinese chestnut requires much the same conditions of climate, soil, and soil moisture 
as does peach. Air-drainage must be good, and frost pockets must be avoided. Trees grow 
naturally on light-textured acid soils, but they show a wide range of tolerance for well- 
drained soils of different textures. Young trees are sensitive to drought and may be killed. 
Cultivars and hybrids are about as hardy as peach and may be planted in any areas where 
peaches do well, most withstanding temperatures to -28°C when fully dormant. Unless 
leaves are removed soon after turning brown, they are apt to become heavily laden with 
wet snow or ice and cause severe damage. This situation is particularly common at altitudes 
of 600 to 700 m, as in West Virginia.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^
Cultivation — Propagated readily from seed, from which selections are made. Nuts lose 
their viability quickly after harvesting. Seeds may be germinated in nursery beds and the 
seedlings planted out after two y e a rs.A s they do not compete well with weeds, young 
trees should be kept cultivated for the first few years.Trees lend themselves readily to 
orchard culture, although trees are not particularly vigorous. Trees are self-sterile; in order 
to produce fruit, two or more cultivars should always be planted near each other for cross
pollination. Spring growth is rapid as long as soil is moist, but root development is shallow
87
during the first few years, and trees must be watered during dry periods. Young trees 
frequently retain their leaves during much of the winter. Sun-scald on exposed sides of 
trunks of newly planted trees may be a problem. Usually trees are headed low enough to 
provide for shading by tops. Trees should be planted as close as 4 x 4 m or 4.6 X 4.6 m 
each way; such trees should not be pruned. Cutting the lower branches from trunks invites 
blight infection. Trees do best when left to grow in bush form. Trees planted in this manner 
must have good cultivation, the same as for apple, peach, or pear trees.
Harvesting — Trees begin to bear when 5 to 6 years old; those for orchard culture with 
profitable crops begin in 10 to 12 years. Chestnuts should be harvested daily as soon as 
burs open and nuts fall to ground. Nuts should be placed at once on shelves or in curing 
containers with wooden or metal bottoms to prevent larvae which may crawl out of nut from 
reaching the ground. All infected nuts should be promptly burned. For curing the nuts, they 
should be spread thinly on floors or the like, stirred frequently and held for 5 to 10 days, 
depending upon condition of nuts and atmospheric conditions at time of harvest. During the 
curing period, nuts will shrink in weight, and the color will change from lustrous to dull 
brown. Three weeks is about as long as Chinese chestnuts remain sound without special 
treatment. Chestnuts should be marketed as promptly as possible to minimize deterioration. 
Chestnuts in sound condition may be stored in cold storage with temperature just above 
freezing; this is the simplest method. Stratifying in a wire-mesh container buried deeply in 
moist, well-drained sand is also very satisfactory. Putting nuts in a tightly closed tin container 
at refrigerator temperature or in cold storage at 0°C is also acceptable.
Yields and economics — Average yields are about 13 to 25 kg per year per tree, with 
large trees producing from 25 to 126 kg per tree.^^^ According to Wyman,trees are said 
to produce an average crop of 34 to 45 kg edible nuts per tree. Major producers are China 
and Korea. Very limited cultivation in U.S., with trend increasing.
Energy — Wood and burs may be used to bum, as is, or converted to charcoal.
Biotic factors — The following have been reported as affecting this species: Cronartium 
cerebrum (mst), Cryptodiaporthe castanea (canker, dieback), Cytospora sp. (twig blight), 
Diplodia sp. (twig blight), Discohainesia oenotherae, Gloeosporium sp. (blossom-end rot 
of nuts), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf spot), Phomopsis sp. (twig blight), Septoria gilletiana 
(leaf spot), and Stereum gausapatum (heart rot)."^ Pollination is carried on by insects. Chinese 
chestnut is largely, but not wholly, self-sterile. More than a single seedling or grafted cv 
should be included in any planting. Several seedlings or several cvs would be better. Trees 
producing inferior fruit should be removed. Chinese chestnut is not immune to the blight 
(Endothia parasitica), but is sufficiently resistant for trees to persist and bear crops. Trees 
develop bark cankers as a a result of infection, but the lesions usually heal. Nuts are attacked 
by several diseases, either before or after harvest. Most serious pests are chestnut weevils, 
often called curculios, which if unchecked, often render whole crops unfit for use.^® Trees 
are often planted in poultry yards, in order to decimate the bugs. Japanese beetles are a 
serious pest on leaves in some areas. June bugs and May beetle also feed on the newest 
leaves, mainly at night.
Jones et al.^^"^ report that in commercial and home plantings of Chinese chestnut in 6 
southeastern and eastern states, 23 of the trees had main stem cankers incited by Endothia 
parasitica. In general, they found the main stem canker incidence (13 to 93) was higher in 
plantings of the Appalachian Mountain region than in the Piedmont region (2 to 13 incidence). 
They found the trees that were damaged most were located in high-wind and cold-winter 
areas of the Appalachian Mountains.
88 Handbook of Nuts
CASTANEA PUMILA (L.) Mill. (FAGACEAE) — Chinquapin, Allegany Chinkapin
Uses — Kernels of nuts are sweet and edible, but are not consumed by humans very 
much; they are more of a wildlife food;^^^ also used to fatten hogs.'^® Used by Indians in 
making bread and a drink similar to hot chocolateboiled and strung to make necklaces.'^® 
Shrubs useful for planting on dry, rocky slopes, as they are attractive when in flower and 
again in fall with their light green burs and dark foliage. Often planted as an ornamental. 
The light, coarse-grained, hard, strong, and dark-brown wood is used for fenceposts, rails, 
and railway ties.^^^
Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic and astringent, chinquapin is a folk remedy for 
intermittent fevers.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Usually a spreading shrub east of Mississippi River, 2 to 5 m tall, forming 
thickets, often only 1.3 to 1.6 m tall, westward in range to Arkansas and eastern Texas, 
becoming a tree to 17 m tall with trunk up to I m in diameter, round-topped with spreading 
branches; branchlets at first bright red-brown, pubescent or nearly glabrous, becoming olive- 
green or dark-brown; winter-buds reddish, oval to ovoid, about 0.3 cm long, tomentose 
becoming scurfy pubescent; bark 1.3 to 2.5 cm thick, light-brown tinged red, slightly 
furrowed; leaves oblong-elliptic to oblong-ovate, 7.5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 5 cm broad, 
coarsely serrate, acuminate, gradually narrowed, unequal, rounded or cuneate at base, early 
tomentose on both surfaces, at maturity thick and firm, pubescent beneath, turning dull 
yellow in fall; petioles pubescent to nearly glabrous, flattened on upper surface, up to 1.3 
cm long; stipules pubescent, ovate to ovate-lanceolate to linear at end of branch; staminate 
catkins single in leaf-axils toward ends of branches, simple with minute calyx and 8 to 20 
stamens, yellowish-white, slender, at maturity 10 to 15 cm long, pubescent, flowers in 
crowded or scattered clusters; pistillate flowers on catkins near very tips of branches, several 
females near base, numerous males on more distal portion (androgynous), silvery tomentose, 
7.5 to 10 cm long; fruits usually several or many in large compact head or spike, each 
involucre 1-flowered, 2 to 3.5 cm wide; bur 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, covered with crowded 
fascicles of slender spines, tomentose at base; nut shining, reddish-brown, ovoid, 1 to 2.5 
cm long, about 0.8 cm thick, coated with sil very-white pubescence, shell lined with lustrous 
tomentum; kernel sweet. Flowers later than leaves. May to early June; fruits September to 
October.
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, chinquapin, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, poor soil, slope, weeds, and waterlogging.^^ Few 
selections of chinquapin have been made. More frequently it has been hybridized with 
chestnuts. C. pumila var. ashei Sudw. (C. ashei Sudw.), the Coastal Chinquapin, grows 
on sand dunes and in sandy woods along the coast from southeastern Virginia to northern 
Florida and along the Gulf; small tree to 9 m tall and 26 cm in diameter, or large shrub, 
leaves smaller, about 7.5 cm long and 3.5 cm broad, and spines on involucre less numerous. 
Thought by some not to be distinct from species. Trees native to Arkansas and eastern Texas 
are so much larger than those east of the Mississippi River, that they are considered by 
some as a distinct species, Castanea ozarkensis Ashe; trees to 20 m tall, with narrowly 
oblong elliptic leaves often 15 to 20 cm long, distinctly acuminate, coarsely serrate, with 
triangular acuminate teeth, x Castanea neglecta Dode is a natural hybrid with American 
chestnut (C. dentata), with intermediate leaves and involucres containing one large nut; 
occurring in Blue Ridge areas (Highlands, North Carolina), ‘Essate-Jap’ is a hybrid between 
the chinquapin and the Japanese chestnut, which forms a larger tree, with early flowers, 
and nuts ripening 2 weeks or more before Chinese chestnuts; it grafts better on Japanese 
stock than on Chinese. (2n = 24.)^^®
Distribution — Native in eastern U.S. from southern New Jersey and Pennsylvania to
89
western Florida, through Gulf States to Texas (valley of Nueces River). It is most abundant 
and attains its largest size in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life 
Zones, chinquapin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 11 to 13 dm, annual tem
perature of 12 to 19°C, and pH of 5.6 to 5.8.^^ Grows in mixed upland woods, on dry sandy 
ridges, on hillsides, in sandy wastes, and along borders of ponds and streams, in dry or wet 
acid soil. Occurs from sea-level to 1,500 m in the Appalachian Mountains. Prefers undis
turbed woods with plentiful humus, and a warm temperate climate.Grows in dry woods 
and thickets.*^® Hardy to Zone 5.^^^^
Cultivation — Propagated from seed, or often spreading by stolons. Seeds germinate 
easily, sometimes sending out hypocotyl before reaching the ground. Although chinquapin 
is planted, it is not cultivated as a crop. Occasionally, plants are planted for ornamentals, 
or along edge of woods for wildlife food. Once planted, shrubs require no attention.
Harvesting — Shrubs begin bearing nuts when 3 to 5 years old, and are prolific producers 
of small, sweet, nutty-flavored nuts. Nuts harvested in fall by man and wildlife.
Yields and economics — According to Rosengarten^^^ nuts of C. pumila, sweet and very 
small, yield 400 to 700 nuts per lb (800 to 1540/kg), compared to 75 to 160/lb (165 to 
352/kg) for the American chestnut, and 30 to 150/lb (66 to 330/kg) for Chinese chestnut. 
Nuts are sold in markets in southern and western states. Timber is used west of the Mississippi 
River. Most valuable as wildlife crop.^^^
Energy — Wood and burs can be used for fuel, as is, or converted to charcoal.
Biotic factors — Although chinquapin is not resistant to the Chestnut Blight (Endothia 
parasitica), shrubs make up for loss of diseased stems by increased growth of remaining 
stems and by production of new shoots.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following 
as affecting C. pumula: Actinopelte dryina (leaf spot), Armillaria mellea (root and butt rot), 
Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Cryptospora cinctula, Discohainesia oenotherae, Endothia 
radicalis, Gnomonia setacea, Lenzites betulina and L. trabea (brown cubical rot of dead 
trunks and timber), Marssonina ochroleuca (brown-bordered leaf spot, eyespot), Melan- 
conium cinctum (on twigs), Microsphaerea alni (powdery mildew), Monochaetia desmazierii 
(leaf spot), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum (root rot), Phy
tophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of nursery plants and forest trees). Poly poms spp. 
(various wood rots), and Stereum spp. (various wood rots).
90 Handbook of Nuts
CAST ANEA SATIVA Mill. (FAG ACE AE)—European, Spanish, Italian, or Sweet Chestnut 
Syn.: C astan ea vu lgaris Lam., C astan ea vesca Gaertn., and C astan ea castan ea Karst.
Uses — European chestnuts are grown for the kernels of the nuts, extensively eaten by 
humans and animals. Nuts used as vegetable, boiled, roasted, steamed, pureed, or in dressing 
for poultry and meats. In some areas, chestnuts are considered a staple food, two daily 
meals being made from them.^^® In some European mountainous regions, chestnuts are still 
the staff of life, taking the place of wheat and potatoes in the form of chestnut flour, chestnut 
bread, and mashed chestnuts. Flour made of ground chestnuts is said to have provided a 
staple ration for Roman legions.In Italy, they are prepared like stew with gravy. Dried 
nuts used for cooking purposes as fresh nuts, or eaten like peanuts. Culled chestnuts used 
safely for fattening poultry and hogs. Cattle will also eat them.^^® Used as a coffee substitute, 
for thickening soups, fried in oil; also used in brandy, in confectionary, desserts, and as a 
source of oil. The relatively hard, durable, fine-grained wood is easy to split, not easy to 
bend. Used for general carpentry, railroad ties, and the manufacture of cellulose. The bark 
is used for tanning.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts, when crushed with vinegar and 
barley flour, have been said to be a folk remedy for indurations of the breasts. Reported to 
be astringent, sedative and tonic, European chestnut is a folk remedy for circulation problems, 
cough, extravasation, fever, hematochezia, hernia, hunger, hydrocoele, infection, inflam
mation, kidney ailments, myalgia, nausea, paroxysm, pertussis, rheumatism, sclerosis, scro
fula, sores, stomach ailments, and wounds.Aqueous infusion of leaves used as tonic, 
astringent, and effective in coughs and irritable conditions of respiratory organs.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 406 to 408 calories, 6.1 
to 7.5 g protein, 2.8 to 3.2 g fat, 87.7 to 88.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 to 2.4 g fiber, 2.0 
to 2.1 g ash, 30.3 to 56.8 mg Ca, 184 to 185 mg P, 3.4 to 3.6 mg Fe, 12.6 to 32.3 mg 
Na, 956 to 1705 mg K, 0.46 mg thiamine, 0.46 mg riboflavin, and 1.21 to 1.26 mg niacin.®^ 
Chemical composition is similar to that of wheat; starch is easily digested after cooking. 
WoodrooU"^^ reports Spanish chestnuts to contain 2.87 to 3.03% ash, 9.61 to 10.96% total 
protein, 2.55 to 2.84% fiber, 73.75 to 77.70% total nitrogen-free extract, and 7.11 to 9.58% 
fat. In a study on chestnuts from 19 natural stands in southern Yugoslavia, Miric et al.^^"^ 
found in most samples the total fat content was between 4 and 5, the highest 5.62. Oleic 
and linoleic acids predominated, followed by palmitic.
Description — Tree 30 m or more tall, with girth to 10 m; trunk straight, smooth, and 
blackish or dark-green in youth, finally becoming brownish-gray with deep longitudinal and 
often spirally curved fissures; branches wide-spreading; young shoots at first minutely downy, 
becoming glabrous; buds ovoid, obtuse, the terminal one absent; young leaves densely 
stellately pubescent, becoming glabrous; mature leaves 10 to 25 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad, 
oblong-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, apex long-acuminate, base more or less rounded or 
cordate, upper surface soft green, lower paler; blades rather thick and stiff, with 6 to 20 
bristles on each of the rather deeply serrate margins; petioles minutely velutinous, glandular- 
lepidote or glabrous, about 2 cm long; stipules lanceolate, long-acute, gradually broadened 
at base, 1 to 2.5 cm long, not markedly veined; winter buds dull-red, pubescent, long ovoid- 
conic; staminate spikes 8 to 10 cm long, about 1 cm thick; pistillate flowers at base of male 
spikes in large globose strigose involucres 1 to 2 cm thick; styles exserted up to 8 mm, 
sparsely marked with ascending appressed hairs; bur green, 4 to 6 cm in diameter, with 
numerous slender minutely pubescent spines up to 2 cm long; inside or husk marked by 
very dense golden felt; nuts shining brown, with paler base, often 2 to 3.5 cm in diameter, 
at tip thickly pubescent, bearing a short stalked perigynium with its persistent styles; kernel 
variable from bitter to sweet. Flowers late May to July.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, European chestnut, or
91
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, mycobacteria, and slope.The only 
disadvantage of the European chestnut is that the skin is astringent, but since most of them 
are cooked before eating, the skin is removed readily. The skin should not be eaten, as it 
is indigestible. When European is crossed with American Sweet, this difficulty is modified 
or eliminated. The following are some of the most generally cultivated cvs. ‘Marrón Corn- 
bale’, ‘Marrón Nousillard’, and ‘Marrón Quercy’ originated in France; all have the very 
large light- to dark-brown nuts and are very productive; ‘Numbo’ and ‘Paragon’ are the 
most frequently grown cvs in the U.S.; they have medium-large, roundish nuts of fair quality, 
and bear regularly. ‘Ridgely’, originated in Dover, Delaware, has fair-sized nuts, of very 
good quality and flavor, with 2 or 3 nuts per bur; it is vigorous and productive. ‘Rochester’ 
and ‘Comfort’ are grown to a limited extent. Hybrids with C. dentata have leaves with 
cuneate bases. Some garden forms have variegated leaves or laciniate leaves (var. asplenifolia 
Lodd.). (2n = 22,24.
Distribution — Native from southern Europe through Asia Minor to China. Cultivated 
in many parts of the Himalayas, especially in Punjab and Khasia Hills. Naturalized in central, 
western, and northern Europe, almost forming forests. Introduced on Pacific Coast of the 
U.S. Extensively planted for its nuts and timber.Introduced to the U.S. in 1773 by 
Thomas Jefferson.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Steppe 
to Dry Forest Life Zones, European chestnut is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.9 to 
13.6 dm (mean of 14 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 7.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 14 cases 
= 10.8), and pH of 4.5 to 7.4 (mean of 10 cases = 6.4).^^
In woods, and often forming forests, on well-drained soils, often on mountain slopes, 
usually calcifuge. Acclimated to all temperate areas. Trees retain foliage late in fall.^^^
Cultivation — Thorough preparation of soil before planting is essential. For orchard 
planting, trees are propagated by grafting and budding. Whip grafts on small shoots or 
stocks about 1.3 to 2 cm in diameter, or cleft grafts on shoots 1.3 to 3 cm in diameter give 
most successful results. Bark graft on shoots is also successful. In any method of grafting, 
great care must be used in waxing and then rewaxing in about 2 weeks. Wax should cover 
cuts made in stock and scion, and should be applied immediately after inserting the latter. 
Scion should be waxed for its entire length, leaving no bubbles. Cover whole by tying paper 
bag over top. European types frequently outgrow stocks and cause an enlarged imperfect 
union. For orchard planting, trees should be spaced 13 x 13m, 17 x 17m, or20 x 20 
m; on good soil, the latter is preferable. Row could be set 20 m apart, with trees 7 to 8 m 
apart in rows. It may be necessary to remove every other tree after they reach a certain size. 
Good distance between rows provides for better growth of trees, and interplanting with 
vegetables or small fruits. In any event, do not crowd chestnut trees. Dig holes 75 x 75 
cm, breaking down topsoil around rim and allowing it to fall into hole. Always use fine 
top-soil around roots and firm soil well after planting. Before planting, cut with knife all 
broken or bruised roots, and clip end of every root. Set trees no deeper than in nursery and 
in same position, the bark on the north side being greener than that on south side. There 
will be less loss from sunburn if southern side, hardened by exposure, is again placed to 
the south. During first year or two, trees should be shaded. Sometimes the trunk is wrapped 
with paraffined paper or burlap, lightly enough not to interfere with flow of sap. After 
planting, cut back top to about 1.6 m; if tree is a straight whip, or if branched, cut branches 
down to 2 or 3 buds from trunk. Staking young trees is desirable, but not necessary. Young 
trees should be pruned to an open spreading form with 3 to 5 main branches on which top 
will eventually form, after which trees need little care other than good culture. If trees are 
allowed to overbear, nuts run down in size. Trees usually develop well without irrigation, 
but larger yields result when water is applied. While tree is young, regular irrigation is very 
desirable. Unless intercrops are grown, irrigation may be limited to one application per
92 Handbook of Nuts
month during growing season, after trees are bearing. Young trees may require irrigation 
twice a month. Water should penetrate well into subsoil. Light irrigation induces shallow 
rooting, which is undesirable. Do not continue irrigation too late in growing season, as it 
is likely to make nuts crack open or over-develop them. Cracked nuts soon spoil and mold. 
Cultivation must be thorough, so that free growth is promoted. After maturity, cultivation 
need not be so intensive. During the first few years, it is advisable to hoe around tree by 
hand, but after tree is well-established, annual plowing or cultivation after each irrigation 
is sufficient. Annual cover crops may be used to build up or maintain soil fertility. Two- 
year-old grafts are commonly loaded with burs, and if such grafted trees show a tendency 
to bear heavily while young, burs should be thinned out so that very few remain. Otherwise, 
trees will grow out of shape and be retarded in their development. Sometimes burs are 
picked from trees for 3 or 4 years until trees become well established, before beginning nut 
production. With seedlings and grafted trees, a mixture of cvs gives better yield of nuts. If 
all burs are filled, tree would not stand the weight nor develop nuts to marketable size. 
Many burs are empty and many have few mature nuts, perhaps a provision of nature, rather 
than poor pollination. Many trees self-prune (drop) fruits or abort seeds.
Harvesting — Allow burs to mature thoroughly and fall of their own accord. Some cvs 
stick, so that shaking or jarring the limbs is useful. In other cvs, burs open, and nuts fall 
to ground. Burs which fall and do not open can be made to shed their nuts by pressure of 
the feet or by striking with small wooden mallet. Some harvesters use heavy leather gloves 
and twist nuts out of burs by hand. Nuts should be picked up every morning and stored in 
sacks, if they are to be shipped at once. If they are to be kept for a while, they should be 
piled on floor to sweat. Pile should be stirred twice a day for 2 days, and then nuts sacked. 
Always store nuts so that air can circulate freely. Do not pile up sacks for any length of 
time, as they will heat and mold. If stacking is necessary, place sticks between sacks for 
ventilation. In gathering nuts, the collector usually has two pails or containers, one for first- 
grade perfect nuts, the other for culls.
Yields and Economics — Yields average from 45 to 136 kg per tree.^^* In 60- to 80- 
year-old stands in Russia, yields average 770 kg/ha, up to 1230 kg/ha in better stands. 
Italy reports ca. 1100, France ca. 1500 to 2200, and Spain ca. 2800 k g /h a .In the best 
years, 5,000 kg/ha are reported.^*® Nuts are marketed to a limited degree, but are mostly 
locally cultivated and used.^^^
Energy — Wood and burs may be used for firewood or for the production of charcoal.
Biotic factors — European chestnut is susceptible to diseases of other chestnuts, especially 
susceptible to attacks of leaf fungi.Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as 
affecting C. sativa: Actinopelta dryina (leaf spot), Cronartium cerebrum (rust), Endothia 
parasitica (blight), Exosporium fawcettii (canker, dieback), Marssonina ochroleuca (leaf 
spot), Melanconis modonia (twig blight), Microsphaera alni (powdery mildew), Phyllactinia 
corylea (powdery mildew), Phyllosticta castanea (leaf spot), Phymatotrichum omnivorum 
(root rot), Phytophthora cinnamomi (root and collar rot of seedlings), Schizophyllum com
mune (sapwood rot), and Stereum versiforme. Browne^^ adds: Fungi — Armillaria mellea, 
Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Dematophora sp., Diplodina castaneae, Fistulina 
hepática. Fames mastoporus, Ganoderma applanatum, G. lucidum, Ilymenochaete rubi
ginosa, Inonotus cuticularis, /. dryadeus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides, 
Mycosphaerella castanicola, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cambivora, 
P. cinnamomi, P. syringae, Polyporus rubidus, P. squamosus, P. tulipiferae, Rhizinia 
inflata, Rosellinia radiciperda, Sclerotinia candolleana, Stereum hirsutum. Valsa ambiens, 
Verticillium alboatrum; Angiospermae — Viscum album; Coleóptera — Attelabus nitens. 
Platypus cylindrus, Prionus coriareus, Xyleborus dispar; Hemiptera — Lachnus roboris, 
Myzocallis castanicola, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus; Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana, 
Euproctis scintillans, Lithocolletis messaniella, Pammene fasciana, Suana concolor; and 
Mammalia — Dama dama, Sciurus carolinensis.
93
CASTANOSPERMUM AUSTRALE A.Cunn. et Fräs. (FABACEAE) — Moreton Bay Chest
nut, Black Bean Tree
Uses — Australian aborigines processed the seeds for food. Of its edibility, Allen and 
Allen* say, “ The edibility of the roasted seed of C. australe, often equated with that of the 
European chestnut, has been overestimated. Some writers rate its edibility about equal to 
that of acorns, or as acceptable only under dire circumstances of need and hunger . . . The 
astringency of fresh seeds is reduced or removed by soaking and roasting, although even 
after such treatment ill effects are known to occur.“ * Commonly cultivated in Australia in 
home gardens and as a street tree, this species is well known in the timber trade as Black 
Bean. In view of the shape and configuration of the seeds, I believe “ Brown Buns” would 
be more appropriate. The timber dresses well and is regarded as a heavy cabinet timber. 
Before synthetics, the wood was used for electrical switchboards, because of its particularly 
high resistance to the passage of electric current. The wood is also used in inlays, panels, 
umbrella handles, ceilings, plywood, and carved jewel boxes. In South Africa, it is frequently 
cultivated for shade and as an oramental, suitable for planting along suburban sidewalks. 
Around Sydney, Australia, they have become popular as a house plant for short term 
decoration.The NAS^^^ classifies this as a “ vanishing timber” , used sometimes as a 
walnut substitute (750 kg/m^).
Folk medicine — Extracts have given negative antibiotic tests. According to the Threat
ened Plants Newsletter,"^"^^ 100 kg of seed were shipped to the U.S. for cancer and AIDS 
research, research which is suggesting anti-AIDS activity, in vitro at least. In a letter (1987), 
Dr. K. M. Snader, of the National Institutes of Health,tells me, “ I do not at this moment 
know if castanospermine will become an AIDS treatment, but it is showing some activity 
in our screening systems. Indeed, there is enough interest to want to look further at the 
pharmacology and to explore other products with either similar structures or with the same 
mechanism of action.”
Chemistry — Australian cattle fatalities are reported from grazing the fallen seed during 
dry periods (mostly October to December). Unfortunately, the cattle may develop a liking 
for the seed. Also, with the leaves, cattle becoming fond of them may pine away and die 
if deprived of them.^^^ Seeds contain the triterpenoid castanogenin. The structure is outlined 
in Hager’s Handbook. ^*^ The wood contains bay in (C2H20O9) and bayogenin. Castanospermine
94
Handbook of Nuts
is said to inhibit alpha- and beta-glucosidases, beta-xylosidase, and to inhibit syncytra 
formation in HIV-infected CD4 positive cells/"^^ According to Saul et al./^® castanospermine 
decreases cytoplasmic glycogen in vivo in rats, showing a dose-dependent decrease in alpha- 
glucosidase activity in the liver (50% at 250 mg/kg), spleen (50% at 250), kidney (48% at 
250), and brain (55% at 50 mg/kg). At doses of 2,000 mg/kg, the rats experienced diarrhea 
(reversible with diet) with decreased weight gain and liver size. With the HIV, there is a 
dose-dependent decrease in syncytium formation (H9 human aneuploid neoplastic cells 
infected with HIV) with complete inhibition at 100 |xg/m€. Apparently, it affects the envelope 
protein, not the CD4 receptor glycoprotein. At 50 p-g/mi, it inhibits the cell death of infected 
cells. And there is a dose-dependent decrease in extracellular virus (a million-fold at 200 
pg/ m€ ) . ^ ^ 2
Toxicity — The unpleasant purgative effects of fresh seeds and their indigestibility are 
attributed to the 7% saponin content. Later writers question the presence of saponin. The 
sawdust irritates the nasal mucosa.^ Brand et al.'^^ report an uninspiring 79% water, 3.2% 
protein, 0.7 g fat, and 0.5 g fiber. Menninger^®^ quotes one of his sources, “ Recently 14 
Air Force personnel were admitted to the hospital after being on a survival mission and 
eating the seed.”
Description — Tall, glabrous, slow-growing, evergreen trees to 45 m tall, 1 to 2 m DBH. 
Leaves large, imparipinnate; leaflets large, 8 to 17, glossy, short-petioled, elliptic, tapering, 
leathery; stipels absent. Flowers large, orange-to-reddish yellow, in short, loose racemes in 
the axils of old branches; bracts minute; braceteoles none; calyx thick, large, colored; teeth 
broad, very short; standard obovate-orbicular, narrowed into a claw, recurved; wings and 
keel petals shorter than the standard, free, subsimilar, erect, oblong; stamens 10, free; anthers 
linear, versatile; ovary long-stalked, many-ovuled; style incurved; stigma terminal, blunt. 
Pod elongated, 18 to 25 cm long, subfalcate, turgid, leathery to woody, 2-valved, valves 
hard, thick, spongy inside between the 2 to 6, large, globose, chestnut-brown seeds.® Seeds 
2 to 4 cm broad. Fruiting February to April in Australia.
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Moreton Bay chestnut, 
or CVS thereof, should tolerate some salt. It tolerates shade and some drought, but little frost. 
(2n = 26.)
Distribution — Only of local importance in its native Australia and New Caledonia. 
Native to the tablelands of northeast Australia, Queensland, and New South Wales. Intro
duced into Sri Lanka ca. 1874. Introduced and surviving as far as 35°S in Australia. Now 
somewhat common in India and the East Indies. Planted as an ornamental in the warmer 
and more humid parts of South Africa.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Rain through Tropical Dry to 
Wet Forest Life Zones, this species is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 60 
dm, annual temperature of 20 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Apparently damaged by heavy 
frost (but tolerating 0°C in Sydney). Usually in coastal or riverine forests. Best suited to 
rich loam, it will succeed on sandy, less-fertile soils.
Cultivation — Seeds should be sown fresh and barely covered (1 to 2 cm) with soil. 
They should germinate in 10 to 21 days when planted at 20 to 30°C. They can be held 6 
to 8 months at 4°C.
Harvesting — For reasons not fully understood, the tree often fails to fruit where it has 
been introduced as an ornamental. For example, it grows well at Singapore and Manila, 
apparently without fruiting. Some West Indian introductions have fruited at ca. 20 years of 
age. The seeds may be steeped in water for 8 to 10 days, then dried in the sun, roasted on 
hot stones, pounded, and ground into meal.
Yields and economics — Data provided me by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) indicate 
that one could obtain 100 g pure castanospermine from 1,(X)0 lb seed, suggesting yields of 
0.0(X)2203% or ca. 2 ppm. Before the NCI AIDS announcement July 24, 1987, the Sigma
95
Chemical Company was offering castanospermine at $22.60 to $23.80 per mg or $89.50 to 
$94.20 per 5 mg, which translates to $8 million to $10 million per pound. There is a newly 
published synthesis which can produce 100 mg and four isomers for $10,000. So the price 
will come down.
Energy — The wood has a density of 800 kg/m^. If the seed contains only 2 ppm 
castanospermine, most of the residual biomass could be used for fuel.
Biotic factors — The timber is subject to wood-rotting fungi and to termites. The sapwood 
is subject to beetle attack. Apparently omithophilous (pollinated by birds) and distributed 
by water. Nodulation and rhizobia have not yet been reported.^
96 Handbook of Nuts
CEIBA PENTANDRA (L.) Gaertn. (BOMBACACEAE) — Kapok, Silk Cotton Tree 
Syn: Eriodendron anfractuosum DC. and Bombax pentandrum L.
Uses — Valued as a honey plant. Young leaves are sometimes cooked as a potherb. In 
the Cameroons, even the flowers are eaten. I have used the water from the superficial roots 
when clean drinking water was unavailable.^® Silky fiber from pods used for stuffing pro
tective clothing, pillows, lifesavings devices; as insulation material, mainly against heat and 
cold, because of its low thermal conductivity, and sound, and for caulking various items, 
as canoes. Fiber contains 61 to 64% cellulose, the rest lignin and other substances, including 
a toxic substance, making it resistant to vermin and mites. Wrapped around the trunk of a 
fruit tree, it is supposed to discourage leaf-cutting ants. Fiber is white or yellowish, cylin
drical, each a single cell with a bulbous base, resilient, water-resistant, with buoyance 
superior to that of cork. The floss, irritating to the eyes, is used to stuff life-preservers, 
mattresses, pillows, saddles, etc., and it also used as tinder. In the U.S., baseballs may be 
filled with kapok. Mixed with other fibers, like cotton, it is used in the manufacture of 
carpets, laces, felt hats, “ cotton” , fireworks, and plushes. Fiber can be bleached or dyed 
like cotton. Seeds are the source of an oil (20 to 25% in seed, about 40% in kernel), used 
for illumination, for soap making, or as a lubricant. Seed oil roughly comparable to peanut 
oil; used for the same purposes as refined cotton-seed oil. West Africans use the seeds, 
pounded and ground to a meal, in soups, etc. Roasted seeds are eaten like peanuts. Some 
people sprout the seeds before eating them. The young fruits are a vegetable like okra. 
Expressed cake serves for fodder. The timber, though little used, is said to be excellent at 
planing, sanding, and resistance to screw-splitting. Used for boxes, matches, toys, drums, 
furniture, violins, dugouts (said to float even when capsized), and for tanning leather. Shaping 
and boring qualities are poor, turning very
97
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,Ceiba is used in folk remedies for nasal 
polyps and tumors. Reported to be antidiarrheic, astringent, diuretic, emetic, and emollient, 
Ceiba pentandra is a folk remedy for bowel disorders, foot ailments, female troubles, 
headache, hydropsy, leprosy, neuralgia, parturition, spasm, sprain, swelling, tumors, and 
wounds.^’ The Bayano Cuna use the bark in medicine for female troubles. The roots are 
used in treating leprosy. A bath of a bark infusion is supposed to improve the growth of 
hair (Colombia). The same infusion is given to cattle after delivery to help shed the placenta.^® 
Gum used as tonic, alterative, astringent, or laxative. Young leaves are emollient. Roots 
used as diuretic and against scorpion stings. Juice of roots used as a cure for diabetes. 
Ayurvedics used the alexeiteric gum for blood diseases, hepatitis, obesity, pain, splenosis, 
and tumors. Yunani use the leaves for boils and leprosy, the gum and/or the root for 
biliousness, blood diseases, dysuria, and gonorrhea, considering them antipyretic, aphro
disiac, diuretic, fattening, and tonic. Others in India use the roots for anasarca, ascites, 
aphrodisia, diarrhea, and dysentery; the taproot for gonorrhea and dysentery; the gum for 
menorrhagia, and urinary incontinence in children.Malayans use the bark for asthma and 
colds. Javanese mix the bark with areca, nutmeg, and sugar candy for bladder stones. 
Liberians use the infusion as a mouthwash. In Singapore, leaves are mixed with onion and 
turmeric in water for coughs. Javanese use the leaf infusion for catarrh, cough, hoarseness 
and urethritis. Cambodians use the leaves to cure migraine and inebriation. In French Guiana, 
flowers are decocted for constipation. In Reunion, the bark is used as an emetic. Annamese 
also use the bark as emetic, the flowers for lochiorrhea and plague, the seed oil as an 
emollient. West Indians use the leaves in baths and poultices for erysipelas, sprained or 
swollen feet, and to relieve fatigue. The tea is drunk for colic and inflammation. French- 
speaking West Indians take the root decoction as a diuretic. Latin Americans apply the bark 
to wounds and indolent ulcers, using the inner bark decoction as antispasmodic, diuretic, 
emetic, and emmenagogue, and for gonorrhea and hemorrhoids.Colombians use the leaf 
decoction as a cataplasm or bath for boils, infected insect bites and the like.'®^ Nigerians 
use the seed oil for rheumatism.Bark extracts show curare-like action on anesthetized cat 
nerves.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 530 calories, 30.4 to 33.2 g 
protein, 23.1 to 39.2 g fat, 21.6 to 38.3 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 to 19.6 g fiber, 6.1 to 
8.2 g ash, 230 to 470 mg Ca, 970 to 1269 mg Contains little or no gossypol, the seeds 
contain 20 to 25% (kernel, ca. 40%) oil. The percentages of fatty acids in the oil are oleic, 
43.0; linoleic, 31.3; palmitic, 9.77; stearic, 8.0; arachidic, 1.2; and lignoceric, 0.23. Analysis 
of the seed-cake gave the following values: moisture, 13.8; crude protein, 26.2; fat, 7.5; 
carbohydrate, 23.2; fiber, 23.2; and ash, 6.1%; nutrient ratio, 1:1.5; food units, 107. Analysis 
of a sample from Indo-China gave: nitrogen, 4.5; phosphoric acid, 1.6; potash, 1.5%. 
Analysis of the wood gave: moisture, 9.8; ash, 5.9; fats and waxes, 0.62; cellulose, 68.3; 
and lignone, 25.2%. The yield of bleached pulp was 30%. Destructive distillation of wood 
from West Africa gave: charcoal, 28.4; crude pyroligneous acid, 43.7; tar, 12.8; and acetic 
acid, 2.3%.^° The floss contains pentosans and uronic anhydrides. Root and stem bark 
contain HCN. Leaves contain quercetin, camphorol, caffeic acid, and resin. Bark contains 
up to 10.82% tannin.
Toxicity — The air-borne floss can induce allergy and conjunctivitis.
Description — Deciduous, umbraculiform, buttressed, armed or unarmed, medium to 
large trees to 70 m tall, more often to 33 m tall, spines conical when young; branches 
horizontal in whorls and prickly when young; leaves alternate, stipulate, long-petiolate, 
palmately compound with 5 to 11 leaflets, these elliptic or lanceolate, acuminate, entire or 
toothed, up to 16 cm long, 4 cm broad; flowers nudiflorous, numerous, in axillary dense 
clusters or fascicles on pedicels 8 cm long, near ends of branches; calyx 5-lobed, 1 to 1.5 
cm long, green, bell-shaped, persistent; petals 5, fleshy, forming a short tube and spreading
98 Handbook of Nuts
out to form a showy flower 5 to 6 cm in diameter; cream-colored, malodorous; stamens 
united into a 5-branched column 3 to 5 cm long; ovary 5-celled; fruit a 5-valved capsule, 
ellipsoid, leathery, 20 to 30 cm long, about 8 cm in diameter, filled with numerous balls 
of long silky wool, each enclosing a seed; seeds black, obovoid, enveloped in copious, 
shining silky hairs arising from inner walls of capsule. Flowers December to January; fruits 
March to April.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia, Africa, and Middle America 
Centers of Diversity, kapok, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, heat, 
insects, laterite, low pH, slope, and virus.The Indonesian cv ‘Reuzenrandoe’ (giant kapok) 
bears some characteristics of the var. caribaea. “ Some authors believe in an Ameri
can/African origin of the kapok tree. If America is the sole center of origin, then the African 
center is secondary. The African kapok tree is divided into the caribaea-forest type and the 
caribaea-savannah type. The latter type, which has a broadly spreading crown, is planted 
in market places. It is possible that this type arose from cuttings of plagiotropic branches. 
Some research has gone into developing whiter floss, indehiscent pods, and spineless trunks. 
Trees are quite variable in the spininess of the stem, habit of branching, color of flowers, 
size of fruits, manner of fruit opening, and length, color, and resiliency of fibers of floss. 
Based on these characteristics, three varieties are recognized: var. indica, Indian forms; var. 
caribaea, American forms; and var. africana, African form s.(2n = 72,80,82)
Distribution — Probably native to tropical America; widely distributed in hotter parts of 
western and southern India, Andaman Islands, Burma, Malaysia, Java, Indochina, and 
southeast Asia, North Borneo; cultivated in Java.^^^ According to Zeven and Zhukovsky, 
it was believed that the kapok tree originated in an area which was later divided by the 
Atlantic Ocean, so this species is native both to America and Africa. This conclusion is 
based mainly on the great variability of this plant and on the high frequency of dominant 
inherited characteristics in these two continents. Another thought is that seeds may have 
come from America in prehistoric times and that later introduction increased the variability. 
Because of its chromosome number, a polyploid origin is suggested. If this supposition is 
correct, the kapok tree can only have arisen in that area where its parents occur. As all other 
Ceiba species are restricted to America, this would also indicate an American origin.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Thom to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, kapok is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 dm (mean of 
134 cases = 15.2), annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 129 cases = 25.2°C), 
and pH of 4.5 to 8.7 (mean of 45 cases = 6.7).^^ Hardy to Zone 10."^^^ It thrives best in 
monsoon climates below 500 m altitude. Where night temperatures are below 20°C, fmits 
do not set. Trees damaged by high winds and waterlogging. Requires well-drained soil, in 
areas with annual rainfall of 125 to 150 cm, with abundant rainfall during the growing 
season and a dry period from time of flowering until pods ripen. In Java, commonly grown 
around margins of fields and along roadsides.
Cultivation — On plantations, kapok is usually propagated from seeds of high-yielding 
trees. Planted in nurseries about 30 cm apart, seedlings are moved to the field when about 
9 months old, topping them to 125 cm. Field spacings of about 6.5 are recommended. 
Sometimes trees are propagated from cuttings.In Indonesia, cuttings are set in a nursery 
for a year and then transplanted at the beginning of the rainy season. The first harvest is 
usually 3 years later.
Harvesting — Since pods are usually handpicked by climbers, before they dehisce, much 
hand-labor is involved. Trees begin to fruit when 3 to 6 years old. For kapok, natives harvest 
the unopened pods with hooked knives on long poles. Since pods do not ripen simultaneously, 
it is necessary to harvest two or three times a year, before the pods open. Fruits are sun- 
dried and split open with mallets. The floss is removed with the seeds, and the seeds separated 
out by beating with a stick. In Java and the Philippine Islands, machines are employed for
99
cleaning the floss. Floss is pressed into bales for export; these are generally packed in gunny 
cloth, and vary in weight from 80 to 120 lbs and are 8 to 16 ft^ in volume.
Yields and economics — Trees 4 to 5 years old yield nearly a kilogram of floss, whereas 
full-grown trees, 15 years old, may yield 3 to 4 kg.'^^ Some trees may bear for 60 years or 
more and may yield 4,500 g kapok per year. It takes 170 to 220 pods to give a kilogram 
of floss. An adult tree may produce 1000 to 4000 fruits, suggesting a potential yield of 5 
to 20 kg floss per tree. If the ratios prevail in kapok that prevail in cotton, we would expect 
that to correspond to 8 to 30 kg seed, or 2 to 7.5 kg oil per tree. In 1950, Indonesia produced 
5,000 MT kapok, 6,500 in 1951, 6,600 in 1952, 7,000 in 1953, exporting ca. 5,000 MT 
a year.Indonesia has produced as much as 16,000 MT kapok oil per year. Until World 
War II, Indonesia was the major producer; Ecuador exported over 1.25 million lbs in 1938. 
Today, Thailand produces about half of the 22 million kg of kapok produced, with the U.S. 
the largest consumer, using about half. Other exporters include Cambodia, East Africa, 
India, Indonesia, and Pakistan.
Energy — The seed oil, used for cooking, lamps, lubrication, paints, and soaps, might 
serve, like the peanut, as a diesel substitute. Six trees could produce a barrel of oil renewably. 
As firewood, it is of no value, as it only smoulders, but the smouldering is sometimes put 
to use in fumigation.The specific gravity of the wood is 0.920 to 0.933.^^"^
Biotic factors — The following fungi attack kapok trees: Armillaria mellea, Calonectria 
rigidiuscula, Camillea bomba, C. sagraena, Cercospora ceibae, C. italica, Chaetothyrium 
ceibae, Coniothyrium ceibae, Corticium salmonicolor, Corynespora cassiicola, Daldinia 
angolensis, Fornes applanatus, F. lignosas, F. noxius, Glomerella cingulata, Phyllosticta 
eriodendri, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus occidentalis, P. zonalis, Polystictus occiden- 
talis, P. sanguineus, Pycnoporus coccincus, Ramularia eriodendri, Schizophyllum com
mune, Septoria ceibae, Thanatephorus cucumeris, Ustulina deusta, and U. zonata. The 
bacterium, Xanthomonas malvacearum, also infests trees. The parasite, Dendropthoefalcata, 
also occurs on the tree. The following viruses attack kapok: Cacao virus lA, 1C, and IM; 
Offa Igbo (Nigeria) cacao. Swollen Shoot, and viruses of Adansonia digitata. Nematodes 
isolated by kapok include: Helicotylenchus cóncavas, H. multicinctus, H. retasas, H. pseu- 
dorobastus, H. dihystera, H. cavenessi, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, Pratylenchas 
brachyaras, P. delattrei, Scatellonema brachyurus, S. clathricaudatum, Tylenchorhynchus 
martini, Xiphinema elongatum, and X. ifacolum.^^^'^^^
Baker and Harris^^ indicate that the flowers are visited by the fruit bats, Epomorphorus 
gambianas, Nanonycteris veldkamp, and Eidolon helvum. Flowers, though bat pollinated, 
are visited by bees.^^ Logs and lumber very susceptible to insect attack and decay. The 
wood is nearly always turned blue-gray by sap-staining fungi. This can be prevented by 
dipping in a fungicide solution shortly after sawing. In addition, Browne^^ lists the following 
as affecting this species: Coleóptera — Analeptes trifasciata, Aracceras fasciculatas, Ba- 
tocera namitor, B. rufomaculata, Chrysochroa bicolor, Hypomeces sqaamosus, Petrognatha 
gigas, Phytoscaphas triangularis, Steirastoma breve, Tragiscoschema bertolonii; Hemiptera 
— Delococcas tafoenis, Helopeltis schoutedeni, Icerya nigroarcolata, Planococcoides nja- 
lensis, Planococcus citri, P. kenyae, P. lilacinus, Pseudaulacaspis pentágona, Pseudococcus 
adonidum, Rastrococcus iceryoides, Saissetia nigra; Lepidoptera — Anomis leona, Ascotis 
selenaria, Cryptothelea varié gata, Dasy chira mendosa, Suana concolor, Sylepta derogata; 
Thysanoptera — Selenothrips rubrocinctus.
100 Handbook of Nuts
COCOS NUCIFERA L. (ARECACEAE) Coconut
Uses — Coconut is one of the ten most useful trees in the world, providing food for 
millions of people, especially in the tropics. At any one time a coconut palm may have 12 
different crops of nuts on it, from opening flower to ripe nut. At the top of the tree is the 
growing point, a bundle of tightly packed, yellow-white, cabbage-like leaves, which, if 
damaged, causes the entire tree to die. If the tree can be spared, this heart makes a tasty 
treat, a ‘millionaire’s salad’. Unopened flowers are protected by sheath, often used to fashion 
shoes, caps, even a kind of pressed helmet for soldiers. Opened flowers provide a good 
honey for bees. A clump of unopened flowers may be bound tightly together, bent over and 
its tip bruised. Soon it begins to “ weep” a steady dripping of sweet juice, up to a gallon 
per day, that contains 16 to 30 mg ascorbic acid per 100 g. The cloudy brown liquid is 
easily boiled down to syrup, called coconut molasses, then crystallized into a dark sugar, 
almost exactly like maple sugar. Sometimes it is mixed with grated coconut for candy. Left 
standing, it ferments quickly into a beer with alcohol content up to 8%, called “ toddy” in 
India and Sri Lanka; “ tuba” in Philippines and Mexico; and “ tuwak” in Indonesia. After 
a few weeks, it becomes a vinegar. “ Arrack” is the product after distilling fermented 
“ toddy” and is a common spiritous liquor consumed in the East. The net has a husk, which 
is a mass of packed fibers called coir, which can be woven into strong twine or rope, and 
is used for padding mattresses, upholstery, and life-preservers. Fiber, resistant to sea water, 
is used for cables and rigging on ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms, brushes, and 
olive oil filters in Italy and Greece; also used for fires and mosquito smudges. If nut is
101
allowed to germinate, cavity fills with a spongy mass called “ bread” which is eaten raw 
or toasted in the shell over the fire. Sprouting seeds may be eaten like celery. Shell is hard 
and fine-grained, and may be carved into all kinds of objects, as drinking cups, dippers, 
scoops, smoking pipe bowls, and collecting cups for rubber latex. Charcoal is used for 
cooking fires, air filters, in gas masks, submarines, and cigarette tips. Shells burned as fuel 
for copra kilns or house-fires. Coconut shell flour is used in industry as a filler in plastics. 
Coconut water is produced by a 5-month-old nut, about 2 cups of crystal-clear, cool sweet 
(invert sugars and sucrose) liquid, so pure and sterile that during World War II, it was used 
in emergencies instead of sterile glucose solution, and put directly into a patient’s veins. 
Also contains growth substances, minerals, and vitamins. Boiled toddy, known as jaggery, 
with lime makes a good cement. Nutmeat of immature coconuts is like a custard in flavor 
and consistency, and is eaten or scraped and squeezed through cloth to yield a “ cream” or 
“ milk” used on various foods. Cooked with rice to make Panama’s famous “ arroz con 
coco” ; also cooked with taro leaves or game, and used m coffee as cream. Dried, desiccated, 
and shredded it is used in cakes, pies, candies, and in curries and sweets. When nuts are 
open and dried, meat becomes copra, which is processed for oil, rich in glycerine and used 
to make soaps, shampoos, shaving creams, toothpaste lotions, lubricants, hydraulic fluid, 
paints, synthetic rubber, plastics, margarine, and in ice cream. In India, the Hindus make 
a vegetarian butter called “ ghee” from coconut oil; also used in infant formulas. When 
copra is heated, the clear oil separates out easily, and is made this way for home use in 
producing countries where it is used in lamps. Cake residue is used as cattle fodder, as it 
is rich in proteins and sugars; animals should not have more than 4 to 5 lbs per animal per 
day, as butter from milk will have a tallow flavor. As the cake is deficient in calcium, it 
should be fed together with calcium-rich foods. Trunk wood is used for building sheds and 
other semi-permanent buildings. Outer wood is close-grained, hard, and heavy, and when 
well seasoned, has an attractive dark-colored grain adaptable for carving, especially orna
mentals, under the name of “ porcupine wood” . Coconut logs should not be used for fences, 
as decayed wood makes favorable breeding places for beetles. Logs are used to make rafts. 
Sections of stem, after scooping out pith, are used as flumes or gutters for carrying water. 
Pith of stem contains starch which may be extracted and used as flour. Pitch from top of 
tree is sometimes pickled in coconut vinegar. Coconut leaves made into thin strips are woven 
into clothing, furnishings, screens, and walls of temporary buildings. Stiff midribs make 
cooking skewers, arrows, brooms, brushes, and used for fish traps. Leaf fiber is used in 
India to make mats, slippers, and bags. Used to make short-lived torches. Coconut roots 
provide a dye, a mouthwash, a medicine for dysentery, and frayed out, it makes toothbrushes; 
scorched, it is used as coffee substitute. Coconut palm is useful as an ornamental; its only 
drawback being the heavy nuts which may cause injury to man, beast, or rooftop when they 
hit in falling.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,coconuts are used in folk remedies for tumors. 
Reported to be anthelmintic, antidotal, antiseptic, aperient, aphrodisiac, astringent, bacter
icidal, depurative, diuretic, hemostat, pediculicide, purgative, refrigerant, stomachic, styp
tic, suppurative, and vermifuge, coconut — somewhere or other — is a folk remedy for 
abscesses, alopecia, amenorrhea, asthma, blenorrhagia, bronchitis, bruises, bums, cachexia, 
calculus, colds, constipation, cough, debility, dropsy, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, earache, 
erysipelas, fever, flu, gingivitis, gonorrhea, hematemesis, hemoptysis, jaundice, menor
rhagia, nausea, phythisis, pregnancy, rash, scabies, scurvy, sore throat, stomach-ache, 
swelling, syphilis, toothache, tuberculosis, tumors, typhoid, venereal diseases, and wounds.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 36.3 g H2O, 4.5 g protein, 
41.6 g fat, 13.0 g total carbohydrate, 3.6 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 10 mg Ca, 24 mg P, 1.7 mg 
Fe, and traces of beta-carotene.Per 100 g, the green nut is reported to contain 77 to 200 
calories, 68.0 to 84.0 g H2O, 1.4 to 2.0 g protein, 1.9 to 17.4 g fat, 4.0 to 11.7 g total
102 Handbook of Nuts
carbohydrate, 0.4 to 3.7 g fiber, 0.7 to 0.9 g ash, 11 to 42 mg Ca, 42 to 56 mg P, 1.0 to 
1.1 mg Fe, 257 mg K, trace of beta-carotene, 0.4 to 0.5 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg riboflavin, 
0.8 mg niacin, and 6 to 7 mg ascorbic acid.^^ Coconut oil is one of the least variable among 
vegetable fats, i.e., 0.2 to 0.5% caproic-, 5.4 to 9.5 caprylic-, 4.5 to 9.7 capric-, 44.1 to 
51.3 lauric-, 13.1 to 18.5 myristic, 7.5 to 10.5 palmitic-, 1.0 to 3.2 stearic-, 0 to 1.5 
arachidic-, 5.0 to 8.2 oleic-, and 1.0 to 2.6 linoleic-acids.^® Following oil extraction from 
copra, the coconut cake (poonac) contains 10.0 to 13.3% moisture, 6.0 to 26.7% oil, 14.3 
to 19.8% protein, 32.8 to 45.3% carbohydrates, 8.9 to 12.2% fibers, and 4.0 to 5.7% ash. 
The so-called coconut water is 95.5% water, 0.1% protein, <0.1% fat, 0.4% ash, 4.0% 
carbohydrate. Per 100 g water, there is 105 mg Na, 312 K, 29 Ca, 30 Mg, 0.1 Fe, 0.04 
Cu, 37 P, 24 S, and 183 mg choline. Leaves contain 8.45% moisture, 4.28% ash, 0.56% 
K^O, 0.25 P2O3. 0.28 CaO, and 0.57% MgO.^«
Description — Palm to 27 m or more tall, bearing crown of large pinnate leaves; trunk 
stout, 30 to 45 cm in diameter, straight or slightly curved, rising from a swollen base 
surrounded by a mass of roots; rarely branched, marked with rings of leaf scars; leaves 2 
to 6 m long, pinnatisect, leaflets 0.6 to 1 m long, narrow, tapering; inflorescence in axil of 
each leaf as spathe enclosing a spadix 1.3 to 2 m long, stout, straw- or orange-colored, 
simply branched; female flowers numerous, small, sweet-scented, borne toward the top of 
panicle; fruit ovoid, 3-angled, 15 to 30 cm long, containing a single seed; exocarp a thick, 
fibrous husk, enclosing a hard, boney endocarp or shell. Adhering to the inside wall of the 
endocarp is the testa with thick albuminous endosperm, the coconut meat; embryo below 
one of the three pores at end of fruit, cavity of endosperm filled in unripe fruit with watery 
fluid, the coconut water, and only partially filled when ripe. Flowers and fruits year-round 
in the tropics.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia and Hindustani centers of origin, 
coconut has been reported to tolerate high pH, heat, insects, laterites, low pH, poor soil, 
salt, sand, and slope.Many classifications have been proposed for coconuts; none is wholly 
satisfactory. Variations are based on height, tall or dwarf; color of plant or fruit; size of nut 
(some palms have very large fruits, others have large numbers of small fruits); shape of 
nuts, varying from globular to spindle-shaped or with definite triangular sections; thickness 
of husk or shell; type of inflorescence; and time required to reach maturity. Many botanical 
varieties and forms have been recognized and named, using some of the characteristics 
mentioned above. Cultivars have been developed from various areas. Dwarf palms, occurring 
in India as introductions from Malaysia, live about 30 to 35 years, thrive in rich soils and 
wet regions, flower and fruit much earlier than tall varieties, and come into bearing by the 
fourth year after planting. However, dwarf varieties are not grown commercially, and only 
on a limited scale, because of their earliness and tender nuts — which yield a fair quantity 
of coconut water. They are highly susceptible to diseases and are adversly affected by even 
short periods of drought. Tall coconuts are commonly grown for commercial purposes, living 
80 to 90 years. They are hardy, thrive under a variety of soil, climatic, and cultural conditions, 
and begin to flower when about 8 to 10 years after planting. (2n = 16.)^^^
Distribution — Now pan-tropical, especially along tropical shorelines, where floating 
coconuts may volunteer, the coconut’s origin is shrouded in mysteries, vigorously debated. 
According to Purseglove,^^^ the center of origin of cocoid palms most closely related to 
coconut is in northwestern South America. At the time of the discovery of the New World, 
coconuts (as we know them today) were confined to limited areas on the Pacific coast of 
Central America, and absent from the Atlantic shores of the Americas and Africa. Coconuts 
drifted as far north as Norway are still capable of germination. The wide distribution of 
coconut has no doubt been aided by man and marine currents as well.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, coconut has been reported from stations with an annual precipitation of
103
7 to 42 dm (mean of 35 cases = 20.5), annual temperature of 21 to 30°C (mean of 35 cases 
= 25.7°C) with 4 to 12 consecutive frost-free months, each with at least 60 mm rainfall, 
and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 27 cases = 6.0).^^
Cultivation — Propagated by seedlings raised from fully mature fruits. Seeds selected 
from high-yielding stock with desirable traits. Seed-nut trees should have a straight trunk 
and even growth, with closely spaced leaf-scars, short fronds, well oriented on the crown, 
and short bunch stalks. The inflorescence should bear about 100 female flowers, and the 
crown should have a large number of fronds and inflorescences. Seed-nuts should be medium
sized and nearly spherical in shape; long nuts usually have too much husk in relation to 
kernel. Because male parent is unknown and because female parent is itself heterozygous, 
seed-nuts from high-yielding palms do not necessarily reproduce the same performance in 
progeny. Records are kept of fruits harvested from each mother palm, such as number of 
bunches, number of nuts, weight of husked nuts, estimated weight of copra (about one-third 
weight of husked nuts being considered favorable). After fully mature nuts are picked (not 
allowed to fall), they are tested by shaking to listen for water within. Under-ripe or spoiled 
nuts or those with no water, or with insect or disease damage are discarded. Nuts are planted 
right away in nursery or stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated shed until they can be planted. 
Seeds planted in nursery facilitate selection of best to put in field, as only half will produce 
a high-yielding palm for copra. Also, watering and insect control is much easier to manage 
in nursery. Soil should be sandy or light loamy, free from waterlogging, but close to source 
of water, and away from heavy shade. Nursery should have long raised beds 20 to 25 cm 
high, separated by shallow drains to carry away excessive water. Beds should be dug and 
loosened to a depth of 30 cm. Loosened soil mixed with dried or rotten leaves and ash from 
burnt fresh coconut husks at a rate of 25 lbs. of husk-ash per 225 ft.^ Nuts spaced in beds 
ca. 20 X 30 cm, a hectare of nursery accommodating 100,000 seed-nuts. Nuts planted 
horizontally produce better seedlings than those planted vertically. The germinating eye is 
placed uppermost in a shallow furrow, about 15 cm deep, and soil mounded up around, but 
not completely covering them, leaving the eye exposed. Soaking nuts in water for 1 to 2 
weeks before planting may benefit germination; longer periods of soaking are progressively 
disadvantageous. Bright sunlight is best for growing stout sturdy seedlings. Regular watering 
in the nursery is essential in dry weather. Mulching may preserve moisture and suppress 
weeds. Paddy straw, woven coconut leaves, and just coconut leaves are used; however, they 
might encourage termites. Potash fertilizer may help seedlings which probably do not need 
other fertilizers, the nut providing most of needed nutrition. About 16 weeks after the nut 
is planted, the shoot appears through the husk, and at about 30 weeks, when 3 seed-leaves 
have developed, seedlings should be planted out in permanent sites. Rigorous culling of 
seedlings is essential. All late germinators and very slow growers are discarded. Robust 
plants, showing normal rapid growth, straight stems, broad, comparatively short, dark-green 
leaves with prominent veins, spreading outward and not straight upward, and those free of 
disease symptoms, are selected for planting out. Best spacing depends upon soil and terrain. 
Usually 9 to 10 m on the square is used, planting 70 to 150 trees per ha; with triangular 
spacing of 10 m, 115 palms per ha; and for group or bouquet planting, 3 to 6 palms planted 
4 to 5 m apart. Holes 1 m wide and deep should be dug 1 to 3 months before seedlings are 
transplanted. In India and Sri Lanka, 300 to 400 husks are burned in each hole, providing 
4 to 5 kg ash per hole. This is mixed with topsoil. Two layers of coconut husks are put into 
the bottom of the hole before filling with the topsoil-mixed ash. Muriate of potash, 1 kg 
per hole, is better than ash, but increases cost of planting. The earth settles so that it will 
be 15 to 30 cm below ground level when seedling is planted. In planting, soil should be 
well-packed around nut, but should not cover collar of seedling, nor get into leaf axils. As 
plant develops, trunk may be earthed up, until soil is flush with general ground level. Usually 
7 to 8 month old seedlings are used for transplants, best done in the rainy season. In some
104 Handbook of Nuts
instances plants up to 5 years old are used, as they are more resistant to termite damage. If 
older plants are used, care must be taken not to damage roots, as they are slow to recover. 
In areas with only one rainy season per year, it is simpler to plant nuts in the nursery in 
one rainy season, and transplant them a year later. Young plantation should be fenced to 
protect plants from cattle, goats, or other wild animals. Entire areas may be fenced in. In 
Sri Lanka and southern India, piles of coconut husks are placed around the tree. At the end 
of the first year after transplanting, vacancies should be filled with plants of the same age 
held in reserve in nursery. Also any slow-growers, or disease-damaged plants should be 
replaced. During the first 3 years, seedlings should be watered during drought, at about 16 
liters per tree twice a week. Keep trees clear of weeds, especially climbers. Usually a circle 
1 to 2 m in radius should be weeded several times a year, the weeds left as mulch. Cover- 
crops, as Centrosema pubescens, Calopogonium mucunoides, or Pueraria phaseoloides, are 
used and turned under before dry season. Catch-crops such as cassava {Manihot utilissima), 
and green gram {Vigna aureus) and cowpea {Vigna unguiculata), bananas and pineapples, 
may be used. Sometimes bush crops, in addition to or instead of, ground covers are used 
as green manures, e.g., Tephrosia Candida, Crotalaria striata, C. uraramoensis, C. ana- 
gyroides — all fast growers. Gliricidia sepium and Erythrina lithosperma may be grown as 
hedges or live fences, their loppings used as green manure. Usually the cheapest form of 
fertilizer materials are used, consisting of 230 to 300 g N, 260 to 460 g P2O5, and 300 to 
670 g K2O per palm. Lime is generally not recommended. There is no evidence that salt is 
beneficial, as sometimes claimed. Coconuts can withstand a degree of salinity, about 0.6%, 
which is lethal to many other crops. Needing some magnesium, the palms are extremely 
sensitive to an excess. Cultivation depends on soil type, slope of land, and rainfall distri
bution. Disk-harrowing at end of moonsoon rains may be all that is necessary to control 
weeds.
Harvesting — Trees begin to yield fruit in 5 to 6 years on good soils, more likely 7 to 
9 years, and reach full bearing in 12 to 13 years. Fruit-set to maturity is 8 to 10 months; 
12 months from setting of female flowers. Nuts must be harvested fully ripe for making 
copra or desiccated coconut. For coir they are picked about one month short of maturity, 
so that husks will be green. Coconuts are usually picked by human climbers, or cut by 
knives attached to the end of long bamboo poles. With the pole, a man can pick some 250 
palms in a day — by climbing, only 25. In some areas nuts are allowed to fall naturally 
and collected regularly. Nuts are husked in the field, a good husker handling 2,000 nuts per 
day. Then the nut is split (up to 10,OCX) nuts per working day). Copra may be cured by sun
drying, or by kiln-drying, or by a combination of both. Sun-drying requires 6 to 8 consecutive 
days of good bright sunshine to dry meat without its spoiling. Drying reduces moisture 
content from 50% to below 7%. Copra is stored in a well-ventilated, dry area. Extraction 
of oil from copra is one of the oldest seed-crushing industries of the world. Coconut cake 
is usually retained to feed domestic livestock. When it contains much oil, it is not fed to 
milk cows, but it used as fertilizer. Desiccated coconut is just the white meat; the brown 
part is peeled off. It is usually grated, then dried in driers similar to those for tea. Good 
desiccated coconut should be white in color, crisp, with a fresh nutty flavor, and should 
contain less than 20% moisture and 68 to 72% oil, the extracted oil containing less than 
0.1% of free fatty acid, as lauric. Parings, about 12 to 15% of kernels, are dried and pressed 
yielding about 55% oil, used locally for soap-making. The resulting residue “ poonac” is 
used for feeding cattle. Coconut flour is made from desiccated coconut with oil removed, 
and the residue dried and ground. However, it does not keep well. Coir fiber is obtained 
from slightly green coconut husks by retting in slightly saline water that is changed frequently 
(requires up to 10 months); then, husks are rinsed with water and fiber separated by beating 
with wooden mallets. After drying, the fiber is cleaned and graded. The greater part of coir 
produced in India is spun into yam, a cottage industry, and then used for mgs and ropes.
105
In Sri Lanka, most coir consists of mechanically separated mattress and bristle fiber. To 
produce this, husks are soaked or retted for 1 to 4 weeks, and then crushed between iron 
rollers before fibers are separated. Bristle fibers are 20 to 30 cm long; anything shorter is 
sold as superior mattress fiber. In some areas, dry milling of husks, without retting, is 
carried on and produces only mattress fiber. The separated pith, called bast or dust, is used 
as fertilizer since the potash is not leached out. Coconuts may be stored at a temperature of 
0 to 1.5°C with relative humidity of 75% or less for 1 to 2 months. In storage, they are 
subject to mold, loss in weight and drying up of the nut milk. They may be held for 2 weeks 
at room temperature without serious loss.'^
Yields and economics — For copra, an average of 6,000 nuts are required for 1 ton;
1,000 nuts yield 500 lbs. of copra, which yields 250 lbs. of oil. The average yield of copra 
per ha is 3 to 4 tons. Under good climatic conditions, a fully productive palm produces 12 
to 16 bunches of coconuts per year, each bunch with 8 to 10 nuts, or 60 to 100 nuts per 
tree. Bunches ripen in about 1 year, and should yield 25 kg or more copra. For coir, 1,000 
husks yield about 80 kg per year, giving about 25 kg of bristle fiber and 55 kg of mattress 
fiber. Efficient pressing will yield from 100 kg of copra, approximately 62.5 kg of coconut 
oil, and 35 kg coconut cake, which contains 7 to 10% oil. The factor 63% is generally used 
for converting copra to oil equivalent. Yields of copra as high as 5 MT/ha have been reported, 
but oil yields of 900 to 1,350 kg/ha have been reported. Pryde and Doty^^° put the average 
oil yield at 1,050 kg/ha, Telek and M artin,at 600 kg/ha. World production of coconut 
oil is more than 2 million tons/year, about half of which moves in international trade. Sri 
Lanka, Philippine Islands, Papua, and New Guinea are the largest producers. Only about 
40% of copra produced is exported, the remaining 60% processed into oil in the country of 
origin. The U.S. annually imports 190 million pounds of coconut oil and more than 650 
million pounds of copra; some sources state 300,000 tons copra and over 200,000 tons 
coconut oil annually.
Energy — The coconut of commerce weighs 0.5 to 1.0 kg. According to Purseglove,^^^ 
the average number of nuts per hectare varies from 2,500 to 7,500, indicating a yield of 
ca. 1,200 to 7,500 kg/ha. On the one hand, ‘Jamaica Tails’ fruits average 1.7 kg, nuts 0.7 
kg, of which 50% is endosperm; on the other hand, ‘Malayan Dwarfs’ fruits average 1.1 
kg, the nut 0.6 kg, yielding 0.2 kg copra (6,000 nuts per ton copra). Average production 
yields of copra (3 to 8 nuts per kg copra) range from 200 kg/ha in Polynesia to 1,200 kg/ha 
in the Philippines, suggesting coconut yields of 1,000 to 8,000 kg/ha. Since about 60% of 
this constitutes the inedible fruit husk and seed husks, I estimate the chaff factor at 0.6. 
Coconut oil, cracked at high temperatures, will yield nearly 50% motor fuel and diesel fuel. 
Coconut destructive distillation is reported to yield 11.5% charcoal, 11% fuel gas, 37.5% 
copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 1% crude acetate, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% acetone 
plus methanol.^® As of June 15, 1981, coconut oil was $0.275/lb., compared to $0.38 for 
peanut oil, $1.39 for poppy seed oil, $0.65 for tung oil, $0.33 for linseed oil, $0,265 for 
cotton-seed oil, $0,232 for com oil, and $0.21 for soybean oil.^^^ At $2.00 per gallon, 
gasoline is roughly $0.25/lb. Quick^^"^ tested linseed oil (Iodine number 180) which cokes 
up fuel injectors inless than 20 hr: and rapeseed oil (Iodine number ca.lOO) which logs into 
the hundreds of hours before the onset of severe injector coking. Coconut oil (Iodine number 
10) should be a very good candidate from this viewpoint. This could be very important in 
developing tropical countries where diesel fuel is scarce and often more expensive than 
coconut oil. One Australian patent suggests that distillation of coconuts at 550° gave 11.5% 
charcoal, 11% fuel gas, and 37.5% copra spirit, 12.5% olein distillate, 12.5% black oil, 
1% cmde acetic acid, 0.15% glycerol, and 0.85% (acetone + methanol) which natural 
fermentation takes to 2.7-5.8% ethanol. Of course, you can’t have your coconut toddy and 
eat or drink or bum it too.®^
Biotic factors — Coconuts are subject to numerous fungal diseases, bacterial infections,
106 Handbook of Nuts
and the most serious virus-like disease, cadang-cadang.‘^‘ Coconut trees are also attacked 
by numerous nematodes and some insect pests, the most damaging insect being the black 
beetle or rhinoceros beetle {Oryctes rhinoceros), which damages buds, thus reducing nut 
yield, and breeds in decaying refuse. Diseases and pests of a particular area should be 
considered and a local agent consulted as to how to deal with them. Agriculture Handbook 
No. 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species: Aphelenchoides cocophilus (red ring 
disease), Cephalosporium lecanii, Diplodia epicocos, Endocalyx melanoxanthanus, Endo- 
conidiophora paradoxa (leaf-bitten disease, leaf scorch, stem-bleeding), Gloeosporium sp., 
Pellicularia koleroga (thread blight), Pestalotia palmarum (gray leaf spot, leaf-break), Phom- 
opsis cocoes (on nuts), Phyllosticta sp. (on leaves), Physalospora fusca (on leaves), P. 
rhodina (on roots and trunk), Phytopthora palmivora (bud rot, leaf drop, wilt), Pythium sp. 
(wilt). Stevenson^^® adds: Aschersonia cubensis, Aschersonia turbinata, Botryosphaeria 
quercuum, Cytospora palmicola, Escherichia coli, Flammula earlei, Herpotrichia schied- 
ermayeriana, Hypocrea rufa, Marasmius sacchari, Pestalotia gibberosa, Pestalotia versi^ 
cola, Polyporus lignosus, Polyporus nivosellus, Polyporus zonalis, Rosellinia saintcruciana, 
Thielaviopsis paradoxa, Valsa chlorina.
107
COLA ACUMINATA (Beauv.) Schott and Endl. (STERCULIACEAE) — Kola Nuts, Cola, 
Guru
Syn: Sterculia acuminata Beauv.
Uses — Widely used as a flavor ingredient in cola beverages, but has also been used in 
baked goods, candy, frozen dairy deserts, gelatins, and puddings. Kola plays an important 
role in the social and religious life of Africans. Beverage made by boiling powdered seeds 
in water, equal in flavor and nutriment to cocoa. Seeds also used as a condiment. Dye 
utilized from red juice. Wood valuable, light in color, porous, and used in ship-building 
and general carpentry. Tree often planted as o rn am e n ta l.C o la is said to render putrid 
water palatable.®^
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the powdered bark is used for malignant 
tumors and cancer. The tea made from the root is said to alleviate cancer. Reported to be 
aphrodisiac, cardiotonic, CNS-stimulant, digestive, diuretic, stimulant, and tonic, kola is a 
folk remedy for cancer, hunger, nerves, and tumors.Nuts used as diuretic, heart tonic and 
masticatory to resist fatigue, hunger and thirst. A small piece of nut is chewed by Africans 
before mealtime to improve digestion. On the other hand, it is chewed as a stimulant and 
appetite depressant, e.g., during religious fasts. Jamaicans take grated seed for diarrhea. 
Powdered cola is applied to cuts and wounds.Formerly used as a CNS-stimulant and for 
diarrhea, migraine, and neuralgia. The fresh drug is used, especially in its native country, 
as a stimulant, social drug, being mildly euphoric.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 399 calories, 5.9 g protein,
1.1 g fat, 90.8 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 2.2 g ash, 156 mg Ca, 232 mg P, 5.4 mg 
Fe, 67 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.08 mg thiamine, 0.08 mg riboflavin, 1.62 mg niacin, 
and 146 mg ascorbic acid. The aril (ZMB) is reported to contain 371 calories, 9.0 g protein, 
3.6 g fat, 86.2 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 18 mg Ca, 102 mg P, 8.4 mg 
Fe, 180 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.06 mg thiamine, 0.30 mg riboflavin, 4.19 mg niacin, 
and 60 mg ascorbic acid.®’ Contains 1.28 to 3% of fixed oil.^^^ Kola nut important for its
108 Handbook of Nuts
caffeine content and flavor; caffeine content 2.4 to 2.6%. Nuts also contain theobromine 
(<0.1%) and other alkaloids, and narcotic properties. Seeds also contain betaine, starch, 
tannic acid, catechin, epicatechin, fatty matter, sugar and a fat-decomposing enzyme. From 
a bromatological point of view, cola fruits contain, per 100 g, 148 calories, 62.9% water,
2.2 % protein, 0.4% fat, 33.7% carbohydrates, 1.4% fiber, 0.8% ash, 58 mg Ca, 25 mg 
carotene, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.03 mg niacin, 0.54 mg riboflavin, and 60 mg ascorbic acid. 
Hager’s Handbook suggests 1.5 to 2% caffeine, up to 0.1% theobromine, 0.3 to 0.4% d - 
catechin, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34% starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29% 
cellulose, and 12% water.
Toxicity — Caffeine in large doses is reported to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, and ter
atogenic.^^® Caffeine is also viricidal, suppressing the growth of polio, influenza, herpes 
simplex, and vaccinia viruses, but not Japanese encephalitis virus, Newcastle disease, virus, 
and type 2 adenovirus.Tyler^^^ produces a chart comparing various caffeine sources to 
which I have added rounded figures from Palotti.^"^^
Source Caffeine 
content (mg)
Cup (6 oz.) expresso coffee
310
Cup (6 oz.) boiled coffee 100
Cup (6 oz.) instant coffee 65
Cup (6 oz.) tea 10— 50
Cup (6 oz.) cocoa 13
Can (6 oz.) cola 25
Can (6 oz.) Coca Cola 20
Cup (6 oz.) mate 25— 50
Can (6 oz.) Pepsi Cola 10
Tablet caffeine 100—200
Tablet (800 mg) Zoom (Paullinia cupana) 60
In humans, caffeine 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites: 
theophylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century, 
theophylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, 
and for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg, theophylline is fetotoxic to 
rats, but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been 
used as a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg, 
theobromine is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung‘S® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 
mg, with 1,000 mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness, 
excitement, mild delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds 
“ caffeine has been reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic, 
and carcinogenic activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have 
calming effects on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” ^^® 
Description — Long-lived evergreen tree, up to 14 m tall, resembling an apple tree; bark 
smooth, green, thick, fissured in old trees. Leaves alternate, on petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long; 
young leaves pubescent, often once or twice cut near base about half-way to midrib; mature 
leaves 16 to 20 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm broad, leathery, obovate, acute and long-acuminate, 
with prominent veins below, margin entire, dark-green on upper surface. Flowers yellow, 
numerous, unisexual or bisexual, 15 or more in axillary or terminal panicles, no petals; 
calyx petaloid, greenish-yellow or white, purple at edges, tube green, limb 5-cleft, lobes 
ovate-lanceolate; male flower with slender column, shorter than calyx, bearing a ring of 10 
2-lobed anthers, the anthers divergent; perfect flowers with subsessile anthers in a ring, 
ovary 5-lobed, 5-celled, stellate pilose, with 5 linear, re-flexed, superposed styles; ovules 
anatropous, attached in a double row to the ventral surface of each carpel. Fruit oblong, 
obtuse, rostrate, warty coriaceous to woody, 5 to 17 cm long, 5 to 7.5 cm thick, brown
109
resembling alligator skin, pericarp thick, fibrous, cells filled with resinous colored matter 
used as dye. Seeds 5 to 12 per fruit, 2.5 to 5 cm long, 1.3 cm thick, yellow, soft, internally 
whitish, pinkish or purple, brown when dry; cotyledons often 3, flatly ovate or auriculate, 
cells containing starch and albuminous material. Flowers December to February, and May 
to July; fruits May to June, and October to November.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, kola, or cvs thereof, is 
reported to tolerate low pH, shade, and slope. (2n = 40.)*^
Distribution — Native and cultivated along west coast of tropical Africa, now cultivated 
pantropically from 10°N to 5°S latitude, especially in West Indies, South America, Sri 
Lanka, and Malaya. Occurs naturally in forests from Togo and southern Nigeria eastward 
and southward to Gabon, Congo, and Angola. Extensively planted in Nigeria.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of 12 
cases = 19.8), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 12 cases = 25.2), and pH 
of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 7 cases = 5.5).^^ Thrives in tropical areas where mean annual 
temperatures are uniformly 21 to 27°C, moist, with 2(X) to 225 cm rainfall, mostly at sea 
level to 3(X) m altitude. Frequently forms forests in coastal areas. Requires a rich, well- 
drained soil, but will grow on deep sandy loams in West Indies, with high organic content.
Cultivation — Propagated from seed, which must be sown perfectly fresh. Seeds planted 
singly in pots and young trees kept growing until needed for permanent planting. Only light 
shade, if any, is required after trees are 3 years old. Planting distances about 6 to 8 m each 
way, equalling about 270 trees per ha. Cultivation very easy. Trees respond to fertilizers, 
and produce highest yields only when weeds are kept controlled. Propagation also by cuttings 
of softwood or ripe wood, using bottom heat.^^^^^®
Harvesting — Trees begin to flower 5 to 10 years after planting, reaching full production 
by the 20th year, continuing to bear for 70 to 100 years. In many regions, trees flower and 
fruit throughout the year, but usually two peak crops are produced in May and June and 
again in October and November. Fruits require about 4 to 5 months to mature. Harvest when 
pods turn chocolate-brown and begin to dehisce. Pods are shaken from tree and immediately 
gathered. Seeds removed from pods and first coat cut off, leaving bare cotyledons. Nuts 
are then carefully graded. Fresh kola nuts tend to mold and spoil easily. Nuts packed and 
transported for local consumption is homemade baskets lined with leaves and wrapped in 
canvas or hide to prevent drying out. Kola nuts imported by the U.S. are split in half, 
sundried, and shipped in bags. Entire seeds are kola nuts of native consumer; kola nuts of 
commerce are the separated, dried cotyledons only.^^®
Yields and economics — After 10 years, kola trees may be expected to yield 400 to 500 
(to 800) pods annually, this being equivalent to 40 to 50 (to 80) lbs of dried nuts.‘^^^^® 
Purseglove^^^ reports ca. 575 kg/ha salable nuts. Within the tropics, trade of this nut is 
immense. In West Tropical Africa, kola nut ranks second to the oil-palm {Elaeis), with 
exports over 16 million lbs per year. Although most kola nuts are harvested from wild trees 
in West Africa coastal areas, the U.S. imports most of its kola nuts from Jamaica, about 
170 tons per year.^^^
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
Biotic Factors — Poor yields some years have been attributed to poor pollination. Fungi 
known to attack kola trees include: Botryodiplodia theobromae, Calonectria rigidiuscula, 
Cephaleuros mycoidea, Fomes lignosus, F. noxius, Marasmius byssicola, M. scandens, and 
Pleurotus colae
110 Handbook of Nuts
COLA NITIDA (Vent.) Schott and Endlicher (STERCULIACEAE) — Gbanja Kola
Uses — Kola possesses the central stimulating principle of caffeine. This species is more 
valued than C. acuminata as it contains more caffeine. Nuts are used in West Africa to 
sustain people during long journeys or long hours of work. Kola, Cola, or Kola-nuts is the 
dried cotyledon of Cola nitida, or of some other species of Cola. In the U.S., the kola-nut 
is used in the manufacture of nonalcoholic beverages. The tree is valued for its wood, which 
is whitish, sometimes slightly pinkish when fresh; the heartwood is dull yellowish-brown 
to reddish-tinged. Wood is suitable for carpentry and some construction work as house
building, furniture, and boat-building. Wooden platters, domestic utensils, and images are 
often carved from the wood. Sometimes trees are planted for ornamental purposes.
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, nervine, poison, restorative, sedative, stim
ulant, stomachic, and tonic, gbanja kola is a folk remedy for digestion, dysentery, exhaustion, 
hunger, malaria, nausea, and toothache.^* Dried cotyledons are nervine, stimulant, tonic, 
and astringent.The seeds are used by natives as a stimulant; when chewed, nuts increase 
powers of endurance of the chewer.^^’^^®
Chemistry — Speaking generically, Hager’s Handbook*®^ stated that the nuts contain 1.5 
to 2% caffeine, a compound the Germans call colarot (= ?cola red) Ci4Hi3(OH)5, and glucose. 
Colarot splits into phloroglucin and a reddish dye. Also contains up to 0.1% theobromine, 
0.3 to 0.4% D-catechin (C15H14O) (“ colatine” ), L-epicatechin, essential and fatty oils, 
colalipase, colaoxydase, a tannic glycoside, 0.25% betaine, 6.7% protein, 2.9% sugar, 34% 
starch, 3% gum, 0.5% fat, 29% cellulose, 12% water, and procyanidin (C3oH260i2).^®^ The 
glucoside kolanin is a heart stimulant.
Description — Trees 13 to 20 m tall, with dense crown, the branches and leaves nearly 
touching the ground. Leaves alternate, 7.5 cm or more long, broadly lanceolate, sharply 
acuminate, leathery. Flowers yellowish-white, sometimes with red stripes or blotches; fruits 
2 in a cluster, covered with a thick green wrinkled coat, each fruit containing 6 to 10 or 
more nuts; nuts usually red or pink, sometimes white. Fruits commonly longitudinally rugose 
and wrinkled, nodular to some degree and dorsally keeled; seed separable into only two 
cotyledons (C. baileyi Cornu, from West Equatorial Africa, has 6 cotyledons with very little 
caffeine.) Flowers and fruits in spring and autumn, with two harvests. The main cola season 
in West Africa is from October to February.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, gbanja kola, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate low pH, shade, slope, and virus.Chevalier has divided C. nitida 
into four subspecies: rubra, alba, mixta, and pallida. C. nitida subsp. rubra Chev., wild 
in Ivory Coast and Ashanti, has nuts larger than those of the cultivated plants and is the 
common cultivated kola of Ashanti; subsp. rubra Chev., from the Ivory Coast, is a distinct 
race based on characters other than those of color of the seeds; subsp. mixta Chev., known 
only in cultivation, has red and white nuts on the same tree, and sometimes on the same 
follicle; and subsp. alba Chev., also only known in cultivation, has only white seeds. There 
is much variation in other characteristics, as size of fruits and nuts and flavor. (2n =
4 0 ) 82.278
Distribution — Native to West Africa from Sierra Leone to the Congo. Introduced to 
East Africa, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Indonesia, Brazil, and West Indies, particularly ] 2l- 
maica.^®^’^^®
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, gbanja kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 27.8 dm (mean 
of 6 cases = 22.0), annual temperature of 23.3 to 26.6°C (mean of 6 cases = 25.4°C), 
and pH of 4.5 to 5.3 (mean of 4 cases = 4.9).®^ Kola trees flourish where the mean annual 
temperature is between 20 to 26°C and the annual rainfall is 250 cm or more. It is found 
at low altitudes ranging up to several meters above sea-level. Thrives in deep sandy loam 
with much humus.
I l l
Cultivation — Propagation is by seeds (usual), cuttings, air-layering, or grafting. Seeds 
are planted in seed-beds in well-prepared soil containing much humus. Seedlings are planted 
in rows 6.6 m apart each way. Trees respond to fertilizers and produce the highest yields 
only when weeds are cut back regularly. Best crops obtained on soils that are deep, sandy, 
and with a high content of organic matter. Plantain or other plant is used as shade for the 
first year or two. Cassava is a catch-crop for the tree until it gets large enough to bear fruits. 
Trees may also be propagated vegetatively from cuttings. Terminal cuttings set without any 
hormones retain their leaves and start callusing within 3 to 4 weeks after setting. The roots 
usually appear at an acute angle from the callus. New flush growth on the rooted cuttings 
starts at about the third month after potting and is commonly slow. Most cuttings flower 
the first year of growth. Cuttings set out in the field grow rapidly and flower and fruit within 
three years. When propagated by air-layering, about 98% of all branches treated are heavily 
callused within 3 to 4 weeks; within 6 weeks, most branches have developed roots 5 to 8 
cm long. About 95% of all marcots become established satisfactorily in the field. Those 
obtained from mature, already fruiting trees, flowered in 6 to 7 months after cutting them 
from the mother plant, or 3 to 4 months after transplanting. Propagation by budding is 
successful at all times of the year, with the highest bud-take from patch or flute budding 
techniques obtained between January and April, the lowest between September and Decem
ber.
Harvesting — Kola trees produce two crops per year; in Jamaica, pods ripen in May and 
June and again in October-November; in West Africa, the main crop is harvested from 
October to February. The chocolate brown pods, which range in size from 5 to 10 cm long, 
are shaken from the tree and gathered immediately, or are cut off by tree-climbers with 
knives on long sticks. Harvesters climbing trees are occasionally attacked by ants. The seeds 
are removed from the pods and the outer coat is cut off, exposing the bare cotyledons. These 
are carefully graded inasmuch as only sound cotyledons do not deteriorate quickly. Fresh 
kola-nuts tend to mold and spoil rather easily. They must be taken to market quickly for 
local consumption. Kola-nuts of commerce are freed from the white covering, usually after 
soaking or by fermentation in broad leaves. Occasionally, the nuts are buried to keep them 
sound for a favorable market; in the equatorial regions, it is done in ant hills. The main 
trade is in good-sized nuts. Packing is done in baskets along with broad leaves, and with 
occasional moistening, the nuts can be transported for a month, free from mold. Kola-nuts 
prepared for shipment to the U.S. are split in half, sun-dried, and shipped in bags. They 
are usually soaked in water for 2 to 3 hr and the juice thrown off. For export to Europe, 
peat is recommended as a packing material suitable for all conditions of temperature, and 
the nuts, which are mainly used for drugs and wine, are shipped in the dry condition.
Yields and economics — Depending on how they are propagated, trees begin to bear 
fruit in 4 to 5 years and reach full production in 10 to 15 years, or begin in 7 to 9 years 
and reach maturity in 15 to 20 years. Then they continue to bear good crops of fruits for 
50 years or more. Usually after a tree is 10 years old, it may be expected to yield, in two 
harvests, about 56 kg of dried nuts per year.^^^ Speaking generically, Purseglove^^^ notes 
that of nearly 250 trees in Nigeria, ca. 20% gave no yield at all, ca. 60% gave mean annual 
yields up to 300 nuts, while 20% produced 72% of the total yield of the plot. The average 
was 210 nuts per tree, the 10 best trees averaging 1,415 nuts, while the best yielded 2,209 
nuts per year. With an average 60 nuts per kilogram, that is more than 36 kg for the big 
yielder. Purseglove concludes there are an average 210 salable nuts per tree, or ca. 575 
kg/ha.^^^ Although most kola-nuts are harvested from wild trees of the West African coast, 
the U.S. imports most of its kola-nuts from Jamiaca. In the U.S., most kola-nuts are used 
for manufacturing nonalcoholic beverages.
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
Biotic factors — Self-pollinated trees produce only white fruits (white-colored nuts bring
112 Handbook of Nuts
the highest prices); the production of colored (red or pink) nuts may therefore be due to 
cross-pollination. The following fungi have been reported on this species of kolanut: Au- 
ricularia delicata, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Corticium koleroga, Fomes lignosis, F. 
noxius, Graphium rhodophaeum, Irenopsis coliicola, Marasmius equicrinus, M. scandens, 
Nectria delbata, Phaeobotryosphaeria plicatula; twig blight, root rot, and thread blight. 
Nematodes isolated from this tree include the following species: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, 
H. pseudorobustus, Scutellonema clathricaudatum, and Xiphinema sp. Insect pests include 
borers, cola weevils (Balanogastris kolae), and larvae of the moth Characoma. Trees are 
also attacked by pests found on cocoa, as the caspid Sahlbergella singularis and by Me- 
sohomotoma tessmanii.^^^'^''^
113
COLA VERTICILLATA (Thonn.) Stapf ex A.Chev. (STERCULIACEAE) — Owe Cola, 
Slippery Cola, Mucilage Cola
Syn.: C ola jo h n so n ii Stapf. and S tercu lia verticillata Thonn.
Uses — Seeds, indistinguishable from true cola in appearance, are edible, though very 
bitter and considered unfit to eat.^^^ Nuts are used to make a beverage. In some districts, 
the people gather the fruit, or at least chew it where found; in others, they usually regard 
it as a “ monkey kola” . Wood of the tree is white and hard, and is used in S. Nigeria to 
make fetish images.
Folk medicine — Containing caffeine, this species no doubt shares some pharmacological 
properties and folk uses with other Cola species.
Chemistry — Nuts contain a fair proportion of caffeine.
Description — Trees large, 8 to 10(to 25) m tall; branches sparsely puberulent, rarely 
cylindrical, brownish dark-red, often weeping. Leaves verticillate in threes or fours, opposite 
in the lower nodes, simple, entire, subcoriaceous to coriaceous; stipules 5 to 6 mm long, 
puberulent on lower surface; petiole 2 to 6 mm long, sparsely puberulent; blades obovate- 
elliptic, oblong or oblanceolate, cuneate at base, attenuate to apex, 12 to 25 cm long, 3 to 
9 cm broad, glabrous, subcoriaceous, green on upper surface, puberulent and brownish dark- 
red beneath; secondary veins in 5 to 8 pairs, ascending. Panicles axillary, isolated in groups 
of 2 to 3; flowers small, 1 to 3 cm long, puberulent; bracts oval, cuspidate, concave, about
6 mm long, more or less persistent; calyx 5- to 8-lobed, densely puberulent on external 
surface, sparsely so on inner surface; male flowers on pedicels 3 to 7 mm long, articulate 
at summit, puberulent, calyx 4 to 5(to 8) mm long with 5 to 6 lobes longer than the tube; 
androphore 1 mm long, puberulent, corona of stamens in 2 verticels, female flowers and 
perfect flowers on pedicels 12 mm long, articulate near the summit, with 5 to 7 lobes about
7 mm long; ovary with 5 carpels in 2 tiers of 4 ovules. Fruit on pedicels 3 to 4 cm long; 
follicles subsessile, oblong, up to 20 cm long, 9 cm broad, with short beak, obtuse, and 
more or less recurved, glabrous. Seeds 4 to 9, sometimes up to 12 per follicle, ovoid-elliptic, 
3 mm long, 2 cm broad, either red or white, with 3 to 4 cotyledons.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, owe kola, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate shade, slope, and virus. (2n = 40.)®^
Distribution — Native to Tropical West Africa from Ivory Coast and Ashanti to Ca- 
meroons and Lower Congo; planted in N. Nigeria and elsewhere, but nowhere much cul
tivated. Some cultivation in Nigeria, Cameroons, Ghana, Dahomey, Gabon, and Cabinda. 
Often found in planting of C. nítida. The only kola found on the Mambilla Plateau in 
Northern Nigeria.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life 
Zones, owe kola is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.3 dm (mean of 3 
cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 17.7°C), and pH 
of 4.8 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 4.9).®^ Indigenous to damp forests of the tropical zone, 
especially in swamps and by streams; requiring the jungle-type habitat. Often planted in 
villages.
Cultivation — Most trees are self-seeded in humid forests of tropical West Africa. 
Propagated by seed planted in site where desired. No special care given after tree is estab
lished.
Harvesting — Fruits are gathered from trees in the wild in some districts. Occasionally 
trees are planted in villages; fruits are collected when ripe to make beverages.^^®
Yields and economics — A fruit of minor importance in area of adapation, used mostly 
by natives as a source of caffeine, for a beverage, and for wood.^^®
Energy — Husks, prunings, and fallen leaves can be used for energy production.
Biotic factors — The fungus Irenopsis aburiensis has been reported on this tree. No 
serious pests are reported.
114 Handbook of Nuts
CORDEAUXIA EDULIS Hemsl. (CAESALPINIACEAE) — Yeheb Nut
Uses — Seeds said to be edible raw or cooked, likened by one author to a chestnut, by 
another to a cash ew .M u ch relished by the Somalians, often preferred to the usual diet 
of rice and dates. The leaves are infused to make a tea. Leaves, eagerly grazed by livestock, 
contain a brilliant red dye that will stain the hands, even the bones of goats who eat it. 
Somalians use the magenta-red coloring matter to stain textiles.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 448 calories, 12.1 g protein, 13.5 g 
fat, 71.9 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 2.5 g ash, 36 mg Ca, 208 mg P, and 7.2 mg 
Fe. The NAS (1979) reports 37% starch, 24% sugar, 13% protein, and 11% fat. The protein 
contains amino acids in proportions similar to other pulses, deficient in m ethionine.M iege 
and Miege^*^ report 10.8 g arginine, 3.5 g histamine, 3.9 isoleucine, 6.4 g leucine, 6.8 g 
lysine, 0.7 g methionine, 3.9 g phenylalanine, 3.6 g threonine, 4.8 g valine, 1.9 g tyrosine, 
0.6 g cystine, 9.1 g asparagine, 23.8 g glutamine, 3.9 g serine, 6.6 g prolamine, 4.9 g 
glycine, and 4.5 g alanine per 100 g protein. The albumins have trypsin inhibitors, the 
globulins nearly 10 times as much. Phytohemagglutinins, alkaloids, or glucosides are said 
to be absent.^ The red stain is due to cordeauxione, the only naphthoquinone found in 
legumes.
Description — Dwarf multistemmed evergreen shrub to 3 m tall; lower branches dense, 
straight, broomlike, hard. Leaves paripinnate; leaflets usually oval-oblong, 4-paired, leath
ery, dotted below with reddish, scale-like glands; stipules none. Flowers few, yellow, in 
apical corymbs; calyx short; lobes 5, blunt, valvate, glandular; petals 5, subequal, clawed, 
spoon-shaped; stamens 10, free; filaments hairy below; anthers versatile; ovary short-stalked, 
2-ovuled, densely glandular; stigma obtuse. Pod leathery, compressed-ovoid, curved, apex
115
beaked, 2-valved, dehiscent, 1 to 4 seeded, seeds ovoid, endosperm lacking, cotyledons 
thick.® Germination epigeal, the eophylls 1 to 8-foliolate, the first eophylls often opposite.
Germplasm — Reported from the Ethiopian Center of Diversity, yeheb, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor red sandy soils, sand, and savanna.
Distribution — Endemic to Somalia, Malawi, and Ethiopia.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Desert to Thom through Tropical Desert 
to Thom Forest Life Zones, yeheb is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 1 to 8 dm 
(1 to 2 reported), annual temperature of 23 to 30°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5 (reported 7.8 to 
8.4). In its native habitat, yeheb occurs in savannas, elevation 300 to 1,000 m, with poor 
red sandy soils, two rainy seasons, annual rainfall of 250 to 400 mm, and no frosts.
Cultivation — Only recently brought under cultivation at the Central Agricultural Re
search Station at Afgoi, Somalia, and at Voi and Galana Ranch, Kenya. Seeds germinate 
as high as 80%, the seedlings quickly developing a thin but tough tap root, which complicates 
transplanting. Hence, field seeding is recommended.
Harvesting — Starts fmiting at age 3 or 4 years, fmits said to ripen in only 5 to 6 days.^^'*
Yields and economics — Overexploitation, overgrazing, nonflowering in drought, and 
war in its native habitat, have all jeopardized the very existence of the yeheb. “ The plant 
is in great danger of e x tin ctio n .S o m alis use ca. 200 g pulverized leaves to dye 90,000 
cm^ calico. In the old days of British Somaliland, sacks of the nuts were brought down to 
the coast for sale.^^*
Energy — No data available.
Biotic factors — Although the shmb itself is essentially free of insect pests, the nuts are 
attacked by weevils and moth larvae. Rhizobia are not reported, but root nodules are reported 
on younger roots.®
116 Handbook of Nuts
CO RYLU S AM ERICANA Walt. (BETULACEAE) — American Hazelnut or Filbert
Uses — Cultivated for production of nuts for home use and wildlife, for cover and shelter- 
belt use, and for an ornamental. Kernels eaten raw or roasted, alone or mixed with other 
nuts.^^^ Nuts may be beaten to a powder and used like flour to make filbert bread.
Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,the bark is used in folk remedies for a poultice 
for tumors. Reported to be a panacea, American hazelnut is a folk remedy for stomatitis 
and tumor.Chippewa used the charcoal, pricked into the temples with needles, as analgesic; 
Ojibwa used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal cuts.^’^ Said to cause allergic 
rhinitis, bronchial asthma, and/or hypersensitivity pneumonitis.’*"^
Chemistry — Smith'”’^ reports the nuts to contain 5.4% water, 16.5% protein, 64.0% 
fat, 11.7% carbohydrates, 2.4% ash, and 3,100 calories per pound.
Description — Deciduous shrub, forming dense thickets, 1 to 3 m tall; branchlets pu
bescent and glandular bristly. Leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, slightly cordate or rounded at base, 
broadly ovate or obovate, irregularly doubly serrate, sparingly pubescent above, paler and 
finely tomentose beneath. Involucre pubescent but not bristly, compressed, about twice as 
long as nut, the 2 bracts sometimes connate and usually tightly enclosing it with rather short, 
triangular, denate lobes, the whole 1.5 to 3 cm long; nut roundish-ovate, compressed, 1 to 
1.5 cm long. Flowers March to April; fruits July to October; seed dispersal July to winter.
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity. Of the botanical 
varieties, the following are sometimes recognized: C. am ericana forma m issouriensis (DC.) 
Fern., plants without stipitate glands, and found occasionally throughout the range of the 
species. C. am ericana var. indehiscens Palm, and Steyerm., with fruiting bracts united on 
one side, found from North Carolina to Missouri. C. am ericana var. calyculata Winkl. (C. 
calyculata Dipp.), the involucre with 2 very large bracts at base. The most important cvs 
of the American filbert are ‘Rush’ and ‘Winkler’, both very widely cultivated and the most 
hardy of all filberts. Four hybrids — ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’, ‘Reed’, and ‘Potomac’, have 
been introduced; these have intermediate characteristics between European and American 
varieties. The cultivars of American hazelnut have smaller nuts than those of European 
filberts. (2n = 22.
Distribution — Native from eastern Canada and Maine west to Ontario and Saskatchewan, 
south to Florida, Georgia, Oklahoma, and the Dakotas. Also usually cultivated within that 
range.
117
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry to Wet through Cool Temperate 
Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, the American hazelnut is estimated to tolerate annual 
precipitation of 5 to 30 dm, annual temperature of 6 to 14°C, and pH of 5.0 to 8.0.^^ 
Naturally grows in or along edge of woods and thickets, on both dry and moist soils. 
However, it grows best on moderately rich, well-drained soils. Filberts should be planted 
on soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well as coarse, 
deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, shrub grows poorly, 
is subject to winter injury and bears few nuts.^^^ Hardy to Zone
Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by 
layering and are on their own roots. Trees that have been grown for 1 or 2 years in the 
nursery after the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older trees. 
Some nurserymen propagate their trees on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers. 
This rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Filbert can be propagated from 
seed which have been stratified 60 days at 5°C, plus 67 days at 18°C, and 30 days at 5°C. 
Stratified seed should be sown in spring. Seed should be drilled in fall and protected from 
rodents. Germination is hypogeous. Horticultural cvs are propagated by suckers, layering, 
budding, or grafting and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or 
more apart. In most cases, trees are planted in late winter or very early spring, after danger 
of severe freezing is passed. The same general methods of planting should be used as for 
apple and peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently 
to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and 
through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is as satisfactory as cultivation, 
provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large enough area around each tree to keep 
grass and weed growth suppressed. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches 
are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond readily to fertilizer applications, 
although no recommendation would apply to all situations. On most soils, it is not advisable 
to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about 
475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree 
just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased by 475 gm/year 
until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that, ca. 5 kg/per tree is adequate. Filberts are pruned 
to balance top loss with root loss (in planting), or to train young trees to desired form, or 
to remove dead, broken, or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth of new 
shoots on old trees. At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground, 
leaving 4 to 6 branches to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader 
form, provided it does not require removal of much wood. The more wood removed from 
young plants, the later they come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be 
done. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and anthers have fallen. Since American 
filberts or hazelnuts tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant 
trained to a single stem. Suckers should be removed at point on trunk or root where they 
originate; cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering 
operations should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young.
Harvesting — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and pis
tillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory 
fruit-production. In all plantings, 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of 
pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety. 
Furthermore, pollen of one variety must be shed when pistillate flowers of the other variety 
are receptive. Nuts, good flavored, should be harvested from bushes in the fall as soon as 
edges of husks begin to turn brown. As all nuts do not mature at once, 2 to 4 gatherings 
may be necessary in a season. If nuts drop easily to ground, they should not be allowed to 
remain there long because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration and moldiness due 
to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin layer in a dry
118 Handbook of Nuts
place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to 
6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. 
The temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise 
they will not store well. After nuts have dried for this time, they are flailed to remove the 
husk. The nuts, which are the commercial seed, can then be sown, stratified, or stored. 
Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain a large part of viability in C. am ericana for 
at least 2 years.
Yields and economics — Brinkman^^ reports 491 seed per lb (ca. 1,080/kg). American 
filberts give good crops every 2 to 3 years, or light crops every year. Yield, size of nut, 
purity, soundness, and cost of commercial seed vary according to cv.^^® Great quantities of 
hazelnuts are gathered each year for home use in northeastern U.S. and Canada. Many more 
are used as food for wildlife.
Energy — Small and erratically bearing, this species does not seem to hold great promise 
as a firewood or oilseed species. The 64% oil could conceivably serve as an energy source.
Biotic factors — A fungus disease. Eastern filbert blight, may cause severe damage to 
European filberts in the eastern U.S.; once well-established in a planting, it is very difficult, 
if not impossible to control. Growers should spot and eradicate early infections. Although 
this disease is almost always on American filbert plants, it usually does little damage to 
them. Each spring, trees should be carefully inspected and any diseased branches cut out 
and burned. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely 
destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be 
completely defoliated by them. Filbert bug mite and Birch case-borer (C olephora salm ani) 
may be pest problems. Stink-bugs and other plant bugs attack developing nuts and cause 
them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various plants, as legumes and 
blackberries, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation and elimination from plantation 
of host plants on which bugs breed. For control of all pests, consult local state agents. 
According to Agriculture Handbook No. 165,'* the following attack this species: A pioporthe 
anom ala, Cenangium furfuraceum , C ucurbitaria con globata, C ylindrosporium verm iform is, 
D iaporth e decedens, D iatrypella fro stii, D . m issouriensis, D ip lo d ia coryli, G loeosporium 
coryli, G nom oniella coryli, G. gnom on, H ym enochaete cinnam om ea, H ypoxylon fuscum , 
M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aera alni, P hyllactinia corylea, P hym atotrichum omni- 
vorum , P hysalospora obtusa, P olyporu s albellus, P. elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides, 
Scorias spongiosa, Septogloeum profusum , S eptoria corylina, S phaeropsis coryli, Taphrina 
coryli, and Valsa am biens.
119
CO RYLU S AVELLANA L. (BETULACEAE) — European Filbert, Cobnuts, Hazelnuts, Bar
celona Nuts
Uses — Long-cultivated, this is the main source of filberts of commerce. Kernel of nut 
eaten raw, roasted, or salted, alone or with other nuts; also used in confections and baked 
goods. Leaves sometimes used for smoking like tobacco. Hazelnut or filbert oil, a clear, 
yellow, non-drying oil is used in food, for painting, in perfumes, as fuel oil, for manufacture 
of soaps, and for machinery. Hazelwood or nutwood is soft, elastic, reddish-white with dark 
lines, and is easy to split, but is not very durable. It is used for handles, sieves, walking 
sticks, hoops of barrels, hurdles, wattles, and is a source of charcoal made into gunpow
der. 278,324
Folk medicine — According to H artw ell,th e paste derived from the bark is said to be 
a folk remedy for tumors. A salve, derived from the leaves and nuts, in a plaster with honey, 
is said to be a cure for cancer. Reported to be fumitory and vasoconstrictor, European filberts 
are a folk remedy for hypotension and parotid tumors.Medicinally, the nuts are tonic, 
stomachic, and aphrodisiac.^^®
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 620 to 634 calories, 16.4 to 20.0 
g protein, 54.3 to 58.5 g fat, 21.4 to 22.9 g total carbohydrates, 3.3 to 5.9 g fiber, 1.8 to 
3.7 g ash, 201 mg Ca, 462 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 1044 mg K, 10.80 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 
0.17 mg thiamine, 0.44 mg riboflavin, 5.40 mg niacin, and 2.2 mg ascorbic acid.®^ The 
Wealth of India'^^ reports the kernel to contain 12.7% protein, \1 .1% carbohydrate, 60.9% 
fat, 0.35% P; rich in phosphorus. Kernel contains 50 to 65% of a golden yellow oil. The 
fatty acid components are 88.1% oleic, 1.9% linoleic, 3.1% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, and 
2.2% myristic. The leaves contain myricitroside, a rhamnoside of myricetol and allantoic 
acid. The bark contains lignoceryl alcohol, betulinol, and sitosterol.Pollen contains guan- 
osine (C10N13N5O5) and n-triacosan. The wood contains cellulose, galactan, mannan, araban, 
and xylan. The ripe fruit contains 50 to 60% fat. Corylus oil contains 85% oleic- and 10% 
palmitic-acid esters; in addition, 0.5% phytosterol, protein, corylin (?), 2 to 5% sucrose, 2 
to 5% ash, melibiose (C12H22O11), manninotriose (C18H32O16), raffmose (C,8H320i6), and 
stachyose (C24H42O21). Leaves contain taraxerol (C30H50O), (3-sitosterol, 3a, 7a,22a-tri- 
hydroxystigmasterol, n-nonacosan? (C29H60), myricitrin (C21H50O), sucrose, essential oil, 
18% palmitic-acid, 6.6% ash (52.8% CaO, 5.8% Si02, 2.6% Fc203). The bark contains 
tannic acid, lignocerylalcohol, sitosterol, and betulin (C3oH5o02).‘*^
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 6 m tall, often thicket-forming; dark- 
brown, smooth, with glandular-hairy twigs; leaves 5 to 12 cm long, orbicular, long-pointed, 
hairy on both surfaces; margin doubly serrated; catkins appearing before leaves; staminate 
catkins 2 to 8 cm long, pendulous, in clusters of 1 to 4; pistillate flowers about 5 mm long, 
bud-like, erect; fruit in clusters of 1 to 4; nuts 1.5 to 2 cm in diameter, brown, invested by 
deeply lobed irregularly toothed bracts as long as nut. Flowers January to March; fruits 
fall.2^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern and Mediterranean Centers of Diversity, 
European filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, frost, high pH, low pH, and 
slope.®^ European filberts are varieties or hybrids of C. avellana and C. m axim a, both natives 
of Old World. In Europe, filberts are those varieties with tubular husks longer than nut, 
which is usually oblong; cob-nuts are roundish, angular, with husks about length of nut. In 
America, all varieties of C. avellan a are filberts, and native species of C orylu s are hazelnuts. 
Many hybrids between C. avellana, C. m axim a, and the American filberts have been pro
duced and many selections have been made. Hybrids with ‘Rush’ (a selection of C. am er- 
icana) have produced some very hardy and productive plants, as ‘Bixly’, ‘Buchanan’, 
‘Potomac’, and ‘Reed’. Mixed hybrid seedlings are often sold as ‘Jones Hybrids’. ‘Barcelona’ 
is the principal variety cultivated in Oregon, with ‘Daviana’ and ‘DuChilly’ as pollinizers.
120 Handbook of Nuts
‘Cosford’, ‘Medium Long’, and ‘Italian Red’ are the best of over 100 varieties grown in 
New York. ‘Purple Aveline’ is grown for its deep-red foliage in spring. C. avellana var. 
pontica (C. Koch) Winkler (Pontine Hazel or Trabzon Filbert) with lacerated, tubular husks, 
with nuts maturing by end of August, easily propagated by layering or grafting, long 
cultivated in Asia Minor.Three varieties popular for ornamental planting are ‘Aurea’ 
(yellow leaves), ‘Contorta’ (twigs definitely curled and twisted), and ‘Pendula’ (with pen
dulous b r a n c h e s ) . ( 2 n = 22,28.)
Distribution — Native throughout most of Europe, except some islands and in the extreme 
north and northeast, east to the Caucasus and Asia, south to North Africa and temperate 
western Asia. Widely cultivated in temperate zones of Old and New World. Common in 
gardens on hill country in India, but unsuccessful on plains there; cultivated in Oregon and 
W ashington.Cultivated varieties introduced to the west coast of the U.S. in 1871.^®^
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Wet through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest Life 
Zones, European filbert is reported to tolerate precipitation of 3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29 
cases = 7.0), annual temperature of 5.9 to 18.6°C (mean of 29 cases = 10.3°C), and pH 
of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.5).^^ Grows and is cultivated principally in countries 
where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winter temperatures uniform and 
mild. Trees often injured during both mild and severe winters. Low temperatures, following 
periods of warm weather during latter half of winter generally cause more cold injury to 
catkins and wood than do abnormally low temperatures earlier in the season. Winters of 
continuous mild temperatures or those with severe but steady low temperatures (not lower 
than -5°C) usually result in little injury. Winters of alternating thawing and freezing cause 
most damage. High summer temperatures, as in Eastern and Central U.S., often cause leaves 
to scorch and bum and are an important factor in preventing trees from growing and fruiting 
satisfactorily. Much of this trouble probably results from inadequate soil moisture supply at 
critical times, as filbert does not have a deep taproot, and the feeding roots are fibrous and 
shallow. Hence, commercial filbert production in the U.S. is confined to the Northwest 
where climatic conditions are more favorable.H ardy to Zone 3.^"^^
Cultivation — The site for filberts should be selected so as to delay opening of flowers 
until the time when temperatures lower than — 5°C are no longer to be expected. A northern 
slope or cover is the most satisfactory type of site. Cold, exposed sites, subject to drying 
effects of winds, should be avoided. Filberts are usually propagated by layering so that new 
plants are on their own roots. Some varieties sucker profusely, and soil is mounded up 
around these in spring to depth of several cm. By the following spring, roots have developed 
at base of sucker. Then, rooted suckers are cut loose, taken up and grown for a year in the 
nursery before setting them in a permanent site. Filberts may be propagated from seed, but 
varieties and cultivars do not come true. Seeds require after-ripening for germination. They 
may be stratified in sand over the winter. In spring, seeds are planted in the nursery and 
seedlings grown for 2 years. Buds grafted on C. colurna seedlings showed 39% successful 
union. Filbert trees of most varieties should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. Small
growing hybrids can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. In most cases, trees should be planted in 
late winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing weather has passed. The 
same general methods of planting should be used as that used for apple or peach. Newly 
transplanted and young trees should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed 
growth before the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching trees with 
organic matter is equally satisfactory, provided that sufficient mulch is applied to a large 
enough area around each tree to suppress grass and weed growth. In general, the same 
cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond 
readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions. 
On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. 
Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should
121
be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. The amount of fertilizer should 
be increased by 475 g (1 lb) per tree per year until trees are 10 to 12 years old; after that 
ca. 5 kg per tree per year is sufficient. Filberts are pruned to: (1) balance top loss with root 
loss in planting operations; (2) train young trees to desired form; and (3) remove dead or 
broken branches and stimulate moderate new shoot growth on older trees. At planting, the 
tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above ground, and 4 to 6 branches should be allowed 
to grow. Trees should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not require 
removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young trees, the later they come 
into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Older trees that make short 
shoot growth should have branches thinned out and slightly cut back to stimulate production 
of stronger, more vigorous shoots. Pruning should be done after pollen is shed and catkins 
have fallen. All filberts except Turkish tend to grow as bushes by suckering from roots. All 
suckers should be promptly removed and the tree trained to a single stem. Suckers should 
be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate; cutting them off at the 
soil surface only increases the suckers that grow. Suckering operations should be done 3 or 
4 times a year, as young suckers are easier to remove.
Harvesting — Shrubs or trees begin bearing in about 4 years and bear well nearly every 
year. Staminate and pistillate appear on the same tree in different clusters. Depending on 
the location and winter weather conditions, pollination begins in January to March and lasts 
about 1 month. Young nuts do not become visible until late June or early July. There is a 
3 to 4 month lapse between pollination and fertilization. Although filbert trees flower when 
freezing temperatures can be expected, they are generally not injured unless the temperature 
drops to about - 10°C during the period of pollination. Most filbert varieties are self- 
unfruitful, and cross-pollination must be provided for satisfactory fruit-production. In all 
plantings, trees of 2 or more varieties should be included. The period of pistillate flowering 
is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a particular variety. Furthermore, 
pollen of one variety must be shed at a time when pistillate flowers of the other variety are 
receptive. Pollen of C. avellana is effective on pistils of C. cornuta and C. americana, but 
a reverse application is usually sterile. C. americana x C. avellana hybrids have been used 
successfully to pollinate C. avellana. Nuts soon become rancid when stored at room tem
perature.^^* With good weather and modem equipment, five experienced workers can harvest 
ca. 200 acres in 10 days.^®^
Yields and economics — No specific yield data available, as nuts are gathered several 
times.A good orchard can provide ca. 2,000 kg/ha dry in-shell nuts annually. U.S. 
imports ca. 45% of filberts consumed annually.Filberts include both C. avellana and C. 
maxima and their hybrids, and they are not separated in the trade. In 1969— 1970, Turkey 
exported about 81,300 MT of shelled nuts valued at $103 million, and 1,228 MT of unshelled 
nuts valued at $783,342. In 1970, production was about 240,000 MT unshelled nuts. Filberts 
range from $125-$150/ton. Major importers are West Germany, USSR, France, Italy, U.K., 
Switzerland, U.S., Lebanon, East Germany, and Syria. The U.S. produces about 9,000 
tons annually in the shell and imports additional quantities.
Energy — Though not usually considered a firewood species, the wood could undoubtedly 
serve such a purpose. Specific gravity of 0.917. The oil potential of nearly ca. 1 MT/ha 
would better be utilized for edible than energy purposes.
Biotic factors — Nuts of some varieties drop freely from husk, while others must be 
removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered 2 to 4 times during the harvest 
season, as they do not all mature at the same time. Those that drop early should not be 
allowed to lie on the ground because of loss to rodents and birds and discoloration or 
moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by spreading them in a thin 
layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually 
require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process, they should be stirred frequently to
122 Handbook of Nuts
prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat should not be higher than 45°C 
— otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried nuts are firm and brittle and 
will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed with the fingers. The 
following fungi are known to cause diseases on European filbert: Anthostoma dubium, 
Apioporthe anómala, Armillaria mellea, Cercospora coryli, Chorostate conjuncta, Ciboria 
amentácea, Coriolus hoehnelii, Cryptospora corylina, Cylindrosporium coryli, Cytospora 
corylicola, C. fuckelii, Diaporthe decedens, D. eres, Diatrype disciformis, D. stigma, 
Diatrypella favacea, D. verrucaeformis, Cryptosporiopsis grisea, Diplodia sarmentorum, 
D. coryli, Fenestella princeps, Fornes annosus, Fumago vagans, Gloeosporium coryli, G. 
perexiguum, Gnomonia amoena, G. coryli, G. gnomon, Gnomoniella coryli, Helmintho- 
sporium macrocarpum, H. velutinum, Helotim fructigenum, Hypoxylon fuscum, H. multi
forme, H. unitum, Labrella coryli, Lachnum hedwigiae, Mamiania coryli, Mamianiella 
coryli, Marasmius foetidus, Melconis sulphurea, Melanomma pulvis-pyrius, Merulius rufus, 
M. serpens, Monostichella coryli, Nectria coryli, N. ditissima, Nitschkia tristis, Orbilia 
crenato-marginata, Peniophora cinerea, Pestalozzia coryli, Pezicula corylina, Phellinus 
punctatus, Phoma suffulta, Phyllactinia corylea, Phyllosticta coryli, Phytophthora cactorum, 
Radulum oribculae, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fructigena, Septoria avellanae, Sillia 
ferruginea, Stereum hirsutum, S. rugosum, Sphaeropsis coryli, Stictis mollis, Taphrina 
coryli, Tyromyces semipileatus, Valsa corylina, and Vuilleminia comedens. European filbert 
trees are attacked by the bacteria, Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Xanthomonas coryli. 
Nematodes isolated from filberts include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera marioni, Lon- 
gidorus maximus, and Pratylenchus penetrans. Few insects attack leaves, branches, or nuts; 
some may cause severe damage unless controlled. Stink bugs and other plant bugs attack 
developing nuts and cause them to be bitter when mature. As these insects breed on various 
plants, as legumes, blackberries, and others, control chiefly depends on orchard sanitation 
and elimination of host plants on which bugs breed.
123
CORYLUS CHINENSIS Franch. (BETULACEAE) — Chinese Filbert 
Syn.: C orylu s co lu m n var. ch in en sis Burk.
Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, used for food, eaten raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as 
flavoring. Plants used for hybridizing, since they are trees relatively resistant to Eastern 
filbert blight.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous tree up to 40 m tall; leaves 10 to 17 cm tall, ovate to ovate- 
oblong, cordate or very oblique at base, glabrous above, pubescent along veins beneath, 
doubly serrate, petioles 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, pubescent and setulose; fruits 4 to 6, clustered; 
involucre, not spiny, constricted above nut, with recurved and more or less forked lobes, 
finely pubescent, not glandular; nuts relatively small, hard-shelled but of high quality.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Chinese filbert, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost, heat, and slope.Som e selections 
are heavy producers. Cultivated, along with its hybrids, in southern Michigan.(2n = 11.
Distribution — China;cultivated in Michigan.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, Chinese 
filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 12.3 dm (mean of 2 cases = 
9.5), annual temperature of 14.7 to 15.0°C (mean of 2 cases = 14.9°C), and pH of 4.9 to 
6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 5.9).®^ Thrives in soils which permit its strong root system to 
penetrate to great depths. Trees resistant to cold, heat, drought, and other hazardous con
ditions of the environment.^^®
Cultivation — Propagated by seeds, but seedlings vary greatly in productivity and bearing 
age. Often hybridized with other species to get larger nuts and more hardy plants. Trees 
produce few or no suckers.
Harvesting — Trees begin to bear fruit in about 8 years, and then continue for a long 
time. Nuts harvested in fall as other filbert tree species. Treatment, drying, and storage 
methods similar to those used for other filberts and hazelnuts.
Yields and economics — Although no exact figures are available for this species, its 
selections and hybrids are said to be heavy producers. No specific production figures for 
this species.
Energy — As a tall tree, this produces better firewood than some of the bushy species 
of Corylus.
Biotic factors — No specific data available for this species, but same precautions should 
be taken as for other filberts. Trees are relatively resistant to Eastern filbert blight.
124 Handbook of Nuts
CO RYLU S COLU RN A L. (BETULACEAE) — Turkish Filbert or Hazelnut, Constantinople 
Nut
Uses — Cultivated for the nuts, the edible kernel used for confections, pastries, and for 
flavoring. Nuts also used roasted or salted, alone or with other nuts. This species is rarely 
cultivated for nuts in North America, but rather as an ornamental and for nursery under
stock.
Folk medicine — Nuts used as a tonic.
Chemistry — According to Hager’s Handbook,*®^ the nuts contain melibiose, manni- 
notriose, raffinose, and stachyose.
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, rarely up to 25 m tall, with regular 
pyramidal head; leaves 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, deeply cordate, rounded, ovate or obovate, 
slightly lobed, doubly serrate, nearly glabrous above, pubescent beneath; petioles 2.5 cm 
long, usually glabbrescent, stipules lanceolate and acuminate; catkins up to 12 cm long, 
pendent; involucre much longer than nut, open at apex, divided almost to base into many 
long-acuminate or linear serrate lobes, densely covered with glandular hairs; nut globose or 
roundish-ovate, about 2 cm long, hard. Flowers late winter to early spring; fruits fall.^^®
Germplsm — Reported from the Near East Center of Diversity, Turkish filbert, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, poor soil, shade, and slo p e .C . colurna var. 
glandulifera DC. has glandular-setose petioles and peduncles, with the lobes of involucre 
less acute and more dentate. Some selectins are heavy producers. Many other named botanical 
varieties, x C. colurnoides C. K. Sch. is a hybrid of C. avellana x C. colurna, grown 
in Germany. (2n =
Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe and southwestern Siberia, south to the 
western Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes from 1,500 to 3,000 m; common 
in Kashmir forests; also found in Afghanistan, Balkan Peninsula, and Rumania. Extensively 
cultivated in Turkey.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry Forest 
Life Zones, Turkish filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 14.7 dm 
(mean of 8 cases = 8.8), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.6°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.0°C), 
and pH of 5.3 to 7.2 (mean of 8 cases = 6.6).®^ A temperate plant, but not quite hardy 
northward into the U.S. and Europe. Thrives on deep, fertile, well-drained soils, in regions 
where summer temperatures are comparatively cool and winters uniform and mild. Winters 
too mild or too severe injure both catkins and wood. Also winters with alternate thawing 
and freezing are injurious. For best cultivation, winter temperatures should not drop below 
- 10°C.2"«
Cultivation — Turkish filbert is propagated from seeds or graftings on seedling stock. 
Since it does not sucker or stool, as do most species of C orylu s, its seedlings are used as 
understocks for horticultural varieties of the European and American species. Trees should 
be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart, except for hybrid varieties, which are small-growing and 
can be planted 3 to 5 m apart. Trees should be planted in late winter or very early spring, 
after danger of severe freezing has passed. The same general methods of planting should 
be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and young trees should be cultivated 
sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before the beginning of tree growth in 
spring and through July. Mulching trees with any type of organic matter is equally as 
satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is applied. In general, the same 
cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. Filberts generally respond 
readily to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation would apply to all conditions. 
On most soils, it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the first year after transplanting. 
Beginning the second year, about 475 gm (1 lb) per tree of a 5-10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should 
be broadcast around tree just before beginning of tree growth. Amount of fertilizer increased
125
475 gm (1 lb) per year until the tenth or twelfth year, and from then on apply about 4.7 kg 
(10 lbs) per tree per year. Prune trees to desirable shape and remove dead or broken branches. 
Since Turkish filberts do not sucker, little attention is given to the trees after they are 
established.^^®
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested in fall. Trees bear every third year, beginning the 
eighth year. However, in Turkey where they are extensively cultivated for the nuts, trees 
yield annually from the fourth year onwards up to the twentieth year. Nuts of Turkish filberts 
are said to be as good in quality as the English hazelnut. Nuts of some varieties drop free 
from husk while others must be removed from husk by hand. Fallen nuts should be gathered 
2 to 4 times during the harvest season as they do not all mature at same time. Those that 
drop early should not be left on ground because of loss by rodents and birds, and because 
of discoloration and moldiness due to wet weather. Nuts should be promptly dried by 
spreading them in a thin layer in a dry place having good air circulation. Nuts dried in an 
unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. During this process the nuts 
should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. Temperature of nuts dried by artificial heat 
should not exceed 46°C (115°F) — otherwise they will not store well. Kernels of fully dried 
nuts are firm and brittle and will break with a sharp snap when hit with a hammer or crushed 
with the fingers.
Yields and economics — No specific data on yields separate from that of other filberts 
cultivated in same areas, as Turkey and southeast Europe. However, some selections are 
said to be very good producers of nuts. Extensively cultivated in Turkey, and to a lesser 
degree in southeast Europe and western Asia, south into temperate Himalayas. Although 
trees are said to yield a good crop, production figures are not separated from production of 
other European or Asiatic filberts.
Energy — Like other members of the genus C orylu s, this holds little promise as an 
energy species, but can provide firewood and seed oils. As a tree species, it can provide 
higher quality firewood than shrubby species of C orylus.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack Turkish filbert: H yposylon 
m ultiform e, L enzites jap ó n ica , M icrosph aeria alni, P hyllactinia corylea, and Pucciniastrum 
coryli. The bacterium P seudom onas colurnae has been isolated from this species. Mycorrhiza 
are necessary in the soil. As staminate and pistillate flowers do not always become fertile 
on the same tree at the same time, and since most filberts are self-unfruitful, for commercial 
production, several varieties should be planted near each other for cross pollination, thus 
assuring good nut production.
126 Handbook of Nuts
CO RYLU S CORNU TA Marsh (BETULACEAE) Beaked Filbert
Syn.: C orylu s rostrata Ait.
Uses — Nuts used for human food and wildlife food; plants used for erosion control and 
cover and for basket splints.
Folk medicine — Ojibwa Indians used a poultice of boiled bark to help close and heal 
wounds; Potawatomi used the inner bark as an astringent.^‘^
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous shrub, 0.6 to 3 m tall, thicket-forming, sometimes a small tree 
to 10 m tall; bark smooth; branchlets pubescent, villous or glabrous, later glabrescent, not 
bristly; leaves 6 to 10 cm long, ovate or narrowly oval, acuminate, cordate or obtuse at 
base, incised-serrate or serrulate on margins, glabrous or with scattered appressed hairs 
above, sparsely pubescent beneath, at least along veins; petioles glandless, 0.4 to 0.8 cm 
long; mature involucral of connate bracts 4 to 7 cm long, densely bristly toward base, usually 
rather abruptly constructed into an elongated beak, cut at summit into narrowly triangular 
lobes; nut ovoid, brown, compressed, striate, 1.2 to 2.3 cm long. Flowers February to May; 
fruits July to September; seed dispersal July to winter.
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, beaked filbert, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, slope, smog, and S02-®^ Among botanical varieties 
are the following: C. cornuta forma inerm is Fern., a form in Quebec with non-bristly 
involucres; C. Cornunta var. californica (A. DC.) Sharp (C. californica (A.DC.) Rose), a 
variety found on the West Coast. (2n = 28.)^^®
Distribution — Native to eastern North America from Newfoundland and Quebec to 
British Columbia, south to Georgia and Missouri, and on the west coast from California 
northward. Cultivated else where.
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, beaked filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.5 to 11.6 dm 
(mean of 10 cases = 6.8), annual temperature of 5.7 to 12.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 8.1°C), 
and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 9 cases = 6.5).^^ Naturally thrives in moist woods and 
thickets, on low hillsides, in rich, well-drained soil. When cultivated, shrubs should be 
planted in soils which are deep, fertile, and well-drained. Heavy clay or silt soils as well 
as coarse, deep sand should be avoided. When planted on poorly drained soils, the shrub 
grows poorly, is subject to winter injury, and bears few nuts.^^®
Cultivation — Most filberts offered for sale by nurserymen have been propagated by 
layering and are on their own roots. Trees or shrubs grown for 1 or 2 years in nursery after 
the layers have been removed from parent stock are preferable to older plants. Some nurs
erymen propagated their stock on Turkish filbert roots that do not produce suckers. This 
rootstock generally outgrows the scion to some extent. Beaked filberts can be propagated 
from seed which has been stratified for 60 to 90 days at 5°C. Germination is hypogeous. 
Natural seed dispersal is chiefly by animals. Stratified seed are planted in spring. However, 
seed may be planted in fall in drills and protected from rodents. Horticultural varieties are 
propagated by suckers, layering, budding or grafting, and cuttings. Filberts of all varieties 
should be planted 5 to 7 m or more apart. In most cases, trees or shrubs are planted in late 
winter or very early spring, after danger of severe freezing is passed. The same general 
methods of planting should be used as for apple or peach trees. Newly transplanted and 
young plants should be cultivated sufficiently to destroy all grass and weed growth before 
the beginning of tree growth in spring and through July. Mulching plants with any type of 
organic matter is equally as satisfactory as cultivation, provided that sufficient mulch is 
applied. In general, the same cultural practices used for peaches are satisfactory for filberts. 
Filberts generally respond favorably to fertilizer applications, although no recommendation 
would apply to all situations. On most soils it is not advisable to apply any fertilizer the
127
first year after transplanting. Beginning the second year, about 475 g (1 lb) per tree of a 5- 
10-5 or 6-6-5 fertilizer should be broadcast around the tree just before the beginning of tree 
growth. The amount of fertilizer is increased 475 g/year until plants are 10 to 12 years old; 
after that, about 4.7 kg per plant is sufficient. Pruning filberts is done to balance top with 
loss of roots in planting operations, to train young trees to desired form, to remove dead, 
broken or diseased branches, or to stimulate moderate growth on new shoots on old trees. 
At planting, tree should be cut back to about 60 cm above the ground, leaving 4 to 6 branches 
to grow. Trees or shrubs should be trained to the central leader form, provided it does not 
mean removal of much wood. The more wood removed from young plants, the later they 
come into bearing; therefore, only necessary pruning should be done. Pruning should be 
done after pollen shedding is over and anthers have fallen. Since beaked filberts or hazelnuts 
tend to sucker, the suckers should be removed promptly and the plant trained to a single 
stem. Suckers should be removed at the point on the trunk or root where they originate; 
cutting them off at surface of soil only increases the number that grow. Suckering operations 
should be done 3 to 4 times a year, as they are easier to remove when young.^^^
Harvesting — Fruits should be gathered by hand from bushes as soon as edges of husks 
turn brown. Fruits should be spread out in a thin layer to dry for a short time, for about 4 
to 6 days. Then husks are removed by flailing. The nuts, which are the commençai seeds, 
may be sown, stratified, or stored. Storage in sealed containers at 5°C will retain some 
viability in C. cornuta for at least 2 years.
Yields and economics — Beaked filberts yield well every 2 to 5 years, and give a light 
crop every year. Great quantities of hazelnuts are gathered each year for local home-use in 
northeastern and northwestern U.S. and Canada. Many more are used as food for wildlife. 
No exact figures are available on production. Hazelnuts are usually sold as mixed nuts, 
especially during the winter months and holidays.^^^
Energy — Probably no more promising than other C ory lus species for energy potential.
Biotic factors — Most filbert varieties are self-unfruitful, even though staminate and 
pistillate catkins are on the same tree or bush. Cross-pollination must be provided for 
satisfactory fruit production. In all plantings, two or more varieties should be included. The 
period of pistillate flowering is usually much longer than that of pollen-shedding on a 
particular variety. Furthermore, pollen on one variety must be shed at the time when pistillate 
flowers of the other variety are receptive. The following fungi are known to attack beaked 
filberts or hazelnut plants: A pioporth e anom ala, C ercospora corylina, C ucurbitaria con- 
globata, D iaporth e decedens, D ia tryp ella m inutispora, G loeosporium coryli, G. rostratum , 
G nom oniella coryli, H ym enochaete agglutinans, M elanconis fla vo viren s, M icrosph aeria 
alni, N ectria coryli, P ezicu la corylina, P hyllactin ia corylea, P hym atotrichum om nivorum , 
P olysporus albellus, P . elegans, P. radiatus, P . stereoides, S eptoria corylina, and Sphaer- 
opsis corylii. Among the insect pests, hazelnut weevil, in severe infestations, may completely 
destroy the crop of nuts. Leaves are preferred food for Japanese beetles, and plants may be 
completely defoliated by them. Filbert bud mite may be a pest problem. For control of all 
pests, consult local State agent.
128 Handbook of Nuts
CORYLUS FEROX Wall. (BETULACEAE) — Himalayan or Tibetan Filbert 
Syn.: Corylus tibetica Ratal, {thibetica) and Corylus ferox var. thibetica Franch.
Uses — Kernel of nut edible, used raw, roasted, or in cookery, and as a flavoring.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous tree to 10 m tall; young branches silky-hairy; leaves 7.5 to 
12.5 cm long, oblong, ovate to obovate-oblong, usually rounded at base, acuminate, doubly 
serrate, glabrous except along veins beneath, 12 to 14 pairs of veins; involucre glabrescent 
to tomentose, forming a spiny bur about 3 cm across, longer than nut, consisting of 2 distinct 
bracts; nuts from about twice in diameter as long to twice as long as wide.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, Himalayan filbert, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost and slope. (2n = 22,28.)^^
Distribution — Native to central and western China to Tibet and central Himalaya, up 
to 3,300 m altitude.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate to Moist Forest Life Zones, Himalayan filbert 
is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0 dm, annual temperature of 14.8°C, and 
pH of 5.5.®^ Thrives in temperate forests on well-drained soils.
Cultivation — This filbert is rarely cultivated, but rather, trees are taken care of in the 
forest. Propagation is by natural distribution of seeds.
Harvesting — Nuts are collected from native trees in the forest in the fall. Drying and 
storage procedures are about the same as for other filberts.
Yields and economics — No yield data available. Locally in central Asia, these filberts 
are gathered and sold in local markets. They do not enter international trade.
Energy — Not a promising energy species.
Biotic factors — No data available.
129
CORYLUS HETEROPHYLLA Fisch. ex Besser (BETULACEAE) — Siberian Filbert
Uses — Kernels of nuts used raw, roasted, cooked, or in confections.
Folk medicine — Reported to be aperitif and digestive.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree to 4 m tall; branchlets pubescent and 
glandular-pilose when young; leaves 5 to 12 cm long and about as wide, orbicular-obovate 
to deltoid-obovate, cordate at base, nearly truncate and abruptly acuminate at apex and with 
a very short point, margins irregularly toothed or incisely serrate, green on both sides, 
glabrous above, pubescent on veins beneath, petioles up to 13 cm long, pubescent and 
glandular-pilose; involucre companulate, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, somewhat longer than nut, 
striate, glandular-setose near base, lobes of bracts entire or sparingly dentate, triangular; 
nuts 1 to 3 in a cluster, at ends of branchlets, on stalks to 3 cm long, subglobose, about 
1.5 cm across. Flowers May; fruits August.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan and Eurosiberian Centers of Diversity, 
Siberian filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope.Several 
botanical varieties are known, and some are cultivated in northern Asia. C. heterophylla 
var. yezoensis Koidz. (C. yezoensis (Koidz.) Nakai) — leaves obovate-orbicular to broadly 
obovate, abruptly short acuminate, rarely glandular-pilose; involucres sparsely glandular- 
pilose; Japan (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu). Other varieties are var. thunbergii Blume, var. 
crista-galli Burkill, var. setchuensis Franch., and var. yunnanensis Franch.®^’^^® (2n = 28.)
Distribution — Native to eastern Siberia, eastern Mongolia, Manchuria, northern China 
(Tschili), Ussuri, Amur, Korea; introduced and cultivated in Japan and France; probably 
elsewhere.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate to Moist through Warm Temperate Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, Siberian filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 12.0 
to 14.7 dm (mean of 2 cases = 13.4), annual temperature of 14.8 to 14.8°C (mean of 2 
cases == 14.8°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).®^ Naturally found along 
woods and on mountain slopes, often forming dense thickets. Thrives in cool temperate 
regions on soil with good drainage.
Cultivation — Modest requirements greatly facilitate cultivation. Propagated from seed, 
usually distributed naturally in the forest, and by suckers. The most elementary care of wild 
stands results in considerable improvement in yield and quality of nuts.^^®
Harvesting — Nuts are probably collected in the fall.
Yields and economics — Nuts harvested commercially in Northern Asia, usually from 
wild plants only. Does not enter international markets; usually marketed locally.
Energy — Not a promising energy species.
Biotic factors — No data available.
130 Handbook of Nuts
CO RYLU S MAXIMA Mill. (BETULACEAE) Giant or Lambert’s Filbert
Syn.: C orylu s tu bu losa Willd.
Uses — Widely cultivated for the nuts in Europe; used as roasted or salted nuts, or as 
flavoring in confections and pastries. Sometimes naturalized, and of some interest as an 
ornamental, especially the red-leaved form, found in parks in the Caucasus. This species is 
considered the progenitor in Europe from which most cultivated filberts have been developed: 
C. avellana is more often called the cobnut.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous shrub or small tree, up to 10 m tall; branches somtimes glabrous, 
mostly stipitate-glandular; leaves 7.5 to 15 cm long, 6 to 10 cm broad, orbicular, cordate 
at base, short-acuminate, slightly lobed, doubly serrate, very often red, pubescent beneath; 
petiole 1 to 2.5 cm long; staminate aments to 10 cm long,l cm in diameter; involucre tubular, 
contracted above the nut, forming a gradually narrowed elongated deeply laciniate husk, 
dentate at apex, finely pubescent outside, lower part fleshy, enveloping nut, splitting at 
maturity; nut ovoid, sometimes subcylindrical, acuminate; kernel with thin red or white 
skin. Flowers March; fruits September.
Germplasm — Reported from the Central Asia and Near East Centers of Diversity, giant 
filbert, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, low pH, and slope. C. maxim a var. 
purpurea Rehd. (C. avellana (var.)pu rpurea Loud., C. m axim a var. atropurpúrea Dochnahl) 
has dark purple-red leaves. There are many varieties with large nuts. Cultivated forms are 
partly hybrids with C. avellana, (2n = 22,28.)^^’^^®
Distribution — Native to southeastern Europe, from Italy and Yugoslavia to Greece, 
Turkey, and western Asia. Widely cultivated elsewhere in Europe and sometimes naturalized. 
Cultivated in Crimea and on the Black Sea Coast for more than a century.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Wet through Warm Temperate Moist to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, the giant filbert is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.3 to 16.7 
dm (mean of 2 cases = 10.5 dm), annual temperature of 9.7 to 14.8°C (mean of 2 cases 
= 12.3°C), and pH of 5.3 to 6.8 (mean of 2 cases = 6.1). Thrives in a cool to warm 
temperate climate under soil and climatic conditions similar to those for C. avellana.
Cultivation — See C orylus am ericana.
Harvesting — The harvesting of nuts begins in September. The beaked involucre must 
be removed by hand, and then the nuts are dried for storage until marketed or used. After 
removing the husk, nuts are spread out to dry in thin layers in a dry place having good air- 
circulation. Nuts dried in an unheated building usually require 4 to 6 weeks for drying. They 
should be stirred frequently to prevent molding. The temperature of nuts dried by artificial 
heat should not be higher than 45°C; otherwise they will not store well.^^®
Yields and economics — The species and its cultivars and hybrids are reported to be 
good producers. Southeastern Europe and southwestern Asia, especially Crimea and the 
Black Sea Region, are major producers. However, this filbert is not separated from the 
Turkish and other filberts grown in the region. Prices vary from $125 to $150/ton for Turkish 
filberts. About 240,000 MT of nuts are produced annually in Turkey and adjacent areas.
Energy — Although not a promising energy species, this is one of the better species of 
C orylus for energy production.
Biotic factors — Fungi known to attack this filbert include: M ycosph aerella puntiform is, 
P hyllactinia corylea, and Sphaeragnm onia carpinea. The bacterium, X anthom onas coryli, 
also attack the plant. In some areas, winter injury may be serious. Pests include: Lecanium 
corni (soft scale) and M yzocallis coryli (aphids).
131
COULA EDULIS Baill. (OLACACEAE) — African Walnut, Gabon Nut, Almond Wood
Uses — The fruits, sold in Cameroon markets, have agreeably edible kernels, resembling 
hazelnuts or chestnuts. They are eaten fresh, boiled in the shell, roasted, boiled, and pounded 
and made into cakes. Some tribes ferment the fruits underground. The timber is red to 
reddish-brown, closegrained, hard, heavy, resistant to water, and immune to insects, e.g., 
termites, through liable to split. Suitable for house posts, railway sleepers, bridge-piles, and 
charcoal, it has been suggested for heavy carpentry, stair treads, doors, turnery, and boat 
and carriage construction. Durable under water, the wood can be used for bridges and 
pilings.T he fruit shells make finger-rings in Nigeria.
Folk medicine — The stomachic bark decoction is used for dysentery in Liberia. Powdered 
bark is used in Equatorial Africa for dressing sores, and in decoctions to stimulate appetite 
and counteract anemia, or in enemas for dysentery. Liberians believe the fruits eliminate 
boils.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 505 calories, 7.9 g protein, 
25.7 g fat, 64.3 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 2.1 g ash, 180 mg Ca, and 269 mg P.®^ 
DalzieF^ and Irvine^"^^ suggest that the oil content is closer to 50 than 25%. The seed fat is 
very high in oleic acid (87 to 95%), with 3% linoleic, and 1.7% palmitic + stearic acids. 
Menninger cites a source suggesting 87% oleic.
Toxicity — Leaves said to be poisonous.W ood can cause allergy or asthma in wood
workers.^'^
Description — Medium-sized tree to 20 m tall and 2 m girth; crown deep, dense; buttresses
132 Handbook of Nuts
slight or none; bark fairly smooth, thin, brownish-green; slash brown or yellow, white and 
resinous in young trees, darkening to pink; young parts reddish-brown-hairy. Leaves 30 x 
8 cm, often rusty, papery, elliptic to oblong-elliptic, glabrous, alternate; tip long-caudate- 
acuminate; base cuneate; midrib slightly raised above; lateral nerves up to 14 pairs, sub
parallel, sunken above and raised below; petiole 2 to 3 cm long, usually twisted, rusty- 
puberulous. Flowers (April to May, October to January) in rusty-brown axillary panicles; 
calyx small, cup-shaped; petals 5, fairly thick; stamens 10. Fruit a drupe, ellipsoid-globose, 
4 X 3 cm, nut-shell hard, rough ca. 4 mm thick, breaking into 3 portions when ripe, difficult 
to break.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity.
Distribution — Sierra Leone to Gabon and Zaire; Liberia, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, 
Nigeria, Cameroon.
Ecology — Reported from evergreen and deciduous forests, gabon nut is estimated to 
range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, 
tolerating annual precipitation of 8 to 35 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 28°C, and pH of 
6.0 to 8.0.
Cultivation — Can be grown as a plantation timber crop with the oil or nut as a by
product.
Harvesting — In Angola, north of the Congo River, the nuts mature from December to 
April.In Nigeria, it flowers January to May, fruiting in August.
Yields and economics — Apparently sold only in Cameroon markets.
Energy — The wood is suitable for charcoal*'*^ and it is so used in Gabon. The extremely 
hard wood has a density of 1.073.
Biotic factors — The wood is termite resistant.
133
CYCAS CIRCINALIS L. (CYCADACEAE) — Cica, Crazier Cycas 
Uses — Speaking of Cycads in general, Egolf (in Menninger^®’) says
Cycad nuts are rather large, many of them an inch across. They are fat and rounded, full of 
starch, and mostly covered by a brilliant orange or reddish outer coat. They look as if they 
are meant to be good to eat. The poisonous substance in Cycads is soluble in water. It can 
be leached from the nuts or from the starchy center of the trunk by water, rendering them 
fit to eat. It is impossible now to tell what primitive genius first discovered that such tempting 
nuts could be made free of their poison. Perhaps some tribesman, wits sharpened by hunger, 
found that Cycad nuts shed into a jungle pool, partially decomposed by water, could be eaten 
whereas those fresh from the plant could not. Where the nuts are eaten they may be treated 
whole, with repeated changes of water, and then beaten to a flour for cooking, or the raw 
nuts may be beaten and the pulp washed in water and strained through a cloth . . . However 
it happened, in nearly every tropical country where Cycads grow men sooner or later found 
they could use the nuts for food. They are not an important staple, because nowhere do 
Cycads grow in dense profusion, but in times of famine, when there is little else to eat, they 
are as welcome as the finest delicacy.
In Guam, they eat the green husk, fresh or dried, or they cut, soak, and sun-dry it. Indians 
eat the fruit with sugar. In Java, Sumatra, Sri Lanka, and the Phillipines, the shoots and 
leaves are used as a potherb. In Fiji they boil the kernels until they are soft. Indochinese 
pound, soak, settle, and dry the kernels. Africans split the seeds, sun dry them for ca. 4 
days, ferment them in a tin with banana leaves for a week, remove the mold, soak another 
day, pulverize, and use as a porridge.Sap from the kernels has been said to be given to 
children in the Celebes for “ population control.” Crushed seed also used to poison fish. A 
gum can be extracted from breaks in the megasporophylls.^*^ Surface fibers from the leaves 
have been made into cloth.
Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, narcotic, and poison, C. circinalis is a 
folk remedy for nausea, sores, swellings, and thirst. Terminal buds are crushed in rice-water 
for adenitis, furuncles, and ulcerous sores. Seeds are applied to malignant and varicose 
wounds and ulcers. Seeds are squeezed and grafted onto tropical ulcers in Guam. The gum 
is used for snakebite in India. Filipinos roast and grate the seeds, applying them in coconut 
oil to boils, itch, and wounds. Indians poultice the female cones onto nephritic pain, using 
the male bracts as aphrodisiac, anodyne, and narcotic. The gum, which expands many times 
in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers. The gum 
also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite.
Chemistry — Seeds contain ca. 31% starch,-2 toxic glycoside, pakoeine, phytosterin, 
and a reducing sugar.^° The pollen is said to be narcotic. Seeds possess antibiotic activity. 
Sequoyitol is also reported, as is alpha-amino-beta-methylaminopropionic acid.
Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts. Many of 
Captain’s Cook’s voyagers vomited following the ingestion of cycad nuts. Symptoms of 
poisoning include headache, violent retching, vertigo, swelling of the stomach and legs, 
depression, stupor, euphoria, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, tenesmus, muscle paralysis, and 
rheumatism.
Description — Evergreen ornamental shrub or small tree to 6 m tall, unbranched except 
by accident, such as cutting of apex. Trunk stout with hard outer layer like bark, light 
brown-gray, slightly scaly, becoming slightly fissured. Leaves apically crowded with stout 
axis with 2 rows of short spines replacing leaflets toward base. Leaflets thick, stiff, hairless, 
mostly opposite, 15 to 30 cm long, 1 to 2 cm broad, straight or curved, long-pointed at 
apex, with prominent yellowish midvein, but without other visible veins. Male cones large, 
brown, hard, and woody. Female trees produce a ring of light-brown wooly fertile leaves 
6 to 12 inches long. Each leaf bears in notches along the axis 4 to 10 naked elliptic or nut
like seeds, hard with thin outer flesh.
134 Handbook of Nuts
Germplasm — Reported from the African and Indochina-Indonesian Centers of Diversity, 
cica, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate some shade and waterlogging.
Distribution — Old World Tropics, Native from Tropical Africa through southern Asia 
and Pacific Islands. Pantropically introduced.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to 
Wet Forest Life Zones, cica is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50 dm, 
annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Hardy to Zone 10b.
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily 
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at 
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are 
harvested from older trees.
Yields and economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding 
about as much starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction of starch 
from the seeds is said to be more economical.
Energy — Since felling these trees is fatal, they are rarely, if ever, used as energy sources.
Biotic factors — No data available.
135
CYCAS REVOLUTA Thunb. (CYCADACEAE) — Cycad Nut, Sotesu Nut
Uses—(see Cycas circinalis.) Exported from Japan as an ornamental, used in Japan for 
bonsai. According to Thieret,^*^ the fleshy testa (sweet and mucilaginous) and the starchy 
kernels are both eaten. The roasted kernels, like so many other nondescripts, are said to 
taste like chestnuts. Seeds are eaten by the Annamese of China, though preparation is tough. 
Japanese use the young leaves as a potherb,and the cycad meal as a food extender and 
for the preparation of sake, the sake called doku sake, or poisonous sake. A sago starch is 
extracted from the pith and cortex of the stem before fruiting. It has been said, perhaps 
exaggerated, that a small portion of the pith can support life for a long time. Gum is extracted 
from wounds on the megasporophylls.^’^ Surface fibers from the leaves have been made 
into cloth. Leaves are used for funeral decorations.^^
Folk medicine — Reported to be emmenagogue, expectorant, fattening, and tonic, C. 
revoluta is a folk remedy for hepatoma and tumors.^' The down from the inflorescence has 
been used as a styptic, the terminal shoot as astringent, and diuretic. Seeds used as astringent, 
emmenagogue, expectorant, and tonic, used for rheumatism.*^ “ The products extracted from 
the seeds are useful to inhibit growth of malignant tumors. The gum, which expands 
many times in water, is said to produce rapid suppuration when applied to malignant ulcers. 
The gum also has a reputation for treating bugbite and snakebite.
Chemistry — Thieret^’^ reports the kernels contain 12 to 14% CP and 66 to 70% starch. 
Whiting^^* reports that fresh kernels contain 7% protein, 33% starch, dry kernels 12% protein, 
60% starch, the pith 7 and 41, the fresh outer husk of the seed 4 and 21, the dry outer husk 
10% protein, and 46% starch. Airdry stems contain 44.5% starch and 9.15% CP. Male 
plants run 27 to 61% starch, averaging over 50% over the year; female stems average only 
26%. Root nodules contain about 18% starch. Formaldehyde is reported from the kernels, 
but cycasin (C8H16O7N2) is probably the culprit, in both nuts and pith. Thieret^^ reports that 
the testa contains ca. 4% oil, the seeds 20 to 23.5% oil (an oil used during crises on Okinawa 
during World War II). Duke and Ayensu^ report the seeds (ZMB) contain 13.9 to 15.4 g 
protein, and 0.9 to 1.0 g fat. Also reported to contain 14% crude protein, 68% soluble non- 
nitrogenous substances, and 0.16 to 0.22% combined formaldehyde, 90% of which can be 
washed out with water. Seeds may yield 20.44% fat, the component fatty acids of which 
are palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and a small amount of behenic-acid. Seeds contain 0.2 to 
0.3% neocycasin A, neocycasin B, and macrozamin, and cycasin. Trunk contains mucilage 
with xylose, glucose, and galactose. The wax composition is detailed in Hager’s Hand
book.'*^ Cycasin is carcinogenic to pigs and rats if ingested orally.*^ It also induces chro
mosomal aberrations in onion root tips.
Caution — FATALITIES are attributed to eating improperly prepared nuts.
Description — Trunk 1.8 m, densely clothed with the old leaf-bases. Leaves 0.6 to 1.8 
m long; petiole thick, quadrangular; leaflets narrow, margin re volute. Carpophylls 10 to 23 
cm long, blade ovate, laciniate nearly to midrib, stalk longer than blade, with 4 to 6 ovules. 
Immature seed densely tomentose.'^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Sino-Japanese Center of Diversity, this cycad, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, floods, poor soil, slope, and typhoons.
Distribution — China, S. Japan, Formosa, Tonkin. Cultivated in Indian gardens.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) to Wet through 
Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life zones, C. revoluta is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation 
of 8 to 40 dm, annual temperature of 17 to 25°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.5. Tolerates the poorer 
steep soils of the Ryukyu’s. Hardy to Zone 9.^"^^
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily 
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at
136 Handbook of Nuts
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are 
harvested from older trees.
Yields and economics — Thieret^'^ reported that an estimated 3 million cycas leaves 
with a gross value of ca. $30,000 were imported annually to the U.S.
Energy — Since felled trees do not coppice, these trees are rarely, if ever, used as energy 
sources.
Biotic factors — In the Ryukyu Islands, the poisonous habu viper nests in the top of this 
cycad.
137
CYCAS RUMPHII Miq. (CYCADACEAE) — Pakoo Adji, Pakis Adji, Pahoo Hadji, Akor
Uses — (See Cyas circinalis.) A well-known oriental ornamental, this fem-like tree is 
often planted, e.g., in cemeteries. The young shoots, shortly before unfolding, are cooked 
as a potherb, often with fish. Eating too much is said to cause rheumatism. The poisonous 
nuts are rendered edible by various types of elaborate processing. Steeping in water seems 
to be one of the most common methods of preparation. In the Moluccas, a delicacy is made 
by cutting the kernels into bars, putting them in a porous bag, and steeping in sea-water for 
a few days. Then the bars are sun dried, pulverized in a basket, and mixed with brown 
sugar and coconut. The starchy pith and cortex of the stem may be eaten after cooking. 
Stems for “ sago” starch should be harvested before fruiting. Gums are extracted from 
wounded megasporophylls.^*^ Stems are used in Indonesia to build small houses.
Folk medicine — A folk remedy for colic in Java.^‘ The resin is applied to malignant 
ulcers, exciting suppuration in an incredibly short time. In Cambodia, the leafless bulb is 
brayed in water, rice-water, or water holding fine particles of clay in suspension, and applied 
to ulcerated wounds, swollen glands, and boils. The gum also has a reputation for treating 
bugbite and snakebite.
Chemistry — Probably parallels that of Cycas revoluta.
Description — Small, dioecious gummiferous tree, 1 to 6 m high, rarely higher. Trunk 
terete, armored by the persistent petiole bases. Leaves in a dense terminal whorl, glabrous, 
shortly petioled, pinnate, with 50 to 150 pairs patent leaflets, glaucous, shining above, 1.5 
to 2.5 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, usually somewhat recurved; 1-nerved; the central 
leaflets 20 to 35 cm long, 1 to 2 cm wide, the lower ones gradually shorter and narrower; 
armed on the edges. Male cone stalked, oblong-ellipsoid, yellowish-brown, 30 to 70 cm 
long, 12 to 17 cm wide, with numerous spirally arranged stamens; stamens cuneate with 
upcurved acuminate tips, 3.5 to 6 cm long; the higher ones smaller, anantherous. Female 
cone terminal, after anthesis producing new leaves at the apex; carpophylls numerous, densely 
crowded, densely yellowish-brown tomentose along the edges with 2 to 9 big, short ovules, 
25 to 50 cm long; tips of the carpophylls oblong, serrate, terminated by a long, entire, 
upcurved point. Seeds ellipsoid or ovoid-ellipsoid, orange when ripe, 3 to 6 cm long, 2.5 
to 5 cm diam.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian and Australian Centers of 
Diversity.
138 Handbook of Nuts
Distribution — Burma, Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars, Moluccas, New Guinea, and N. 
Australia, cultivated in India.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to 
Wet Forest Life Zones, C. rumphii is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 50 
dm, annual temperature of 21 to 26°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated for food, more often cultivated as an ornamental. Easily 
propagated from suckers or sprouts at the base of parent plants. Grows slowly.
Harvesting — For sago starch, the trunks should be felled before fruiting (usually at 
about 7 years). Since the felling of the trunk precludes fruiting, it follows that seeds are 
harvested from older trees.
Yields and Economics — A cycas is said to produce annually ca. 550 seeds, yielding 
about as much renewable starch (ca. 2 kg) as an irreplaceable stem ca. 1 m long. Extraction 
of starch from the seeds is hence said to be more economical.
Energy — Rarely, if ever, used as energy sources.
Biotic Factors — No data available.
139
CYPERUS ESCULENTUS L. (CYPERACEAE) — Tigemut, Yellow Nutsedge, Chufa
Uses — Grown for the edible tubers, eaten when dry, raw, boiled, or roasted. Juice 
pressed from fresh tubers is consumed in quantities in Europe, especially in Spain, as a 
beverage, called Horchata de Chufas; sometimes it is chilled or frozen. Nuts used as substitute 
for coffee; or for almonds in confectionery, or made into a kind of chocolate. In Africa, 
nuts used in the form of milk pap, made by grinding fresh nuts fine and straining; then 
boiling with wheat flour and sugar. Roasted nuts are ground and sieved to produce a fine 
meal, a high caloric value, which is added along with sugar and other ingredients to water 
as a beverage, or even eaten dry. Oil used for soap-making.^^* Used as a famine food.^^^ 
The haulm is grazed by stock, plaited into rough ropes in Lesotho, and is suitable for making 
paper pulp.^^ Tubers are relished by hogs, which are used to suppress the plant when it 
becomes w e e d y .It has already infested more than 1,000,000 ha in the eastern U.S.*^^ 
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the tubers are used in folk remedies for 
felons and cancers. Reported to be aphrodisiac, astringent, CNS-sedative, CNS-tonic, dia
phoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, excitant, lactagog, pectoral, puerperium, re
frigerant, sedative, stimulant, stomachic, sweetener, and tonic, tigemut is a folk remedy for
140 Handbook of Nuts
abscess, boils, cancer, colds, colic, felons, and flux.^* Medicinally, tubers are stimulant 
and aphrodisiac.Decoction of rhizomes (including tubers) taken in Senegal for stomach 
troubles; leaves poulticed onto forehead for migraine. In Lesotho, heavy consumption said 
to cause constipation.^^ Young Zulu girls eat porridge mixed with a handful of boiled, 
mashed root to hasten the inception of menstruation. Root chewed by the Zulu for relief of 
indigestion, especially when accompanied by halitosis.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) is reported to contain 461 to 476 calories, 5.5 
to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1 to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber, 
1.9 to 2.8 g ash, 39.4 to 87.5 mg Ca, 230 to 321 mg P, 3.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44 
mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg niacin, and 4.7 mg ascorbic acid.*^ Tubers contain 
20 to 36% of a nondrying, pleasant tasting edible oil, similar to olive oil.^^^ Another analysis 
of tubers reported 14.15% moisture, 25.82% oil, 5.21% albuminoids, 22.72% starch, 24.79% 
digestible carbohydrates, 5.83% fiber, 1.48% mineral matter. The oil is reported to contain 
17.1% saturated acids and 75.8% unsaturated acids. The component fatty acids are: 0.01% 
myristic, 11.8% palmitic, 5.2% stearic, 0.5% arachidic, 0.3% linoceric, 73.3% oleic, and 
5.9% linoleic.^® Burkill'^^ reports the oil to be 73% oleic acid, 12 to 13% palmitic acid, 6 
to 8% linoleic acid, 5 to 6% stearic acid. Raw tubers of the genus C yperus have been 
reported to contain per 100 g, 302 calories, 36.5% moisture, 3.5 g protein, 12.7 g fat, 46.1 
g carbohydrate, 7.4 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 25 mg calcium, 204 mg phosphorus, 8.0 mg iron, 
0.28 mg thiamine, 0.09 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid. Dried tubers 
are reported to contain 452 calories, 11.8% moisture, 4.0 g protein, 25.3 g fat, 56.9 g 
carbohydrate, 4.7 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 48 mg calcium, 212 mg phosphorus, 3.2 mg iron, 
0.23 mg thiamine, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 1.1 mg niacin, and 6 mg ascorbic acid.^^
Toxicity — Contains cineole, hydrocyanic acid, and myristic acid.^^
Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with creeping thread-like rhizomes 1 to 
1.5 mm thick; some forms have tuber-like thickenings on rhizomes, these plants rarely 
flower. Tubers 1 to 2 cm long, roots fibrous; culms erect, 2 to 9 dm tall, simple, triangular. 
Leaves several, 3-ranked, pale green, 4 to 9 mm wide, about as long as culm, with closed 
sheaths mostly basal. Umbel terminal, simple or compound, the longest involucral leaf much 
exceeding the umbel; spikelets 0.5 to 3 cm long, 1.5 to 3 mm broad, yellowish to golden- 
brown, strongly flattened, mostly 4-ranked, occasionally 2-ranked, along the wing-angled 
rachis, blunt, tip acute to round; scales thin, oblong, obtuse, distinctly veined, thin, dry at 
tip, 2.3 to 3 mm long. Achene yellowish-brown, 3-angled, lustrous, ellipsoid or linear to 
oblong-cylindric, rounded at summit, 1.2 to 1.5 mm long, granular-streaked. Flowers July 
to September, fruiting through December in extreme south; various in other parts of the 
world.
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, tigemut, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soil, laterite, salt, sand, virus, weeds, and waterlogging, 
but not shade.Several botanical varieties are recognized. Two varieties in the U.S. are 
C. esculentus var. angustispicatus Britt., with spikelets less than 2 mm wide, tapering to 
slender points, and C. esculentus var. m acrostachys Boeckl., with spikelets 2 to 3 mm wide, 
uniformly linear and rounded at apex.^^® (2n = 18, 108.)
Distribution — Cosmopolitan, distributed in tropics, subtropics, and warmer temperate 
regions of world, up to 2,000 m in some areas. Much cultivated in coastal regions of Ghana 
and in some Mediterranean regions.Listed as a serious weed in Angola, Canada, Kenya, 
Malagasy, Mozambique, Peru, South Africa, Tanzania, U.S., and Zimbabwe, a principal 
weed in Australia, Hawaii, India, Mexico, and Switzerland, and a common weed in Ar
gentina, Iran, Portugal.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, tigemut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 1.8 to 27.8 
dm (mean of 35 cases = 10.8), annual temperature of 6.9 to 27.5°C (mean of 34 cases =
141
18.6°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.0 (mean of 29 cases = 6.3).^^ Common in wet soil, often a 
weed in cultivated fields and pastures. Often locally abundant and weedy in sandy disturbed, 
unstable, or loamy soil. Tolerant of nearly any climatic or soil situation, provided there is 
sufficient water. Often limited to low, poorly drained areas in fields.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^ 
According to Holm et al.,^^^ the species grows very well “ on all soil types” ; including 
black peat soils, and performs equally well at pH ranges from 5 to 7. More ecological data 
are reported by Holm et al.‘^^
Cultivation — Reproduces by seeds and weak thread-like stolons. Propagated in spring 
by planting small tubers or chufas, similar to potatoes. Crop requires no cultivation or 
fertilizers.
Harvesting — Tubers are harvested 5 to 6 months after planting. Two crops can be 
attained in rainy season. Chufa Oil is obtained by pressing cleaned tubers.
Yields and economics — One tuber weighing 200 mg can produce 36 plants and 332 
tubers in 16 weeks, 1,900 plants and 7,000 tubers in one year. Holm et al.*^^ report as much 
as 18 MT/ha tubers in the top 45 cm soil, with perhaps 30,000,000 tubers per hectare. 
Yields of 800 kg root per hectare in 4 to 6 months have been rep o rted .Cyperus esculentus 
is a serious weed in sugarcane in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, South Africa, and Swaziland; of 
com in Angola, South Africa, Tanzania, and the U.S.; of cotton in Mozambique, the U.S., 
and Zimbabwe; of soybeans in Canada and the U.S.; and of potatoes in Canada, South 
Africa, and the U.S. More data are presented by Holm et
Energy — Although 18 MT tubers/ha might sound like good energy potential, it takes a 
lot of energy to harvest them. Perhaps it is energetically wise to let pigs do the harvesting. 
Leaving a field fallow 4 years has reduced tuber numbers significantly (912 to 7 per 30 
cm^), the equivalent of 21 to 1.6 MT/ha.Savel’eva et al.^^^ have considered this as a 
possible raw material for industry in Russia.
Biotic factors — Bees visit the flowers in Sierra Leone as a source of pollen.The insect 
Bactra verutana is of interest for biocontrol of the chufa weed. Chufa is an alternative host 
of the vims which produces lucerne dwarf. The following fungi have been reported on 
yellow nutsedge: Aspergillus niger, Puccinia canaliculata, P. conclusa, and P. romagno- 
liana. Nematodes isolated include: Caconema radicicola, Heterodera cyperi, Meloidogyne 
arenaria, and M. In addition, Ascochyta sp. and Phyllachora cyperi have
been reported.^
142 Handbook of Nuts
CYPER U S R O T U N D U S L. (CYPERACEAE) Purple nutsedge
Uses — Considered the number one weed in many parts of the world,this sedge has 
still been suggested as a landscape plant in China, and as a soil binder in India. Tuberous 
rhizome, eaten in many areas as vegetable or chewed on, may be regarded as a famine food. 
Plants used as fodder for cattle in West Africa and India. Tubers fed to pigs. Used as bait 
for catching rats in Tanganyika. The tuber is burnt as a perfume in Tripoli. In Asia and 
West Africa, the essential oil obtained from tubers, is used as a perfume for clothing and 
to repel insects, probably due to the camphoraceous odor.^^^^^^^^
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,purple nutsedge is used in folk remedies for 
phymata, abdominal tumors, glandular tumors, hard tumors, indurations of the stomach, 
liver, spleen, and uterus, and cervical cancer. Reported to be alterative, analgesic, anodyne, 
anthelmintic, antihistamine, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericide, carminative, demulcent, 
diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient, fungistatic, lactagogue, stimulant, sto
machic, tonic, tranquilizer, vasodilator, vermifuge, and vulnerary, purple nutsedge is a folk 
remedy for abdominal ailments, amenorrhea, ascites, bladder ailments, bowel ailments, 
cancer of the cervix, chest ailments, cholera, circulation, colds, congestion, depression, 
diarrhea, dysentery, dysmenorrhea, dyspepsia, fever, headache, hemicrania, hypertension, 
impotence, inflammation, metritis, metroxenia, scorpion bites, snake bites, sores, stomach 
ailments, stomach-ache, toothaches, trauma, tumors of the abdomen, ulcers, and wounds.
In Mali the tubers are taken as an aphrodisiac. Made into a cough medicine for children. 
Used in Africa and Asia for urinary troubles, indigestion, childbirth, jaundice, malaria, and 
many other conditions.Plant used in Vietnam as a diuretic, emmenagogue, headache 
remedy, and for uterine hemorrhage. The tuber is given to women in childbirth in Indo
china. The fresh tuber, made into a paste or warm plaster, is applied to the breast with 
galactagogic intent, and, in a dry state to spreading ulcers, in the Indian Peninsula.The 
tuber, in the form of ghees, powders, bolmes, and enemas is used as a folk remedy for 
abdominal tumors. In Ghana, an infusion of the plant is given for cattle poisoning due to 
Ipom oea repens
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the edible tuber should resemble that of C yperus esculentus, 
which (ZMB) contains 461 to 476 calories, 5.5 to 6.5 g protein, 20.0 to 27.4 g fat, 65.1 
to 72.6 g total carbohydrate, 10.5 to 11.7 g fiber, 1.9 to 2.4 g ash, 29 to 88 mg Ca, 230 
to 321 mg P, 2.6 to 12.6 mg Fe, 0.13 to 0.44 mg thiamine, 0.14 mg riboflavin, 2.05 mg 
niacin, and 5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Tubers of C yperus rotundus include 0.5 to 1.0% essential 
oil, 0.21 to 0.24% alkaloid, 0.62 to 0.74% cardiac glycosides, 1.25% flavonoids, 1.62% 
polyphenols, 13.22% saccharides, 9.2% starch, 3.72% pectin, 4.21% resin, and 3.25% total 
acids (mostly malic), 0.009% vitamin C. In the essential oil, one finds cyperene-1, cyperene- 
2, patchoulene (CJ5H22O), mutacone (C15H22O), beta-seliene, beta-cyperone, cyperenone, 
1,8-cineole, limonene, beta-pinene, p-cymol, camphene, isocyperol (C,5H240). The fatty 
oil contains glycerol, linolenic, linoleic, oleic, myristic, and possibly stearic acid. The tuber 
also contains a substance capable of dissolving several times its weight in lecithin (and other 
items which cause urinary calculi). Molasses extracted from the tuber contains 41.7% d- 
glucose, 9.3% d-fructose, and 4% nonreducing sugars.Salicylic acid may be extracted 
from leaves and sprouted tubers.
Description — Perennial herb, forming colonies with long, slender, creeping rhizomes, 
about 1 mm thick, with tuber-like thickenings at intervals, to 1 cm thick; culms slender, 8 
to 60 cm tall, simple, smooth, triangular, longer than leaves. Leaves 2 to 6 mm wide, 
crowded in the basal few centimeters, usually spreading. Inflorescence of simple or slightly 
compound umbels, 3 to 11 cm long, on 3 to 8 extremely unequal peduncles, each bearing 
a cluster of 3 to 9 divaricate spikelets; spikelets 0.8 to 2.5 cm long, chestnut-brown to 
chestnut-purple, acute 12- to 40-flowered; bracts usually 3 or 4, about as long as inflores
143
cence; scales keeled, straight, ovate, closely appressed, nerveless except on keel, 2 to 3.5 
mm long, bluntish. Achene linear-oblong, 1.5 mm long, 3-angled, basally and apically 
obtuse, granular, dull, olive-gray to brown, covered with a network of gray lines. Flowers 
July to October or December; January to April in southern hemisphere.
Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian and North American Centers of Diver
sity, purple nutsedge, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, heat, high pH, insects, 
laterite, low pH, salt, and weeds. (2n = 108.)®^ Several ecotypes are recognized. Types 
are described from India with the following variation in glume color: (1) yellowish-white, 
(2) light-red, (3) coppery-red with metallic luster, and (4) dark-red with blackish tinge.
Distribution — Native to Europe, Japan, and North America; widespread in all tropical, 
subtropical, and warm temperate regions of the world.C. rotundas has been reported 
from more countries, regions, and localities than any other weed in the world.
Ecology — Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Desert to Wet Forest Life Zones, 
purple nutsedge is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.0 to 46.1 dm (mean of 192 
cases = 16.9), annual temperature of 0.0 to 28.6°C (mean of 156 cases = 20.2), and pH 
of 4.3 to 9.1 (mean of 75 cases = 6.4).^^ Continuous shading reduces tuber and bulb 
formation by 10 to 57%. Tubers cannot survive more than 10 days at 45°C or 30 min at 
60°C. Tubers held at 50°C more than 48 hr no longer germinate. Exposure to — 4°C for 8 
hr does not impair viability. Tubers, when dug, contain about 50% moisture. They cannot 
survive when the level falls below 12 to 15%. Some tubers held in water for 200 days still 
germinate satisfactorily when removed from water and placed under suitable growing con
ditions. Thrives in loamy or sandy soil anywhere; in many places up to 2,000 m altitude. 
In wastelands, gardens, waysides, and in open spots; a troublesome weed in cultivated fields. 
Requires a warm climate, no colder than the southern U.S., especially the Cotton Belt.^^® 
According to Holm et al.^^^ it seems limited by cold temperatures, but other than this, it 
grows in almost every soil type, elevation, humidity, soil moisture, and pH, but it cannot 
stand soils with high salt content. It can survive the highest temperatures known in agriculture. 
Also found on roadsides, in neglected areas, at the edges of woods, sometimes covering 
banks of irrigation canals and streams. Nutsedge can take over entire streams or canals as 
water becomes low. When water supply is low, it may become a problem in paddy rice in 
which puddling of the soil cannot be done thoroughly.
Cultivation — Propagated by seed and tuber-bearing rhizomes. Because it grows so 
profusely, it is considered more a weed than a plant to be cultivated.
Harvesting — Plants are harvested from native or naturalized stands. In Africa and Asia 
it is harvested on a small scale for the oil, but in most areas it is allowed to grow wild.^^® 
Flowering has been reported as early as 3 weeks in Israel and India, and 4 weeks in Trinidad, 
with tuber formation occurring at 3 weeks in Hawaii, India, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and the 
southern U.S. In Israel, clipping every 2 weeks reduced tuber numbers by 60% and weight 
by 85%.'^^
Yields and economics — ''C yperus rotundas may produce up to 40,000 kilograms of 
subterranean plant material per hectare.” In Mauritius, there may be 30 MT green tops and 
tubers, withdrawing 815 kg/ha ammonium sulfate, 320 kg/ha muriate of potash, and 200 
kg of superphosphate. In Argentina, the weed can reduce sugarcane harvested by 75%, the 
sugar yield by 65%. Allowed to remain in corn-fields for 10 days in Colombia, it reduces 
yield by 10%, 30% in 30 days, suggesting a percentage loss for each day it is allowed to 
remain.
Energy — The 40 tons of underground plant material, convertible to energy, is perhaps 
most efficiently harvested by grubbing pigs.
Biotic factors — C yperus rotundas is an alternate host of Fusarium sp. and P uccinia 
canaliculata, of abaca mosaic virus, and of the nematodes M eloidogyne sp. and R otylenchus 
sim ilis. The nutgrass moth, B actra traculenta, which bores into the stems of C yperus
144 Handbook of Nuts
rotundas, showed promise for biological control in Hawaii in the early years after its 
introduction from the Phillippines in 1925. As the populations of B actra increased, so also 
did those of the insect Trichogram m a m inutum , which parasitizes the eggs of many moths 
and butterflies. So many of the eggs of B actra were killed that biological control of nutgrass 
was never attained. The jack bean, C anavalia ensiform is, greatly inhibits tuber formation.
In addition, C intractia m inor, P hyllachora cyperi, P uccinia cyperia, R hizoctonia solanP 
and C intractia peribebu gen sis, H im atia stellifera, and P uccinia cyperi-tergetiformis^^^ are 
reported.
145
DETARIUM SENEGALENSE J. F. Gmel. (CAESALPINIACEAE) Tallow Tree
Syn.: D, heudelotianum Baill.
Uses — The only seeds and the pulp around them are used as food sources in Africa. 
The pulp can be made into a sweetmeat. The oily kernels, little eaten by humans, are beaten 
into cattle fodder by the Nupe. Ashes of the fruits are used to prepare a snuff. Seeds are 
used for necklaces and girdles. An aromatic resin, exuding from the trunk, is used to fumigate 
African huts and garments. The resin is used as a masticatory and to mend pottery. The 
wood is used for planks and boat-building in Liberia and sold in England as African Ma
hogany. Roots are boiled on the Gold Coast to prepare a bird-lime. Seeds are burned to 
repel mosquitoes.^^’^^^
Folk medicine — Senegalese use the wood decoction for anemia and cachexia. In Sierra 
Leone, young shoots are boiled as a febrifuge. Liberians use the bark decoction for placental 
retention. In French Guinea, the bark is boiled to make a lotion for itch. Nigerians use the 
seed for people inflicted with wounds by poisoned arrows. In Ghana, the fruit is used for 
rubbing chronic backache or tuberculosis of the spine. Fruits are used for chest ailments in 
West Africa.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the raw fruit is reported to contain 116 calories, 66.9% moisture, 
1.9 g protein, 0.4 g fat, 29.6 g carbohydrates, 2.3 g fiber, 1.2 g ash, 27 mg calcium, 48 
mg phosphorus, 0.14 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin, 0.6 mg niacin, and 1,290 mg ascorbic 
acid. Dried fruit contains, per 100 g, 299 calories, 14.0% moisture, 3.4 g protein, 0.5 g 
fat, 78.8 g carbohydrate, 7.1 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 110 mg calcium, 0.01 mg thiamine, 0.03 
mg riboflavin, 3.8 mg niacin, and 3 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Detaric acid has been isolated from
146 Handbook of Nuts
the fruits.According to Hager’s Handbook,'*^ the fruits are among the highest in the 
world for vitamin C. The figures above suggest that might be true, but the vitamin C is lost 
in drying. Other sources hint that the seeds or fruits are poisonous.
Description — Tree to nearly 40 m tall, smaller in savanna, with large crown, girth 12 
m, bole 12 m; slash pale-salmon, bark bluish, exuding a slightly fragrant gum or gum-resin, 
twigs rusty. Leaves pinnate, more or less gland-punctuate; leaflets 6 to 12, leathery and 
rather glaucous or minutely pubescent below, with numerous parallel lateral nerves. Flowers 
in fragrant creamy axillary panicles, shorter than leaves, flowers small, profuse, sepals 4, 
white, petals absent, stamens 10, buds glabrous or nearly so, ca. 4 mm long, sepals pubescent 
within. Fruits round, succulent, like flattened mango, >6 cm in diameter, skin smooth, 
crustaceous, with intermediate fibrous layer. Flowers May to August; fruits December to 
January; Ghana.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, tallow tree, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate drought and savanna. The savanna form (senegalense) is smaller than 
the closed forest form (heudelotianum). Seeds of the latter are more likely to be poisonous.
Distribution — Throughout west Tropical Africa.
Ecology — A tree of the Closed Forest and Fringing Forests of moister savannas.^'
Cultivation — Apparently cultivated only to a limited extent in Senegal.
Harvesting — No data available.
Yieds and economics — No data available.
Energy — The wood bums slowly and is favored as a fuel because of the agreeable 
odor.^
Biotic factors — The heartwood is probably resistant to borers and termites.^*
147
ELAEIS GUINEENSIS Jacq. (ARECACEAE [PALMAE]) African Oil Palm
Syn.: Elaeis melanococca J. Gaertn.
Uses — Two kinds of oil are obtained from this palm, palm oil and palm kernel oil. Palm 
oil is extracted from the fleshy mesocarp of the fruit, which contains 45 to 55% oil which 
varies from light-yellow to orange-red in color, and melts from 25° to 50°C. For edible fat 
manufacture, the oil is bleached. Palm oil contains saturated palmitic acid, oleic acid, and 
linoleic acid, giving it a higher unsaturated acid content than palm kernel or coconut oils. 
Palm oil is used for manufacture of soaps and candles, and more recently, in manufacture 
of margarine and cooking fats. Palm oil is used extensively in the tin plate industry, protecting 
cleaned iron surfaces before the tin is applied. Oil is also used as lubricant in the textile 
and rubber industries. Palm kernel oil is extracted from the kernel of endosperm, and contains 
about 50% oil. Similar to coconut oil, with a high content of saturated acids, mainly lauric, 
it is solid at normal temperatures in temperate area, and is nearly colorless, varying from 
white to slightly yellow. This nondrying oil is used in edible fats, in making ice cream and 
mayonnaise, in baked goods and confectioneries, and in the manufacture of soaps and 
detergents. Press-cake, after extraction of oil from the kernels, is used as livestock feed, 
and contains 5 to 8% oil. Palm wine is made from the sap obtained by tapping the male 
inflorescence. The sap contains about 4.3 g/100 m€ sucrose and 3.4 g/100 m€ glucose. The 
sap ferments quickly and is an important source of Vitamin B complex in the diet of people 
of West Africa. A mean annual yield for 150 palms is 4,000 €/ha, double in value to the 
oil and kernels from the same number of palms. The central shoot (or cabbage) is edible.
148 Handbook of Nuts
Leaves used for thatching; petioles and rachices for fencing and for protecting the tops of 
mud walls. Refuse after stripping the bunches is used for mulching and manuring; ash 
sometimes used in soap-making.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the oil is used as a liniment for indolent 
tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidotal, aphrodisiac, diuretic, and vulnerary, oil palm 
is a folk remedy for cancer, headaches, and rheumatism.
Chemistry — As the oil is rich in carotene, it can be used in place of cod liver oil for 
correcting Vitamin A deficiency. Per 100 g, the fruit is reported to contain 540 calories, 
26.2 g H2O, 1.9 g protein, 58.4 g fat, 12.5 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 g fiber, 1.0 g ash, 82 
mg Ca, 47 mg P, 4.5 mg Fe, 42,420 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.20 mg thiamine, 0.10 
mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg niacin, and 12 mg ascorbic acid. The oil contains, per 100 g, 878 
calories, 0.5% H2O, 0.0% protein, 99.1% fat, 0.4 g total carbohydrate, 7 mg Ca, 8 mg P, 
5.5 mg Fe, 27,280 meg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.03 mg riboflavin, and a trace of thia
mine.The
 fatty composition of the oil is 0.5 to 5.9% myristic, 32.3 to 47.0 palmitic, 1.0 
to 8.5 stearic, 39.8 to 52.4 oleic, and 2.0 to 11.3 linoleic. The component glycerides are 
oleodipalmitins (45%), palmitodioleins (30%), oleopalmitostearins (10%), linoleodioleins 
(6 to 8%), and fully saturated glycerides, tripalmitin and diapalmitostearin (6 to 8%). 
Micou^“ notes that vitamin E is a by-product of the process which converts palm oil into 
a diesel-oil substitute.
Description — Tall palm, 8.3 to 20 m tall, erect, heavy, trunks ringed; monoecious, 
male and female flowers in separate clusters, but on same tree; trunk to 20 m tall, usually 
less, 30 cm in diameter. Leaf bases adhere; petioles 1.3 to 2.3 m long, 12.5 to 20 cm wide, 
saw-toothed, broadened at base, fibrous, green; blade pinnate, 3.3 to 5 m long, with 100 
to 150 pairs of leaflets; leaflets 60 to 120 cm long, 3.5 to cm broad; central nerve very 
strong, especially at base, green on both surfaces. Flower stalks from lower leaf axils, 10 
to 30 cm long and broad; male flowers on short furry branches 10 to 15 cm long, set close 
to trunk on short pedicels; female flowers and consequently fruits in large clusters of 200 
to 300, close to trunk on short heavy pedicles. Fruits plum-like ovoid-oblong to 3.5 cm 
long and about 2 cm wide, black when ripe, red at base, with thick ivory-white flesh and 
small cavity in center; nuts encased in a fibrous covering which contains the oil. About 5 
female inflorescences are produced per year; each inflorescence weighing about 8 kg, the 
fruits weighing about 3.5 g each.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the African oil palm or 
CVS thereof is reported to tolerate high pH, laterite, low pH, savanna, virus, and water
logging.^^ Ehsanullah^^ reported on oil palm cultivars. African Oil Palm is monoecious and 
cross-pollinated, and individual palms are very heterozygous. Three varieties are distin
guished: those with orange nuts which have the finest oil but small kernels; red or black 
nut varieties which have less oil, but larger kernels. Sometimes oil palms are classified 
according to the fruit structure: Dura, with shell or endocarp 2 to 8 mm thick, about 25 to 
55% of weight of fruit; medium mesocarp of 35 to 55% by weight, but up to 65% in the 
Deli Palms; kernels large, 7 to 20% of weight of fruit; the most important type in West 
Africa; the Macrocarya form with shells 6 to 8 mm thick forms a large proportion of the 
crop in western Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Tenera, with thin shells, 0.5 to 3 mm thick, 1 
to 32% of weight of fruit; medium to high mesocarp 60 to 95% of weight of fruit; kernels 
3 to 15% of fruit; larger number of bunches than Dura, but lower mean bunch weight and 
lower fruit-to-bunch ratio. Pisifera, shell-less, with small kernels in fertile fruits, fruits often 
rotting prematurely; fruit-to-bunch ratio low. Infertile palms show strong vegetative growth, 
but of little commercial value; however it has now become of greatest importance in breeding 
commercial palms. Deli Palm (Dura type), originated in Sumatra and Malaya, gives high 
yields in the Far East, but not so good in West Africa. Dumpy Oil Palm, discovered in 
Malaya among Deli Palms, is low-growing and thick-stemmed. Breeding and selection of
149
oil palms have been aimed at production of maximum quantity of palm oil and kernels per 
hectare, and resistance to disease. Recently, much attention has been directed at cross
breeding with E. oleifera for short-trunk hybrids, thus making harvesting easier. Zeven^"^^ 
elucidates the center of diversity, and discusses the interactions of some important oil palm 
genes.
Distribution — The center of origin of the oil palm is in the tropical rain forest region 
of West Africa in a region about 200 to 300 km wide along the coastal belt from Liberia 
to Angola. The palm has spread from 16°N latitude in Senegal to 15°S in Angola and 
eastwards to the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar, and Malagasy. Now introduced and cultivated 
throughout the tropics between 16°N and S latitudes. Sometimes grown as an ornamental, 
as in southern Florida.
Ecology — Occurs wild in riverine forests or in fresh-water swamps. It cannot thrive in 
primeval forests and does not regenerate in high secondary forests. Requires adequate light 
and soil moisture, can tolerate temporary flooding or a fluctuating water table, as might be 
found along rivers. It is slightly hardier than coconut. Ranging ecologically from savanna 
to rain forest, it is native to areas with 1,780 to 2,280 mm rainfall per year. Best developed 
on lowlands, with 2 to 4 month dry period. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C 
and mean minimum of 21 to 24°C provides suitable range. Seedling growth arrested below 
15°C. Grows and thrives on a wide range of tropical soils, provided they have adequate 
water. Waterlogged, highly lateritic, extremely sandy, stony or peaty soils should be avoided. 
Coastal marine alluvial clays, soils of volcanic origin, acid sands, and other coastal alluviums 
are used. Soils with pH of 4 to 6 are most often used. Ranging from Subtropical Dry (without 
frost) through Tropical Dry to West Forest Life Zones, oil palm is reported to tolerate annual 
precipitation of 6.4 to 42.6 dm (mean of 27 cases = 22.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to 
27.4°C (mean of 27 cases = 24.8), and pH of 4.3 to 8.0 (mean of 22 cases = 5.7).®^
Cultivation — In wild areas of West Africa the forest is often cleared to let 75 to 150 
palms stand per hectare; this yields about 2.5 MT of bunches per hectare per year. Normally, 
oil palms are propagated by seed. Seed germination and seedling establishment are difficult. 
A temperature of 35°C stimulates germination in thin shelled cvs. Thick-walled cvs require 
higher temperatures. Seedlings are outplanted at about 18 months. In some places, seeds 
are harvested from the wild, but plantation culture is proving much more rewarding. In a 
plantation, trees are spaced 9 x 9 m; a 410-ha plantation would have about 50,000 trees, 
each averaging 5 bunches of fruit, each averaging 1 kg oil to yield a total of 250,000 kg
011 for the 410 ha. Vegetative propagation is not feasible, as the tree has only one growing 
point. Because oil palm is monoecious, cross-pollination is general and the value of parent 
plants is determined by the performance of the progeny produced in such crosses. Bunch- 
yield and oil and kernel content of the bunches are used as criteria for selecting individual 
palms for breeding. Controlled pollination must be maintained when breeding from selected 
plants. Seed to be used for propagation should be harvested ripe. Best germination results 
by placing seeds about 0.6 cm deep in sand flats and covering them with sawdust. Flats are 
kept fully exposed to sun and kept moist. In warm climates, 50% of seed will germinate in 
8 weeks; in other areas it may take from 64 to 146 days. Sometimes the hard shell is ground 
down, or seeds are soaked in hot water for 2 weeks, or both, before planting. Plants grow 
slowly at first, being 6 to 8 years old before the pinnate leaves become normal size. When 
planting seedlings out in fields or forest, holes are dug, and area about 1 m around them 
cleared. Young plants should be transplanted at the beginning of rainy season. In areas 
where there is no distinct dry season, as in Malaya, planting out may be done the year 
round, but is usually done during months with the highest rainfall. Seedlings or young plants,
12 to 18 months old, should be moved with a substantial ball of earth. Ammonium sulfate 
and sulfate or muriate of potash at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring 
about the plant at time of planting. Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g
150 Handbook of Nuts
Epsom salts or kieserite should be applied also. In many areas oil palms are intercropped 
with food plants, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. In Africa, intercropping 
for up to 3 years has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover-crops are often planted, 
as mixtures of C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseo- 
loides, planted in proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rate of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted 
cover crops can be controlled by slashing. Nitrogen dressings are important in early years. 
Chlorosis often occurs in nursery beds in the first few years after planting out. Adequate 
manuring should be applied in these early years. When nitrogen fertilizers, as sulfate of 
ammonium, are used, 0.22 kg per palm in the planting year and 0.45 kg per palm per year 
until age 4, should be sufficient. Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements 
should be determined by soil test and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region, 
soil type, and degree of deficiency.
Harvesting — First fruit bunches ripen in 3 to 4 years after planting in the field, but 
these may be small and of poor quality. Often these are eliminated by removal of the early 
female inflorescences. Bunches ripen 5 to 6 months after pollination. Bunches should be 
harvested at the correct degree of ripeness, as under-ripe fruits have low oil concentration 
and over-ripe fruits have high fatty acid content. Harvesting is usually done once a week. 
In Africa, bunches of semi-wild trees are harvested with a cutlass, and tall palms are climbed 
by means of ladders and ropes. For the first few years of harvesting, bunches are cut with 
a steel chisel with a wooden handle about 90 cm long, allowing the peduncles to be cut 
without injuring the subtending leaf. Usually thereafter, an axe is used, or a curved knife 
attached to a bamboo pole. A man can harvest 100 to 150 bunches per day. Bunches are 
carried to transport centers and from there to the mill for oil extraction.
Yields and economics — According to the Wealth of India, the oil yield of oil palm is 
higher than that of any other oilseed crop, producing 2.5 MT oil per ha per year, with 5 
MT recorded. Yields of semi-wild palms vary widely, usually ranging from 1.2 to 5 MT 
of bunches per hectare per year. One MT of bunches yields about 80 kg oil by local soft 
oil extraction, or 180 kg by hydraulic handpress. Estate yields in Africa vary from 7.5 to 
15 MT bunches per hectare per year; in Sumatra and Malaya, 15 to 25 MT, with some 
fields producing 30 to 38 MT. Estate palm oil extraction yield rates vary accordingly: D ura, 
15 to 16% oil per bunch; D eli D u ra, 16 to 18% Tenera, 20 to 22%. Kernel extraction yields 
vary from 3.5 to 5% or more. The U.S. imported nearly 90 million kg in 1966, more than 
half of it as kernel oil. Recently, palm oil commanded $.31/kg, indicating potential yields 
of about $1400/ha. In 1968 world producing countries exported about 544,000 long tons of 
oil and 420,000 long tons of kernels. The main producing countries, in order of production, 
are Nigeria, Congo, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The U.K. is the largest 
importer of oil palm products, importing about 180,000 MT of palm oil and 243,000 MT 
of palm kernels annually. Japan, and Eastern European and Middle East countries also import 
considerable quantities of palm oil and kernels. Some palm kernel oil extraction is now 
being done in the palm oil producing countries. Previously, most of the kernels had been 
exported, and the oil extracted in the importing countries.
Energy — Bunch yields may attain 22,000 kg/ha; of which only about 10% is oil, 
indicating oil yields of only 2,200 kg/ha. Higher yields are attainable. Corley^ suggests 
plantation yields of 2 to 6 MT/ha mesocarp oil, experimentally up to 8.5 MT/ha. Hodge, 
citing oil yields of 2,790 kg/ha, suggests that this is the most efficient oil-making plant 
species. The seasonal maximum total biomass reported for oil palm is 220 MT wet weight. 
When replanting occurs, over 40 MT/ha DM (dry matter) of palm trunks are available 
(conceivably for energy production) after the 70% moisture from the wet material has been 
expelled.^ Although annual productivity may approach 37 MT DM/ha, mean productivity 
during the dry season is 10 g/mVday Averaged over the year, oil palm in Malaysia showed 
a growth rate of 8 g/m^/day for an annual phytomass production of 29.4 MT/ha.Fresh
151
fruit bunch yields have been increased elsewhere by 2 MT/ha intercropping with appropriate 
legumes. Estate yields in Africa are 7 to 15 MT bunches per year, with oil yields of 800 
to 1800 kg/ha, and residues of yields of ca. 6 to 13 MT. It is probable that older leaves, 
leaf stalks, etc., could be harvested with biomass yield of 1 to 5 MT/ha. Based on energetic 
equivalents of total biomass produced, up to 60 barrels of oil per hectare could be obtained 
from this species. An energy evaluation of all the wastes from the palm oil fruit was made, 
and it revealed that this can satisfy ca. 17% of Malaysia’s energy requirements. Palm oil 
could satisfy 20% more.^^^ An alcoholic wine can be made from the sap of the male spikes, 
150 trees yielding about 4,000 ( of palm wine per hectare, per year. Worthy of energetic 
interest is the suggestion of Gaydou et al.‘®^ that the oil palm can yield twice as much 
energetically as sugarcane, at least based on the Malagasy calculations.
Biotic factors — Many fungi attack oil palms, but the most serious ones are the following: 
B last {P ythium splendens, followed by R hizoctonia lam ellifera), Freckle (C ercospora elaei- 
dis), Anthracnose (B otryodiplodia palm arum , M elanconium elaeidis, G lom erella cingulata). 
Seedling blight {C urvularia eragrostidis). Yellow patch and Vascular wilt (Fusarium ox- 
ysporum ), Basal rot of trunk {C eratocystis pa ra d o x a , imp. stage of T hielaviopsis p ara d o x d ), 
other trunk rots (G anoderm a spp., A rm illaria m ellea)\ Crown disease, rotting of fruit (M ar- 
asm ius palm ivoru s). Spear rot or bud rot is caused by the bacterium E rw inia sp., which has 
devastated entire areas in S. Congo. The A griculture H andbook 165 reports the leaf spot 
(A chorella attaleae) and the Black Mildew (M eliola m elan ococcae, M . ela eis)^ The following 
nematodes have been isolated from oil palms: A phelenchus avenae, H eterodera m arioni, 
H elicotylenchus pseu dorobu stu s, H . m icrocephalus cocophilus (serious in Venezuela), Scu- 
tellonem a clathrocau datus. The major pests of oil palm in various parts of the world are 
the following: Palm weevils {Rhynchophorus ph oen icis, R. palm arum , R. ferru gin eu s, R. 
schach). Rhinoceros beetles {O rcytes rhinoceros, O. boas, O. m onoceros, O . ow arien sis). 
Weevils (Strategus aloeus, T em noschoita qu adripustulata), Leaf-miners {C oelaenom enodera 
elaeidis, H ispolepsis elaeidis, Alurunus hum eralis), Slug caterpillar (P arasa viridissim a). 
Nettle caterpillar {Setoria nitens), Bagworms (C rem astoph ysch epén du la, M ahesena corbetti. 
M elisa plan a). Rodents may cause damage to seedlings and fruiting palms; some birds also 
cause damage in jungle areas.
152 Handbook of Nuts
ELAEIS OLEIEERA (HBK) Cortes (ARECACEAE) — American Oil Palm, Corozo 
Syn. Corozo oleifera (HBK) Bailey; Elaeis melanococca Gaertn., emend. Bailey; 
Alfonsia oleifera HBK
Uses — Plants are native and cultivated to a limited extent in South America; the oil is 
used for soap-making, food, and lamp fuel. Its main value lies in its slow-growing, pro
cumbent trunk and high percent of parthenocarpic fruits, and for its hybridizing potential 
with E laeis g u i n e e n s i s American oil palm is better for margarine-making than the African 
oil palm, because the former has a low level of free fatty acids and a high melting point.
Folk medicine — Reported to be tonic, corozo is a folk remedy for dandruff and other 
scalp ailments, inflammation, and stomach problems.
Chemistry — The pericarp yields 29 to 50%, the kernel 29 to 45% oil. The pericarp oil 
contains 48.3% saturated fatty acids (1.0% C14, 32.6% palmitic, 4.7% Cjg), 47.5% oleic, 
and 12.0% linoleic, with traces of arachidic acid (0.5%), 0.9% hexadecenoic acid, and 0.8% 
linolenic acid.‘^^
Description — Small palm; trunk procumbent, although an erect habit may be maintained 
for about 15 years; erect portion 1.6 to 3 m tall, trunks lying on soil up to 8.3 m long; roots 
formed along entire length of procumbent portion of trunk. Leaves 30 to 37 per plant; leaflets 
about 6.3 cm broad, all lying in one plane, no basal swellings; spines on petioles short and 
thick. Male inflorescence with 100 to 200 spikelets 5 to 15 cm long, pressed together until 
they burst through the spathe just before anthesis, rudimentary gynoecium with 3 marked 
stigmatic ridges; female inflorescence with spathe persisting after being ruptured by the 
developing bunch; spikelets ending in a short prong. Flowers numerous, sunk in the body 
of the spikelet; bunch of fruits surrounded by the fibers of the spathe, with no long spines; 
bunches round and wide at their center, pointed at top, giving a distinctly conical shape, 
rarely weighing more than 22.5 kg, usually much smaller, containing a large number of 
small fruits. Fruits ripen from pale yellow to bright red (a high proportion, up to 90%, 
parthenocarpic or abortive); perianth persistent as fruit ripens and becomes detached from 
the bunch; fruits 2.5 to 3.0 cm long, weighing as little as 2 to 3.5 g each with average 
weights from 8.5 to 12.6 g; nuts with 2 kernels fairly frequent, with 3 occasional.
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, corozo, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate acid soils, drought, savanna, some salt-water, and waterlog
ging.^^ “ Tissue culture has increased interest in the hybrids of E. guineensis x E. oleifera: 
the latter produces a high quality unsaturated oil, although the yield of oil is low. The oil 
yield of the F, hybrid is intermediate between both parental species; in back crosses to E. 
guineensis, however, occasional palms are found that combine good yield (from E. gu i
neensis) with improved oil quality and reduced height increment (from E. oleifera): such 
palms can now be multiplied clonally.’’*^^ There are some variations in habit of growth and 
leaf-formation. This species easily hybridizes with the p isifera form of E. gunieensis, the 
African Oil Palm, and the fruits are relatively thin-shelled, but have no fiber 
(2n = 32.)
Distribution — Native to Central and South America (Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, 
Surinam, Panama, and Costa Rica.).^^*
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Thom to Moist 
Forest Life Zones, corozo is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 15.2 (to 40) 
dm (mean of 7 cases = 11.9), annual temperature of 21.0 to 27.8°C (mean of 7 cases = 
24.4), and pH of (4 to) 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 5 cases = 6.5).®^ Actually, I have observed 
oil palm in much wetter situations than these data indicate. At the Panama-Costa Rica border, 
where the rainfall is closer to 40 dm, there are abundant strands of corozo, some even said 
to tolerate brackish water. In Latin America plants grow procumbent in swampy areas, and 
more upright in drier areas. Best development is in lowland ravines with rainfall between
153
1,700 and 2,200 mm annually. Mean maximum temperatures of 30 to 32°C and mean 
minimum temperatures of 21 to 24°C are suitable. Grows and thrives on a wide range of 
tropical soils, provided they have adequate water; soils with pH 4 to 6 are most often used 
for cultivation.
Cultivation — When this palm is cultivated, seeds are planted in seedbeds and the 
seedlings transplanted into the field when about 12 to 18 months old. Fruits are selected 
from special mother plants, often after pollination with pollen of a selected male palm. Seeds 
may be germinated in a germinator and the seedlings grown in a pre-nursery, and later in 
a nursery. Transplants are planted where the bush has been checked. In the nurseries, plants 
receive water and fertilizer and are shaded to protect them from sunburn. After being planted 
out, they must receive more fertilizer. Ammonium sulfate and sulfate or muriate of potash 
at a rate of 227 g per palm should be applied in a ring about the plant at time of planting. 
Where magnesium may be deficient in the soil, 227 g Epsom salts or kieserite should be 
applied also. Plants grow slowly at first, being about 7 years old before the typical pinnate 
leaves form normal size. In many areas, oil palms are intercropped with vegetable and other 
food crops, as maize, yams, bananas, cassava, or cocoyams. Intercropping for 3 years or 
so has helped to produce early palm yields. Cover crops are often planted, as mixtures of 
C alopogonium m ucunoides, C entrosem a pu bescen s, and P ueraria ph aseoloides, planted in 
proportion of 2:2:1 with seed rates of 5.5 kg/ha. Natural covers and planted cover crops can 
be controlled by slashing. Adequate manure should be applied during the early years to 
provide nitrogen. When nitrogen fertilizers (e.g., sulfate or ammonium) are used, 0.22 kg 
per palm in the planting years and 0.45 kg per palm per year until age 4, should be sufficient. 
Potassium, magnesium, and trace elements requirements should be determined by soil test 
and the proper fertilizer applied, according to the region, soil type, and degree of defi
ciency.
Harvesting — Fruits mature from January to June, usually borne only about 1.5 m above 
the ground, in an averge 5 clusters. Fruits begin to be formed about 4 years after planting 
in the field. Often the first female inflorescences are cut off to allow better plant development. 
Bunches ripen about 6 months after pollination. Ripe fruits are harvested about once a week. 
Bunches are cut with machete or sharp knife, and carried to transport centers, from which 
they go to the mill for oil extraction.
Yields and economics — Bunches rarely weigh more than 22.5 kg, and generally average 
8.5 to 12.67 g each; in Colombia, fruits weigh as little as 2.0 to 3.5 g. Fruit-to-bunch ratio 
varies from 32 to 44%.^^^ Oil yield of E. oleifera is much lower than that of E. guineensis\^^^ 
a tree can yield annually ca.25 kg fruit (equalling ca. 12,850 individual fruits).Hadcock^^® 
describes a simple oil palm mill (capacity 250 kg bunches per hr) that would work on either 
species of oil palm. Bunches are sterilized for 1 hr before stripping. After stripping, the 
fruit is reheated for 1 hr before it is digested in a rapid digester operated by a 5 h.p engine. 
Oil is extracted with a hydraulic press. The oil is separated from the crude material by means 
of a continuous settling clarifier fitted with a heat exchanger to dry the oil. The efficiency 
of oil recovery is only 75 to 86%. The mill, including the building cost, is U.S. $34,000.^^®
Energy — See African oil palm, which has a somewhat higher energy potential.
Biotic factors — Both bee- and wind-pollinated; but up to 90% of fruits may be par- 
thenocarpic. Bees are common around male inflorescence and may act as pollinating agents. 
Hermaphroditic inflorescence plants are found in America and in planted trees in the Congo. 
Most of the pests and diseases of the African oil palm are associated with this palm also, 
especially where it has been planted with E. guineensis
154
Handbook of Nuts
ELEOCHARIS DULCIS (Burnì.f.) Trin. ex Henschel (CYPERACEAE) — Watemut, Chinese 
Water chestnut, MA TAI, MA HAI
Syn.: Andropogon dulce Burnì, f., Scirpusplantagineus Tetz., Scirpusplantaginoides
Rottb., Scirpus tuberosus Roxb., Eleocharis plantaginea (Retz.) Roem. and 
Schut., Eleocharis tuberosa Schultes
Uses — Edible tubers or corms are used as a vegetable in many East Indian and Chinese 
dishes. Sliced, they are esteemed in Chinese soups for their crisp texture and delicious flavor. 
Sliced water chestnuts are one of the ingredients of chop suey in the U.S. They are rec
ommended, as well, in American salads and soups. Shredded water chestnuts often appear 
in meat and fish dishes. Raw corms are eaten out of hand in lieu of fresh fruit in China. 
East Indians cook the tubers, remove the rind, crush the meat with a hammer, sun dry, and 
fry in coconut oil as a delicacy.
Folk medicine — In China,^ the plant is used for abdominal pain, amenorrhea, anemia, 
bruises, clots, gas, hernia, inflammation, liver, malnutrition, pinkeye, and swellings. 
Porterfield^^® notes that Chinese give quantities to children who have ingested coins, in the 
belief that the water chestnuts will decompose the metal.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the root (ZMB) contains 360 to 364 calories, 7.4 to 8.5 g 
protein, 0.7 to 1.6 g fat, 84.8 to 87.6 g total carbohydrate, 3.2 to 3.9 g fiber, 5.1 to 6.0 g 
ash, 18.4 to 26.5 mg Ca, 299 to 407 mg P, 2.8 to 3.7 mg Fe, 53 to 92 mg Na, 2,304 to 
2,545 mg K, 0 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.16 to 0.65 mg thiamine, 0.11 to 0.92 mg 
riboflavin, 4.6 to 5.3 mg niacin, and 18 to 32 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Another analysis suggested 
77% carbohydrate (half sugar, half starch) and 8% albuminoids.^ According to Porterfield,^^® 
the water chestnut contains ca.77% carbohydrates. The cane-sugar content, in water-free 
samples, averages about 27.5%, while protein is rather low. The starch content of the fresh 
corm is ca. 7 to 8%.
155
Description — Perennial aquatic or paludal rush-like herb, with elongate rhizomes, 
terminated by a tuber; culms terete, erect, 40 to 80 cm tall, 2.5 mm thick, glaucous-green, 
smooth, septate-nodose within, arising from short, dark-brown, basal tuber or corm 5 cm 
or less in diameter. Sheaths 5 to 20 cm long, frequently partially reddish. Spikelets cylin
drical, 4 cm long, 3 to 4 mm thick, scales broadly elliptic, 5 to 6 mm long. Achenes obovate- 
orbicular, 2 mm long, lustrous, tawny, smooth, bristles with short spines at tip, these shorter 
toward apex, style-base short-deltoid with strongly depressed inconspicuous basal disc. 
Flowers summer; fruits July to October.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water chestnut, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging.*^ Two cvs recognized in China are ‘Ma 
Tai’, or common water-chestnut, usually black and about 2.5 cm in diameter: ‘Mandarin’ 
water chestnut, dark reddish-brown, with slight cover of light-brown skin, and about 3.2 
cm in diameter. Shell is a tough hard skin, and the kernel resembles a potato in consistency, 
color, and composition.^^*
Distribution — Native to the East Indies, China and Japan, Fiji, Philippines, India, and 
New Caledonia, Chinese water chestnuts are cultivated throughout the Far East, especially 
in Taiwan, Malaysia, and Ryukyu Islands.^^* Zeven and Zhukovsky^^® mention it for West 
Africa, as well. Rosengarten^*^ suggests its cultivation in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal States 
as far north as Virginia. They are suggested also for Puerto Rico and Hawaii.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, water chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8.7 to 24.1 dm 
(mean of 3 cases = 16.7), annual temperature of 18.7 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases = 
22.9°C), and pH of 5.3 to 5.5 (mean of 2 cases = 5.4).*^ Hardy only to Zone 9*^^ or perhaps 
to Zone 7,^"^^ tolerating average annual minimum temperatures of 5 to 10°F (to 15 to 12°C), 
Chinese water chestnuts grow in shallow water, and are adapted for planting along edges 
of ponds, in boggy places, or in marshes, remaining green during the fall and winter. In 
colder areas, plants are grown in pots, tubs, or pools of water.^^*
Cultivation — Planting is done annually in June or July. Old corms are first planted in 
wet mud and, when sprouted, are planted usually about 15 cm deep in fields of mud covered 
with some, but not too much, water. Also propagated by offsets from the corms, it spreads 
by means of horizontal rhizomes. It grows practically throughout the year, at least until 
ready to replant for the next season. Corms should be planted in rich, fertile soil, one to 
each 15-cm pot, when grown for local or limited culture. Pots should be submerged so that 
the soil surface is covered with 15 cm of water. Potted plants may be put out in pools when 
weather is warm and settled, but should be brought in before frost.^^* DeRigo and Winters^^ 
recommend 224 kg N (ammonium sulfate), 112 kg P2O5 (superphosphate), and 168 kg K2O 
(muriate of potash), as the best fertilizer combination for water chestnut growers with soils 
similar to those in the Savannah station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Harvesting — Corms, mature and ready for use in about 6 months, are harvested as 
needed. For commerical purposes, toward the end of the season all the tubers in a clump 
may be harvested. After the tops are removed, tubers may be plowed up and hand picked. 
At harvest time, the corms, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, may be produced on the rhizomes to a 
depth of 25 cm. Corms are cleaned, dried, and shipped to markets.^^*
Yields and economics — Plants are very prolific, and a plant may yield 10 to 12 kg of 
chestnuts per season. Yields as high as 40 MT/ha are reported from China, higher than the 
35 MT/ha reported by DeRigo and Winters.The 10 MT/ha reported in The Wealth of 
India'^^ may be more realistic. Rosengarten^*^ more optimistically suggests 25 to 50 tons per 
hectare. They are used extensively as food in the East Indies, China, and Japan. Canned 
Chinese water chestnuts are imported from Hong Kong in large quantities into Europe, Great 
Britain, and the U.S.^^*
Energy — Accepting tuber yields of 40 MT/ha, the tubers being ca. 75% water, there
156 Handbook of Nuts
is a DM yield of 10 MT/ha. This could be used as a food or energy source. Tops, normally 
discarded, would probably represent even less DM, also available for energy production.
Biotic factors — Attacked by several fungi: Cladosporium herbarum, Claviceps nigricans, 
Curvularia lunata, C. maculans, Cylindrosporium eleocharidis, Dermatosorus eleocharidis, 
Entyloma eleochardis, E. parvum, Epicoccum nigrum, Mucor circinelloides, Pestalotia 
scripina, Physoderma heleocharidis, Puccinia eleocharidis, P. liberta, Uredo incomposita, 
Uromyces eleocharidis, Dicaeoma eleocharidis. The following nematodes have been isolated 
from Chinese water chestnuts; Dolichodorus heterocephalus, Hoplolaimus coronatus, and 
Paratylenchus sarissus
157
FAGUS GRANDIFOLIA Ehrh. (FAGACEAE) — American Beech
S yn .: Fagus americana S w eet, Fagus ferruginea A lt., Fagus atropurpuea Sudw,
U ses — Nuts eaten raw, dried, or cooked; they usually have a sweet taste. Sometimes 
roasted and ground for use as a coffee substitute.Beech buds may be eaten in the spring^®^ 
and young leaves cooked as greens in the spring. The inner bark is dried and pulverized for 
bread flour in times of need and used as emergency food. Beechnuts are used to make cakes 
and pies.^^® Nuts are a fattening feed for hogs and poultry,and also provide food for 
wildlife. Trees make excellent ornamentals and provide valuable timber. The wood is heavy, 
straight-grained, of close texture, hard, but not durable, and hence it is not used as building 
timber, though extensively used for ordinary lumber ware, furniture, and cooperage stock. 
Also used for boxes, clothes-pins, crates, cross-ties, flooring, food containers, fuel, general 
millwork, handles, laundry appliances, pulpwood, spools, toys, veneer, and woodenware. 
After steaming, the wood is easy to bend and is valuable for the curved parts of chairs. 
Wood tar (source of creosote) is obtained through destructive distillation of the wood.^^"^ 
Early settlers used the wood mainly for fuel wood. Makes excellent charcoal that was used 
by blacksmiths and in furnaces for smelting iron.^^^
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidote and poison, American beech is a folk remedy 
for bums, frostbite, rash, and scald,^^ UphoP^"^ reports it to be antiseptic, antipyretic, a 
stimulating expectorant, used for chronic bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis, and vomiting
158 Handbook of Nuts
seasickness. Guiaicol (from beech wood creosote) is expectorant and intestinal antiseptic. 
Cherokee Indians chewed the inner bark as a worm treatment. Potawatomi Indians used a 
decoction of leaves on frostbitten extremities and made a leaf decoction compound for 
bums.^*^ Rappahannock Indians applied it to poison ivy rash three times daily in the form 
of a wash made by steeping a handful of beech bark, from the north side of the tree, in a 
pint of water with a little salt.^^®
Chemistry — Per 100 gm, the seed is reported to contain 608 calories, 20.8 g protein, 
53.5 fat, 21.7 g total carbohydrate, 4.0 g fiber, and 4.0 g ash.^^ Rosengarten^^^ reports 
beech nuts contain 19.4% protein, 20.3% carbohydrates, and 5,667 calories per kg. Another 
source lists beech nuts as containing (per 100 g) 568 calories, 19.4 g protein, 50.0 g fat, 
20.3 g carbohydrate, and 6.6% water.Smith^*® reports 6.6% water, 21.8% protein, 49.9% 
fat, 18.0% carbohydrates, 3.7% ash, and 6,028 calories per kg. The wood is a source of 
methyl alcohol and acetic acid. Guaiacol is derived from beech wood creosote by fractional 
distillation.
Toxicity — Occasionally nuts cause poisoning in man and domestic animals. There have 
been reports that indicate gastrointestinal distress, probably caused by a saponin glycoside.*®"^
Description — Deciduous tree, to 30 (to 40) m tall and 1 m in diameter, round-topped; 
bark smooth, gray; winter-buds long, lanceolate, acute; twigs slender, often slightly zigzag. 
Leaves alternate, short-petioled, simple, ovate-oblong, obovate or elliptical, 6.5 to 12.5 cm 
long, sharply serrate to denticulate, thin, papery, broadly acute to subcordate at base, straight- 
veined, densely silky when young, becoming glabrous above and dark bluish-green and 
usually silky-pubescent beneath, turning yellow in fall. Flowers monoecious, appearing with 
leaves; staminate flowers in drooping heads, subtended by deciduous bracts, with small 
calyx, deeply 4 to 8 cleft and 8 to 16 stamens; pistillate flowers in 2 to 4-flowered spikes, 
usually in pairs at end of short peduncle, subtended and largely concealed by numerous 
subulate bracts, calyx adnate to ovary with 6 acuminate lobes. Burs prickly, about 2 to 2.5 
cm in diameter, dehiscing into 4 valves, partially opening upon maturity; nuts triangular, 
up to 2 cm long, 2 or 3 in each bur; seed-coat brown, removed from kernel before eating. 
Root-suckering causes thickets around old trees. Flowers spring; fruits fall.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, American beech, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, weeds, 
and waterlogging.^^ Three natural varieties can be distinguished: var. grandifolia — prickles 
of bur 4 to 10 mm long, erect, spreading or recurved, with leaves usually sharply serrate, 
grows in rich upland soils, from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to 
Virginia and Kentucky, and in mountains to North Carolina, Illinois, and southeastern 
Missouri; var. caroliniana (Loud.) Fern, and Rehd. — prickles of bur 1 to 3 (to 4) mm 
long, usually abruptly reflexed from near base, leaves more acuminate and often merely 
denticulate, found in moist or wet lowland forests, on or near Coastal Plain, Massachusetts 
to Florida and Texas, and north in the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois and Ohio; var. 
pubescens Fern, and Rehd. — leaves soft-pubescent below, sometimes only slightly so. 
Natives in Kentucky and other mountainous areas where both major varieties occur separate 
them into Red and White Beech, due to color of wood.^^® ‘Abrams’ and ‘Abundance’ were 
introduced into trade in 1926 by Willard Bixby. Both appeared to produce superior nuts. 
‘Jenner’ is said to bear regular crops of exceptionally large nuts.^^^ (2n = 12.)
Distribution — Generally distributed throughout eastern U.S. and Canada, from Nova 
Scotia and New Brunswick, south to Florida, west to Minnesota, Wisconsin south to Texas.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest 
Life Zones, American beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 12.8 dm 
(mean of 9 cases = 10.5), annual temperature of 7.0 to 17.6°C (mean of 9 cases = 10.8°C), 
and pH of 4.5 to 6.5 (mean of 8 cases = 5.5).^^ Grows well in acid soils on rather dry 
hillsides, but will grow in lowlands of Coastal Plain. Thrives where soil is protected by
159
mulch of its own leaves. On many rich upland and mountain slopes, this long-lived tree 
forms nearly pure stands. Southward often found on bottom-lands and along margins of 
swamps.Hardy to Zone 3.^^^
Cultivation — Propagates readily from seed sown in fall or stratified and kept for sowing 
in spring. Cover with V2 inch of soil; protect from vermin.Fall-sown beds should be 
mulched until midsummer and kept in half-shade until past mid-summer of first year.^^^ 
Seedlings should be transplanted frequently, for 2 to 3 years, to prevent formation of a long 
taproot. Horticultural varities are grafted on seedling stock and grown on under glass until 
planted out.^^^ Trees are slow-growing and may live 400 years or more.^^^
Harvesting — Nuts are gathered after heavy frosts have caused them to drop to the 
ground. Treated like other nuts until used.^^^ Fresh nuts will deteriorate within a few weeks 
if not properly dried. Shells are easily removed with the fingernails.Wood is harvested 
from trees 60 to 90 cm in diameter.
Yields and economics — Rudolf and Leak^®^ report between 2,860 to 5,060 cleaned 
seeds per kg (1,300 to 2,300/lb). Beech nuts are a very minor product in North America, 
compared to other nuts. Used more by people with limited supplies of nuts. Lumber is the 
more important commercial product.
Energy — The heavy wood (sp. grav. 0.65 to 0.75) is used for fuel wood and charcoal. 
The seeds, though copious at times, are so small that they could hardly be considered an 
energy source. One could multiply seed yields by 0.5 to get a rough idea of the oil potential.
Biotic factors — Serious bark disease associated with the presence of beech scale, 
prevalent in Canada and Maine. Dormant oil spray is used to check scale. Nicotine-sulfate 
can be used when young leaves first appear. Mottle-leaf or scorch disease, resulting in 
premature leaf-fail, is prevalent on American beech, the exact cause is not yet known. 
The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting this species: Anthostoma 
turgidum, Armillaria mellea, Botryosphaeria hoffmanni, Ceratostomella echinella, C. mi- 
crospora, Cercospora sp., Coccomyces comitialis, C. coronatus, Coniothyrium fagi, Con- 
opholis americana, Cryptodiaporthe galericulata, Cryptosporella compta, Cytospora spp., 
C. pustulata, Daedalea ambigua, D. confragosa, D. unicolor, Daldinia concentrica, D. 
vernicosa, Diaporthefagi, Diatrype spp., Dichaenafaginea, Discosia artocreas, Endobotrya 
legans, Endoconidiophora virescens, Endothia gyrosa, Epifagus virginiana, Favolus alveo- 
laris, Fomes applanatus, F. connatus, F. everhartii, F. formentarius, F. igniarius, F. 
pinicola, Gloeosporium fagi, Graphium album, Hericium coralloides, H. laciniatum, Hy- 
menochaete spp., Hypoxylon spp., Lasiophaeriapezizula, Libertellafaginea, Microsphaera 
alni. Microstroma sp., Mycosphaerella fagi, M. punctiformis, Nectria cinnabarina, N. 
coccinea, N. galligena, Pholiota spp., Phomopsis sp., Phoradendron flavescens, Phyllac- 
tinia corylea, Phyllosticta faginea, Phytophthora cactorum, Polyporus spp., Poria spp., 
Scorias spongiosa, Septobasidium spp., Steccherinum ochraceum, S. septentrionale, Ster- 
eum spp., Strumella coryneoidea, Trametes spp., Ustulina deusta, U. linearis, Valsa spp., 
Xylaria corniformis, and X. digitata. Erineum (leaf deformity caused by mites) is also 
reported. In addition, Browne,lists: Fungi— Asterosporium hoffmannii, Cerrena unicolor, 
Ganoderma appalanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Hericium caput-ursi, Hymenochaete tabacina, 
Hypoxylon blakei, H. cohaerens, Inonotus glomeratus, I. obliquus, Phellinus igniarus, 
Phyllactinea guttata, Polyporus adustus, P. hirsutus, P. versicolor, Poria laevigata, Sterum 
fasciatum, S. purpureum, Torula ligniperda, Valsa leucostomoides. Hemiptera — Corythu- 
cha pallipes. Cryptococcus fagi, Parthenolecanium corni, Phyllaphis fagi, Prociphilus im- 
bricator. Lepidoptera — Alsophila pometaria, Cenopis pettitana, Choristoneura fractivittana, 
Datana integerrima, D. ministra, Disphragia guttivitta, Ennomos magnaria, E. subsignaria, 
Halisidota maculata, Hemerocampa leucostigma, Lymantria dispar, Nadata gibbosa, Op- 
erophtera bruceata, Orgyia antiqua, Pandemis lamprosana, Paraclemensia acerifoliella, 
Symmerista albifrons, S. leucitys, Tetralopha asperatella. Mammalia — Erethizon dorsatum.
160 Handbook of Nuts
FA G U S SYLVATICA L. (FAGACEAE) — European Beech
Uses — The nuts are sweet and edible when roasted. Roasted nuts can be used as a 
substitute for coffee. Press-cake from decorticated nuts is used as a feed for cattle, pigs, 
and poultry.Oil expressed from nuts is used for cooking, illumination, and manufacture of 
soap. Used as a substitute for butter. Leaves used as a substitute for tobacco. Trees furnish 
excellent timber. Wood is heavy, hard, straight-grained, close textured, durable, easy to 
split, strong, resistant to abrasion, and used for flooring, cooperage, furniture, turnery, 
utensils, wagons, agricultural implements, wooden shoes, spoons, plates, pianos, ship build
ing, railroad ties, brush backs, meat choppers, construction of dams, water-mills, excelsior, 
wood pulp, and is an excellent fuel. Takes a good polish and can be easily bent when 
steamed. In Norway and Sweden, boiled beech wood sawdust is baked and then mixed with 
flour to form the material for bread. Source of creosote, which is used as a preservative 
treatment of timber. Trees make excellent ornamental plants as leaves remain on tree most 
of winter.
Folk medicine — Reported to be carminative, poison, analgesic, antidote, antipyretic, 
antiseptic, apertif, astringent, laxative, parasiticide, refrigerant, and tonic, European beech 
is a folk remedy for blood disorders and fever.Source of creosote, used as a deodorant 
dusting powder in cases of gangrene and bed sores when mixed with plaster of paris.^°
Chemistry — Hager’s Handbookreports the leaves to contain pentosane, methylpen- 
tosane, idalin, a wax, cerotonic acid, p-hydoxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric-, 
ferulic-, caffeic-, chlorogenic-acid, and traces of inositol and sinapic acid; myricetin, leu- 
codelphinidin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, leucocyanidin, and kaempferol; n-nonacosan, beta- 
sitosterol, alanine, aminobutyric acid, arginine, asparagine, glutamine, hydroxy glutamic 
acid, glycine, hydroxyproline, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threo
nine, tyrosine, valine, serine; and a little cystine, tyrosine, and histidine. The seeds contain 
25 to 45% oil (3.5% stearic-, ca.5% palmitic-, 40 to 76% oleic-, and ca.10% linoleic-acid); 
also choline, neurine, trimethylamine, sugar, malic-, citric-, oxalic-, lactic-, and tannic- 
acids; gums, betaine, sinapic-, caffeic-, and ferulic-acids; saponins, tannins, and the alkaloid 
fagine. Bark contains 3 to 4% tannin, citric acid, beta-sitosterol, betulin. Arachidylalcohol 
(arachinalcohol, n-eicosylalcohol C20H42O), vanilloside (C14H18O8), docosanol, tetracosanol, 
hexacosanol; lauric-, myristic-, palmitic-, stearic-, oleic-, and linoleic-acid. Wood contains 
0.5% 1-arabinose (C5H10O5), 18% d-xylose (C5H10O5), 1-rhamnose, and d-galactose.^^^
Toxicity — Raw nuts are poisonous, probably due to the presence of a saponin (CSIR, 
1948-1976).
Description — Trees deciduous, long-lived, up to 30 m tall, round-topped; trunk smooth, 
gray; buds slender, fusiform, acute, reddish-brown; branches smooth. Leaves alternate, ovate 
or elliptic, acute, cuneate or rounded at base, 5 to 10 cm long, glabrous, at least along 
veins, with 5 to 8 pairs of conspicuous lateral veins, denticulate, shinking dark-green above, 
turning reddish-brown in fall. Male flowers numerous, in long-stalked aments, perianth 
divided almost to base; peduncles 5 to 6 cm long. Nut ovate, 12 to 30 mm in diameter, 
brown; cupule woody, about 2.5 cm wide, deeply divided into 4 valves which are covered 
outside with awl-shaped spines. April to May.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Euro-Siberian Center of Diversity, European beech, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, limestone, low pH, shade, slope, and 
smog.^^ There are many variations of leaf color and size, and branchlet habit. Some of the 
horticultural varieties include: var. albovariegata — leaves variegated with white; var. 
asplenifolia Lodd. — leaves very narrow, deeply toothed or lobed; var. atropunicea Sudw. 
(var. atropurpúrea Hort., var. purpurea Ait., var. riversii Hort., var. suprea) — Purple 
Beech, leaves purple; var. borneyensis — intermediate between vars. pén du la and tortusa\ 
leaves coarsely toothed; var. laciniata (var. incisa Hort., var. heterophylla Loud.) — Femleaf
161
or Cutleaf Beech, leaves deeply toothed or lobed or sometimes entire and linear; var. latifolia
— leaves to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide; var. luteovariegata — leaves variegated with 
yellow; var. m iltoniensis — drooping form; var. pén du la Lodd. — Weeping Beech, branches 
drooping; var. purpuero-pendula Hort. — branches drooping with purple leaves; var. ro- 
seom arginata — leaves purple edged with pale pink; var. rotundifolia — leaves nearly 
orbicular, 2.5 cm or less long; var. quercifolia Schelle (var. quercoides Hort.) — leaves 
deeply toothed and sinuate; var. qu ercoides Pers. — bark dark, rough, oak-like; var. tortuosa 
Dipp. (var. rem illyensis) — branches twisted and contorted, drooping at tips; var. tricolor
— leaves nearly white, spotted with green and edged with pink; var. varigata — leaves 
variegated with white or yellow; var. zlatia Spaeth — leaves yellow.(2n = 22,24.^^)
D istrib u tion — Central and southern Europe, east to the Caucasus, ascending to 1,700 
m in Alps. Introduced to Ireland; widely planted as ornamental. Found as far north as 
southeastern Norway.
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry 
to Moist Forest Life Zones, European beech is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 
3.1 to 13.6 dm (mean of 29 cases = 7.8), annual temperature of 6.5 to 18.0°C (mean of 
29 cases == 9.7°C), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 25 cases = 6.3).^^ In woods on well- 
drained soils, often in mountains and on hillsides. Thrives on northern and eastern exposures, 
enduring much shade, shunning poor soils and swamps, protecting and improving the soil. 
Thrives on loamy limestone soil, but will grow on acid soils. Thrives where soils are protected 
by mulch of its own leaves; growing best in dry sandy loams. Trees are relatively insensitive 
to unfavorable conditions.Hardy to Zone 4.^"^^
C u ltivation — Propagation readily attained by seed in fall or stratified and kept for sowing 
in spring. Protect seeds and seedlings from vermin. Seedlings should be transp-anted every 
second or third year to prevent formation of long taproot. Varieties are grafted on seedling 
stock under glass. All upright forms may be clipped to form excellent hedges.
H arvestin g — Nuts are harvested in fall, usually after they fall to ground. Nuts are also 
harvested all winter by wildlife. Timber harvested from mature trees.
Y ields and econ om ics — Since beech-nuts do not enter markets for human consumption, 
no data are available. The nuts are not a commercial item, but are especially valuable as 
food for wildlife. Trees form extensive forests, and the wood is a common hardwood tree 
in Denmark and Germany, where it is raised as pure growth or as mixed woodland. Nurseries 
propagate large numbers for ornamentals.
E n ergy — CanneP^ presents biomass data showing that trees ca. 100 years old, spaced 
at 1200 trees per ha, averaged 23.7 m tall, a basal area of 48.2 m^/ha, and a stem volume 
of 460 mVha. The stem wood plus the stem bark, on a DM basis, weighed 365 MT/ha, the 
branches 49, the foliage 5, and the roots were estimated at 50 MT/ha for a total standing 
biomass of ca. 468 MT/ha. The current annual increment (CAI) of stem wood and bark was 
3.6 MT/ha/yr, which total was estimated at 9.3 MT/ha/yr. These data were taken in a brown 
forest soil in Bulgaria 42 to 43°N, 23 to 25°E, 1400 to 1600 m elevation. On red alluvial 
soil in Denmark (56°00'N, 12°20'E, elevation 200 m), 200-year-old trees, averaging 26 m 
tall, had CAIs of only 5.9 mVha/yr compared with 12.7 for 54-year-old trees. Beck and 
Mittman^^ showed that annual litter fall was close to 5 MT/ha in a pure beech stand in the 
Black Forest of West Germany (mean annual temperature 8.3°, annual precipitation 10.5 
dm; elevation 325 m). In Sweden, Nihlgard and Lindgren^^^ cite annual above-ground 
productivity of 10.4 to 16.7 MT/ha with yearly increments (CAI) of 7.1 to 11.0 MT/ha. 
Apparently, the annual productivity ranges from 3 to 17 MT/ha. Such biomass could and 
does serve as a source of energy in temperate forests. The wood is an excellent fuel,^^"^ and 
would probably make good charcoal.
B iotic factors — Wooly aphis often covers the surface of leaves of European beech; it 
is controlled by application of oil spray. Nicotine sulfate also is used when young leaves
162 Handbook of Nuts
first appear. Trees are relatively free of fungal and bacterial diseases and are not seriously 
damaged by insects or other p e s t s . The Agriculture Handbook 165"^ lists the following as 
affecting this species: Armillaria mellea, Endothia gyrosa. Massaria macrospora, Nectria 
cinnabarina, Phomopsis spp., and Phytophthora cactorum. Erineum — leaf deformity caused 
by mites, Leaf Scorch — cause unknown, and Mottle Leaf — cause unknown are also listed. 
In addition, Browne^^ lists: Fungi — Armillaria mucida, Asteroporium hoffmannii, Auri- 
cularia auricula-judae, Bulgaria inquinans, Cerrena unicolor, Daedalea quercina, Endothia 
parasitica. Fistulina hepática. Pomes annosus, F. conchatus, F. fomentarius, F. fraxineus, 
F. pinicola, Ganoderma applanatum, Gnomonia veneta, Helicobasidium purpureum. Her- 
icium erinaceus, Hydnum cirrhatum, H. diversidens, Hysterographium fraxini, Inonotus 
cuticularis, /. obliquus, Laetiporus sulphureus, Microsphaera alphitoides, Nectria coccinea, 
N. coccinea faginata, N. ditissima, N. galligena, Oxyporus populinus, Phellinus igniaris, 
Pholiota adiposa, Phyllactinia guttata, Phytophthora cinnamomi, P. syringae, Pleurotus 
ostretus, P. ulmarius, Polyporus adustus, P. giganteas, P. squamosus, P. zonatus, Pythium 
debaryanum, P. ultimum, Rosellinia quercina, Steccherinum septentrionale, Stereum hir- 
sutum, S. purpureum, S. rugosum, Trametes hispida, Truncatella hartigii, Ustulina deusta, 
Volvariella bombycina. Angiospermae — Viscum album. Coleóptera — Agrilus viridis. 
Apoderas coryli, Byctiscus betulae, Cerambyx cerdo, Leperisinus varias, Melolontha mel- 
olontha, Mesosa nebulosa, Phyllobius argentatus. Platypus cylindrus, Prionous coriareus, 
Rhynchaenus fagi, Rhynchites betulae, Strophosomus coryli, Xyleborus dispar. Diptera — 
Contarinia fagi, Hartigiola annulipes, Mikola fagi, Oligotrophus fagineus, Phegobia tor- 
natella, Phegomyiafagicola. Hemiptera — Cryptococcus fagi, Fagocyba cruenta, Phyllaphis 
fagi. Hymenoptera — Caliroa annulipes, Nematus fagi. Lepidoptera — Carcina quercana, 
Cossus cossus, Diurnea fagella, Ectropis crepuscularia, Hepialus humuli, Laspeyresia fa- 
giglandana, Lithocolletis faginella, Lymantria monacha, Nepticula hemargyrella, N. tityr- 
ella, Operophtera bramata, Strophedra weirana, Tortrix viridana. Aves — Columba 
palumbus. Mammalia — Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glarcolus. Dama dama. Mi
crotis agrestis, Sciurus carolinensis, S. vulgaris.
163
GINKGO BILOBA L. (GINKGOACEAE) — Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree
Uses — Valued by the Orientals as a sacred tree, for food, medicine, and ritual. Once 
the acrid nauseous pulp is removed from around them, the seeds can be boiled or roasted 
to make a delicacy, the nut, with a flavor likened by one author to mild Swiss cheese. As 
a delicacy at feasts, the nuts are supposed to aid digestion and alleviate the effects of drinking 
too much wine. Important in oriental medicine, the ginkgo is now under cultivation as a 
medicinal plant in the Occident. Chinese use the seed to wash clothing. Seed are digested 
in wine to make a cosmetic detergent.The thick fleshy seed coat is used as an insecticide. 
The light, yellowish, brittle wood is used for chess-boards and toys. Very valuable in highly 
polluted air as an ornamental shade tree, along streets and in parks.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are used in folk remedies for cancer 
in China, the plant for corns in Japan. In China, macerated in vegetable oil for 100 days, 
the fruit pulp is traditionally used for asthma, bronchitis, gonorrhea, tuberculosis, and 
worms.^ According to Monachino,"^*^ the nauseous fruit juice becomes antitubercular after 
immersing in oil for three months. This activity is not lost with sterilization at 100°C for 
30 min. Daily administration of 150 gm/kg of the extract of the oil-immersed fruits showed 
definite activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Pan-fried seeds are used 
for leucorrhea, polyuria, seminal emissions, and tuberculosis; seeds, seedcoats, or leaves 
are used for asthma, cough, leucorrhea, spermatorrhea. Seeds are considered antitussive, 
astringent, sedative. Raw seed is said to be anticancer, antivinous; with a fishy taste; they
164 Handbook of Nuts
are consumed, dyed red, at Chinese weddings; said to help bladder ailments, blenorrhea, 
and uterine fluxes. Used for cardiovascular ailments in Szechuan. Ginkgolic acid is active 
against the tubercle bacillus. Elsewhere, leaf extracts are used in peripheral arterial circulation 
problems like arteriosclerotic angiopathy, post-thrombotic syndrome, diabetic vasoconstric
tion with gangrene and angina, intermittent claudication, Raynaud’s disease. Extracts are 
inhaled for ear, nose, and throat ailments like bronchitis and chronic rhinitis.^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, seeds (ZMB) contain 403 calories, 10.2 to 10.5% protein, 3.1 
to 3.5% fat, 83.0% total carbohydrate, 1.3 g fiber, 3.1 to 3.8 g ash, 11 mg Ca, 327 mg P, 
2.6 mg Fe, 15.3 mg Na, 1139 mg K, 392 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.52 mg thiamine, 
0.26 mg riboflavin, 6.1 mg niacin, and 54.5 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Dry kernels (ca. 59% of 
the seed weight) contain; 6% sucrose, 67.9% starch, 13.1% protein, 2.9% fat, 1.6% pen
tosans, 1% fiber, and 3.4% ash. The globulin of the kernel, accounting for 60% of the total 
nitrogen, is rich in tryptophane. Fruit pulp, bitter and astringent, contains a volatile oil and 
a number of fatty acids from formic to caprylic. Press-juice contains: ginnol (C27H56O),
bilobol (C2,H3402), ginkgol (C24H34O), ginkgic acid (C24H42O2), ginkgolic (hydroxy) acid 
(C22H34O3), ginkgolic (saturated oxy) acid (C2,H3203), ginkgolic acid (C24H48O2), an acid 
corresponding to the formula C21H42O3, an acidic oil, asparagine, reducing sugars, and 
phosphoric acid. Autumn leaves contain ginnol, sitosterol (C27H64)), ipuranol (C33H56O6), 
shikimic acid or shikimin (C7H10O5), linolenic acid, acacetin, apigenin, and substances 
conforming to the formula CnH,405 and Ci,Hi406. Fallen leaves of the plant contain a bright 
yellow crystalline substance, ginkgetin (C32H220,o). Leafy branches contain ceryl alcohol 
and sterols. Staminate flowers of Paris-grown trees contain 3.27 to 3.57% (ZMB) deoxy
ribonucleic acid. Male inflorescence may contain raffinose (up to 4% on fresh weight basis). 
Wood contains raffinose and xylan (2.5%). Bark contains tannin dissolved in a pectinous 
mucus.
Toxicity — Seeds are reputed to be toxic raw, sometimes resulting in children’s deaths. 
According to Duke and Ayensu,^ large quantities can induce convulsions, dyspnea, emesis, 
and pyreticosis. Expressed fruit Juice causes erythema, edema, papules, pustules, and intense 
itching. Some suggest that even old nuts can induce dermatitis. The pollen may cause hay 
fever.
Description — Deciduous dioecious trees to nearly 35 m tall, often slenderly conical and 
sparsely branched when young, spreading in age. Leaves on stalks up to 7.5 cm long, fan
shaped, usually 5 to 8 (15 to 20) cm across, with 2 large lobes, usually undulate or notched, 
but with numerous branching parallel veins. Male and female strobili on different trees. 
Males appear in early spring as catkins drooping from short shoots (3 to 6 on one shoot), 
bearing numerous loosely arranged stamens. Female axes arise from short spur shoots in 
pairs or in threes, each with a long stalk bearing on each side a naked ovule, surrounded 
at the base by a collar-like rim. Seed with a yellow fleshy outer covering enveloping the 
woody shell containing the edible kernel.Seeds 400 to 1,150 per kg.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, ginkgo, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate acid soil, air pollution, disease, frost, insects, and slope. Dallimore 
and Jackson"^^^ describe several ornamental cvs, ‘Aurea’ with leaves yellow even in summer, 
‘Fastigiata’ with the branches almost erect, ‘Laciniata’ with deeply cut leaves, ‘Pendula’ 
with weeping branches, and ‘Variegata’ with yellow-variegated leaves.
Distribution — Rarely seen wild, even in China and Japan, yet doing well widely in the 
temperate world as a cultivar. Rosengarten,^®^ terming it “ unknown in the wild’’, notes that 
it has been cultivated as a sacred tree in Chinese Buddhist temple courtyards for over 1,000 
years. Introduced into America in 1784, it has generally been successful on good sites in 
moist temperate areas of the midwestem and eastern U.S., and along the St. Lawrence River 
in Canada.^
Ecology — Estimated to range from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Tern-
165
perate Moist to Wet Forest Life Zones, ginkgo is expected to tolerate annual precipitation 
of 8 to 12 dm, annual temperature of 9 to 14°C, and pH of 4.5 to 6. Waterlogging, strong 
winds, hardpan, and alkaline soils are to be avoided. According to Balz,"^^^ though ginkgo 
tolerates cold, frost, and snow, it does well with summer temperatures above 25°C and air 
relative-humidity ca. 50 to 60%. Monthly rainfall in summer should not fall below 40 mm. 
Deep, light, mellow soils, well-drained and aerated, produce optimal growth. Good growth 
is reported on soils with 2% coarse sand, 10% fine sand, 37% coarse silt, 40% fine silt,
and 11% clay, as well as 5% coarse sand, 45% fine sand, 25% coarse silt, 15% fine silt,
and 10% clay. Soils should not contain more than 10 to 15% clay. A pH of 5 to 5.5 is
recommended with 100 to 200 ppm P2O5, 260 to 400 ppm K2O, 60 to 120 ppm Mg, 3 to
5% humus, and <1% salts. The soil should warm up early in spring with late autumn leaf 
fall; i.e., no frost between April 1 and October 31 (7 month or more growing season). 
Isolation of 1,800 to 2,000 hr/year (250 hr/month midsummer) is considered adequate.
C ultivation — Chinese say that triquetrous seeds produce male trees, lenticular seeds 
produce females. Seeds germinate readily but grow slowly. Cuttings take as long as 2 years 
to root. Seed should be cold-stratified 30 to 60 days for seed collected before completion 
or after ripening. Germinative capacity may vary from about (0 to) 30 to 85%. For amenity 
plantings, seeds should be sown in furrows in November and covered with 5 to 8 cm soil 
and a sawdust mulch. Based on limited studies, one Swiss firm, planning to grow the plant 
in the U.S., suggested sowing the seed under plastic tunnels at a spacing of 25 x 4 cm, 
equalling ca. 1,000,000 seed per ha. With an 80% germination rate, there were 800,000 
plants per ha, held in the tunnel for 2 years, expected to attain 30 cm the first year, 1.2 m 
the second. In autumn of year 2 or spring of year 3, taproots are shortened to 10 to 15 cm 
by under-cutting the stems, cut back to 30 cm by mowing. In the spring of the year, plants 
are outplanted mechanically, at 100 x 30 cm or 33,000 plants per ha.
H arvestin g — For the pharmaceutical industry, plants are cut back to 30 cm every year 
in October. Trees start bearing fruits at ca. age 25"^^^ (Monachino, 1956) or 30-40 years^ 
(Ag. Handbook 450, 1974).
Y ields and E con om ics — In heavy fruiting years, the trees can bear enough fruits to 
cover 50% of the area circumscribed by the crowns. The Swiss Pharmaceutical firm antic
ipated 2,400 to 3,200 kg green leaves per ha in the third year (first year outplanted), 6,000 
to 8,000 in the second year outplanted, and 20,000 to 25,000 kg in the third year outplanted.
E nergy — From a biomass point of view, the ginkgo is not very promising as an energy 
species. The pulp and seed husks are waste products, when the nuts are gathered. Both 
could be extracted for chemurgics, then processed into energy products. Extracted leaves 
could also be useful for biomass fuels.
B iotic factors — According to Monachino,the tree is not attacked by insects and it 
is resistant to disease. The A griculture H andbook 165"^ reports the following as affecting 
ginkgo: F om es connatus (sapwood or wound rot), G lom erella cingulata (leaf spot, anthrac- 
nose), M eloidogyne sp. (root knot nematodes), P h yllosticta ginkgo (leaf spot), P hym atotri- 
chum om nivorum , P olyporu s spp. (sapwood rot), and X ylaria longeana (seed rot).
166 Handbook of Nuts
GNETUM GNEMON L. (GNETACEAE) — Manindjo, Malindjo, Tangkil
Uses — In India, the seeds are eaten after roasting or cooking. Filipinos use the fruits as 
a coffee substitute.Fruits are first peeled and then cooked in Java; then the homy testa 
can be separated; kernels are then pounded and sundried. This mass is then fried in coconut 
oil and salted to eat with rice. Also sweetened and eaten as a delicacy with tea or coffee. 
Young leaves are eaten, raw or steamed. Young leaves and inflorescences are cooked with 
sea food.^^® In Fiji, young leaves are cooked with coconut milk. Bark yields a fiber used 
for making rope.^^ To obtain the strong fiber, durable in sea water, the branches are peeled 
and the bark beaten and split into fine filaments. With good tensile and breaking strengths, 
the fiber is valued for fishing and nets.^® The wood from old trees is dark, brittle, and not 
very durable. Younger poles are used for mooring posts for rafts and boats. Branches may 
be split for cooperage.
Folk medicine — Indochinese use the roots as a general antidote to poison.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the kernel is reported to contain 30 g H2O, 10.9 g protein, 1.6 
g fat, 52.9 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, and 1.7 g ash. Young leaves and stem tips 
contain 81.9% H^O, 1.33% ash, 0.24% P2O5, 0.11% CaO, and 0.01% Fe203."''
Toxicity — If eaten raw, the young leaves, inflorescences and fmits may irritate the 
mouth.
Description — Tree (sometimes lianoid) 5 to 22 m high, the crown narrow, conical; 
tmnk straight or somewhat crooked; main branches whorled, often somewhat drooping. 
Leaves opposite, shortly stalked, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-oblong; base acute, obtuse or 
rounded, apex shortly acuminate, acute; entire, thinly coriaceous, above dark-green, shining, 
beneath light-green, pinnatinerved, 5 to 20 cm long, 3 to 8 cm wide, petiole 0.5 to 1 cm 
long. Flowers dioecious, sometimes apparently monoecious, in stalked articulate spikes 
composed of 5 to 8 whorls; whorls supported by an undulate cup. Male spikes single or 
fascicled, 3 to 5 cm long; female spikes solitary, usually longer than the male ones, to 10 
cm long; stalks of the inflorescences 1.2 to 2 cm long. Fruits sessile, ellipsoid, shortly
167
cuspidate, 2 to 2.5 cm long, dark-red when ripe, containing a single large starchy edible
seed.^^’^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, manindjo, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate alternating dry and wet seasons. Var. ovalifolium is 
considered the wild type, var. gnemon the cultivar.
Distribution — Native from Assam to Malaysia and Fiji, introduced to Java, Sumatra, 
and else where.
Ecology — Better adpated to seasonal than to ever-humid tropical forests.
Cultivation — Cultivated in Asian plains, extending easily to an altitude of 1200 m. 
Sometimes planted in orchards, but mostly in mixed gardens. In the Solomon Islands, seeds 
may be sown, but more frequently, seedlings are transplanted from beneath established trees. 
Vegetative propagation is not known in Santa Cruz on the Solomons. Trees sometimes polled 
to keep them low. They recover readily from pruning.
Harvesting — In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, fruiting peaks around September to 
October and March to April.Fibers are said to be best harvested when trees are 5 m tall. 
Notable for their ability to recover from the near girdling induced by fiber harvest, the older 
trees, often scarred, may be harvested again.
Yields and economics — Rare in the markets of Malaya, more common in Java.^^ 
Energy — In Fiji, at least, the plant is used for firewood.
Biotic factors — No data available.
168 Handbook of Nuts
HELIANTHUS ANNUUS L. (ASTERACEAE) — Sunflower
Uses — Cultivated primarily for the seeds which yield the world’s second most important 
source of edible oil. Sunflower oil is used for cooking, margarine, salad dressings, lubri
cation, soaps, and illumination. A semi-drying oil, it is used with linseed and other drying 
oils in paints and varnishes. Decorticated press-cake is used as a high protein food for 
livestock. Kernels eaten by humans raw, roasted and salted, or made into flour. Poultry and 
cage birds are fond of raw kernels. Flowers yield a yellow dye. Plants used for fodder, 
silage and green-manure crop. Hulls provide filler in livestock feeds and bedding.
Folk medicine — Medicinally, seeds are diuretic, expectorant, and used for colds, coughs, 
throat, and lung ailments. According to Hartwell,the flowers and seeds are used in folk 
remedies for cancer in Venezuela, often incorporated in white wine. Reported to be anodyne.
169
antiseptic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, deobstruent, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, insecti
cidal, malaria preventive, sunflower is a folk remedy for aftosa, blindness, bronchiectasis, 
bronchitis, carbuncles, catarrh, cold, colic, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, dysuria, epistaxis, 
eyes, fever, flu, fractures, inflammations, laryngitis, lungs, malaria, menorrhagia, pleuritis, 
rheumatism, scorpion stings, snakebite, splenitis, urogenital ailments, whitlow, and wounds.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 560 calories, 4.8 g H2O, 24.0 
g protein, 47.3 g fat, 19.4 g total carbohydrate, 3.8 g fiber, 4.0 g ash, 120 mg Ca, 837 mg 
P, 7.1 mg Fe, 30 p,g Na, 920 mg K, 30 mg beta-carotene equivalent, 1.96 mg thiamine, 
0.23 mg riboflavin, 5.4 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. Seeds contain 25 to 35 % oil, 
but cultivars have been bred in Russia with up to 50% oil. Oil contains 44 to 72% linoleic 
acid, and 13 to 20% protein of high biological value and digestibility. Stems and husks are 
rich in potash.
The forage (ZMB) contains 8.8% protein, 2.9% fat, 77.2% total carbohydrate, 30.3 g 
fiber, and 11.1 g ash. Young shoots contain: 13.0% protein, 1.9% fat, 70.3% total car
bohydrate, 20.4 g fiber, 14.8 g ash, 1,670 mg Ca, and 370 mg P per 100 g. The flowers 
contain 12.7% protein, 13.7% fat, 64.3% total carbohydrate, 32.9 g fiber, 9.3 g ash, 630 
mg Ca, and 80 mg P per 100 Sunflower oil has a high concentration of linoleic acid, 
intermediate level of oleic acid, and very low levels of linolenic acid. The saturated acids, 
palmitic and stearic, rarely exceed 12%, and the minor acids, lauric, arachidic, behenic, 
lignoceric, eicosenoic, etc. rarely add up to as much as 2%. Tocopherol, or vitamin E, is 
an important vitamin and natural antioxidant. Sunflower oil is somewhat unique in that the 
alpha form predominates, with 608, 17, and 11 mg/kg of alpha, beta, and gamma, compared 
with 116, 34, and 737, respectively, for soybean oil.^^
Description — Variable, erect, often unbranched, fast-growing, annual herb; stems 0.7 
to 3.5 m tall, hirsute. Leaves alternate, ovate, long-petioled, lamina with 3 main veins, 10 
to 30 cm long, 5 to 20 cm wide, apex acute or acuminate, lower leaves opposite and cordate. 
Flowering head terminal on main stem, 10 to 40 cm in diameter, rotating to face the sun, 
sometimes drooping, heads on lateral branches smaller; outer ray flowers neuter with yellow 
ligulate corolla, disc florets numerous, spirally arranged, perfect; ovary inferior with single 
basal ovule. Achenes obovoid, compressed, slightly 4-angled, variable in size and color, 
seldom less than 1 cm long, usually from 1 to 1.5 cm long, full-colored or striped. Taproot 
strong, penetrating to depth of 3 m and with large lateral spread of surface roots. Flowers 
late summer and fall; fruits fall.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the North American (and secondarily, the Eurosiberian) 
Center of Diversity, sunflower, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate disease, drought, frost, 
fungi, high pH, laterite, limestone, low pH, mycobacteria, photo-period, poor soil, rust, 
salt, sand, smog, virus, weeds, and waterlogging.®^ Botanically, the sunflower is treated as 
the following subspecies: ssp. lenticularis is the wild sunflower; ssp. annuus is the weedy 
wild sunflower; and ssp. macrocarpus is cultivated for edible seeds. Cultivars are divided 
into several types: Giant types: 1.8 to 4.2 m tall, late maturing, heads 30 to 50 cm diameter, 
seeds laige, white or gray, or with black stripes; oil content rather low; ex. ‘Mammoth 
Russian’. Semi-dwarf types: 1.3 to 1.8 m tall, early maturing, heads 17 to 23 cm diameter, 
seeds smaller, black, gray or striped; oil content higher; ex., ‘Pole Star’ and ‘Jupiter’. Dwarf 
types: 0.6 to 1.4 m tall, early maturing, heads 14 to 16 cm diameter, seeds small, oil content 
highest; ex., ‘Advance’ and ‘Sunset’. Gene centers are in the Americas, with genuine 
resources for resistance in southern U.S. and Mexico. Two types of male sterility are known. 
Although “ sunchoke” is the name given to the hybrid with the Jerusalem artichoke, much 
of what is sold as sunchoke in the U.S. is, in fact, straight Jerusalem artichoke. (2n =
3 4 )82,278
Distribution — Native to western North America, sunflower is one of a few crops to 
have evolved within the present confines of the U.S. Early introduced to Europe and Russia, 
the species has now spread to countries both tropical and temperate.
170 Handbook of Nuts
Ecology — Sunflowers are grown from the Equator to 55°N Lat. In the tropics, they 
grow better at medium to high elevations, but tolerate the drier lowlands. They thrive 
wherever good crops of com are grown. Young plants withstand mild freezing. Plants are 
intolerant of shade. As sunflowers have highly efficient root systems, they can be grown in 
areas which are too dry for many crops. Plants are quite drought-resistant except during 
flowering. In South Africa, reasonable yields have been obtained with 25 cm of rainfall by 
dwarf CVS. Giant types require more moist conditions. Crops may be grown on a wide range 
of soils, including poor soils, provided they are deep and well-drained. Plants are intolerant 
of acid or waterlogged soils. Ranging from Boreal Moist through Tropical Thom to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, sunflower tolerates annual precipitation of 2 to 40 dm (mean of 195 cases 
= 11.4), annual temperature of 6 to 28°C (mean of 194 cases = 19.6), and pH of 4.5 to 
8.7 (mean of 121 cases = 6.6)®^’^^*
Cultivation — Seed, harvested at 12% moisture content and stored, will retain viability 
for several years. Sunflower production may be adapted to mechanized or unmechanized 
societies. Propagation is always by seed. Plant with com or beet planter, 2.5 to 7.5 cm 
deep, spaced 0.2 m apart in 0.6 to 0.9 m rows; seed rate of 5.6 kg/ha, giving about 62,500 
plants per ha. May be planted earlier in spring than com, since plants are more tolerant to 
frost. Early weed control is an important factor in yield, so cultivate lightly and early. 
Sunflowers respond well to a balanced fertilizer based on soil test; usually a 1-2-3 NPK 
ratio is best, with a need for boron and other trace elements on lighter soils. Application of 
foliar fertilizers of liquid NPK on plants increases yield 62% with one application and 97% 
with two applications. Sunflowers should not occur in rotation more than once in every 4 
years, and should not be in rotations with potatoes.
Harvesting — Crop matures about 4 months from sowing; some Russian cvs mature in 
70 days. Harvest when involucral bracts turn yellow and seeds become loose, but before 
shedding begins. Harvesting methods are similar to those of com: heads are gathered, dried, 
and threshed. For fodder or silage, crop is harvested at the flowering stage. Seed oil is either 
cold- or hot-pressed. Cold-pressed oil is usually pale-yellow, with a mild taste and pleasant 
odor, much esteemed as a salad and cooking oil, especially for butter substitutes. Hot-pressed 
oil is reddish-yellow and is used for technical purposes and as a burning oil. With modem 
methods, hot-pressed oil may be refined for edible purposes.
Yields and economics — Average yields range from 900 to 1,575 kg/ha of seed; however, 
yields of over 3,375 kg/ha have been reported. Heads may contain 1,000 to 4,000 florets, 
with the potential of as many seeds. Yields from dried seeds are 40% oil, 35% protein meal, 
and 20 to 25% hulls. In 1979, the world low production yield was 308 kg/ha in Algeria, 
the international production yield was 1,266 kg/ha, and the world high production yield was 
2,420 kg/ha in A ustria.W ith DM yields ranging from 4 to 9 MT/ha (in 3 months) and 
seed yields ranging from 300 to more than 3,000 kg/ha, a straw factor of 3 seems appropriate. 
With an average yield of ca. 1,500 kg/ha (North Dakota), a hectare would yield nearly 225 
gallons of oil, 75% of which could be extracted on the farm. Twelve to 15 gallons are 
required to raise a hectare; hence the fuel from one hectare could produce 8 to 11 hectares 
of crop. In the U.S., the highest average commercial yields occurred in North Dakota and 
Minnesota, which averaged 1,170 and 1,267 kg/ha respectively, compared with 1,019 kg/ha 
for Texas. Pryde and Doty^^® suggest average oil yields of 589 kg/ha from 1,469 kg/ha seed. 
Telek and Martin^^^ suggest oil yields of 450 kg/ha. Experimentally, at Davis, California, 
April plantings yielded 2,592 to 3,181 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.5% oil). May plantings, 2,676 to 
3,161 kg/ha (45.5 to 48.4% oil), June plantings 956 to 2,643 kg/ha (40.8 to 43.7% oil), 
and July plantings 702 to 2,447 kg/ha (40.2 to 42.6% oil). The lowest oil yield was 282 
kg/ha, the highest, 1,543 kg/ha.^^ In India, rain-fed sunflower gave seed yields of 1,120 
kg/ha in pure stands, 1,050 to 1,070 intercropped with cowpea, and 1,010 to 1,070 kg/ha 
intercropped with peanuts.Volunteer sunflowers themselves may constitute a weed prob
171
lem, as few as 3/m^ reducing wheat yields by 16%, 23/m^ reducing yields by 35%. World 
production of sunflower seed in 1970 was 9.6 million MT, grown on 8.2 million ha, yielding 
1,170 kg/ha. Largest producers are the USSR, Rumania, Bulgaria, Argentina, Yugoslavia, 
Turkey, and South Africa. In the tropics, Tanzania produces 10,000 to 20,000 MT per year. 
Cultivars grown in Minnesota contain higher percentages of the desirable linoleic acid than 
same cultivars in other states. Major importers of sunflower seed were Italy, West Germany, 
and Japan. Oil prices in the U.S. in 1970 were $331/ton. Production costs in fully mechanized 
production in the U.S. is about SlOO/ha with fertilizer, $87 without; hand labor figured at 
$2/hr. By 1982, sunflower oil was trading at $.59/kg compared to $.50 to .54 for coconut, 
$.53 for com oil, $.48 for cottonseed, $.59 for linseed, and $.42 for soybean.
Energy — According to the USD A phytomass files, annual productivity ranges from 
3 to 15 MT/ha. North Dakota researchers are testing a small auger press, operated on the 
farm, that can extract ca.75 to 80% of the oil in sunflower seeds, or ca. 55 gallons (barely 
more than one 42-gallon barrel) from an average yield of 1,400 Ib/acre. It takes one acre’s 
production to farm and produce 8 to 11 more acres, our usual 10:1 ratio. In North Carolina, 
Harwoodconcluded that sunflower seed was most promising for on-farm production of 
vegetable oil fuels; soybeans, peanuts, and cottonseed considered not well-suited. Sunflowers 
yield ca. 2.5 MT/ha, with ca. 40% oil, indicating a potential of 250 gallons of oil per ha 
if seed were processed in a mill. On-farm processing would produce closer to 200 gallons 
(ca. 5 barrels) at a cost of more than $2.00 per gallon. Production costs are less than one 
barrel per hectare. Harwood puts the energetic returns at greater than 5:1 compared to 3:1 
for peanuts, 2:1 for soybeans, and 1:1 for cottonseed. Pratt et al.^^^ report an endurance test 
involving engines fueled with various mixtures of sunflower oil (25 to 50%) with diesel oil 
(75 to 50%). Two motors needed repair, ten were operating with no apparent difficulties, 
of which two were said to be doing even better. Ohio yields on poor soils (Wood County) 
were only 260 Ib/acre (yielding 9.3 gallons of screw press oil); and on good soils (Champaign 
County), 1,680 Ib/acre (yielding 69.1 gallons oil) cropped after wheat in a double-cropping 
system. Sunflower oil should be dewaxed before being used as a diesel substitute. In 
Australia, sunflower was first commercially planted in 1967, has great potential for expansion 
as a rainfed energy crop. Little water is required for processing oilseeds (unlike ethanol), 
and the seed coat can provide sufficient energy for heat and steam for oil extraction. 
Australians figure a net energy gain of 2 € for every 3 € produced. A hundred kg of dry 
seed will yield about 40 kg oil, 15 to 25 kg hulls, and 40 kg proteinaceous meal. Hulls 
have been pressed into fuel “ logs” . Threshed heads are ground and fed to cattle elsewhere. 
The heads are rich in pectin. Studies have shown that sunflower yields 33.1 MT silage per 
ha, compared to com at 19.26 MT/ha. Annual DM productivity ranges from 3 to 15 MT/ha. 
DM yields averaged closer to 5 MT spaced at 43,000 plants per ha, 8 MT spaced at 172,000 
plants per ha near Clarksville, Maryland. In these experiments, the sunflower followed 
barley.Jake Page’s discussion^"^^ is picturesque: “ But I happen to like sunflow
ers . . . They can be grown almost anywhere in the country and you can grow between 500 
and 3,000 pounds of sunflower seeds on an American acre in three months if you’re clever. 
The soil can be lousy, the rainfall terrible . . . if the average American com farmer put 10 
percent of his land into sunflowers, he could become self-sufficient in fuel. It seems that 
using vegetable oil may be more efficient, in a net energy sense, than growing plants for 
conversion into alcohol (another nice alternative fuel) because the processing for alcohol is 
more elaborate, expensive, and energy intensive.”
Biotic factors — In the USDA’s Agriculture Re sear a new pest of sunflower is
reported. A scarab beetle {Phyllophaga lancolata) devastated more than 400 ha near Lehman, 
Texas. Eucosma womonana, is also a newly reported sunflower pest in Texas. Seed is set 
low when selfed, as most cvs are self-incompatible. Florets on one head open over 5 to 6 
days and may wait 2 weeks for fertilization. Cross-pollination may be facilitated by 2 to 3
172 Handbook of Nuts
hives of honeybees per ha, the hives spaced in rows 300 to 400 m apart, as they need to 
be distributed to give coverage to all blooms. Gophers dig up seeds; birds eat tremendous 
amounts of seeds from the maturing crop. Insects can be destructive to seeds not stored 
properly. The following fungi are known to cause diseases in sunflowers: Albugo trago- 
pogonis, Alternarla tenuis, Alternarla zinniae, Armillaria mellea, Ascochyta helianthi, Bo
trytis cinerea, Cercospora bidentis, Cercospora helianthi, Cercospora helianthicola, 
Cercospora pachypus, Corticium rolfsii, Cystopus cubicus, Cystopus tragopogonis, Dia- 
porthe arctii, Diplodina helianthi, Entyloma polysporum, Erysiphe chicoracearum, Fusar
ium acuminatum, Fusarium conglutinans, Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium 
javanicum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium sambucinum, Fusarium scirpi, Fusarium sem- 
itecum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium helianthi, Leptosphaeria helianthi, Leveillula 
compositarum, Leveillula taurica, Macrophomina phaseoli, Oidium helianthi, Ophiobolus 
helianthi, Phialea cynthoides, Phoma olerácea, Phymatotrichum omnivorum, Plasmopara 
halstedii, Puccinia helianthi, Pythium debaryanum, Pythium irregulare, Phythium splen- 
dens, Pythium ultimum, Rhabdospora helianthicola, Rhizoctonia rocorum, Rhizoctonia so
lani, Rhizoctonia bataticola, Rhizopus nodosus, Sclerotinia fuckeliana, Sclerotinia libertiana, 
Sclerotinia minor, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Septoria helianthi, Sphaer- 
othecafulginea, Sphaerotheca humuli, Uromycesjunci, Verticillium albo-atrum, Verticillium 
dahliae. Bacteria reported as infecting sunflowers include: Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Bac
terium melleum, Erwinia aroides. Pseudomonas cichorii. Pseudomonas helianthi, and Pseu
domonas solanacearum. Virus diseases reported from sunflowers are Apple mosaic, Argentine 
sunflower. Aster yellows, Brazilian tobacco streak. Cucumber mosaic. Tomato spotted wilt. 
Peach ringsport. Peach yellow-bud mosaic. Pelargonium leaf-curl. Tobacco necrosis. To
bacco ringspot, and Yellows. Sunflowers are parasitized by the following flowering plants: 
Cuscuta pentagona. Cuscuta arvensis, Orobanche aegyptiaca, Orobanche cumana. Oro
banche muteli. Orobanche ramosa. Striga hermonthica. Striga asiatica. Striga lutea. Striga 
senegalensis. Sunflowers are attacked by many nematodes: Anguina balsamophila, Aphe- 
lenchoides ritzemabosi, Ditylenchus destructor, Ditylenchus dipsaci, Helicotylenchus cav- 
enessi, Helicotylenchus microcephalus, Helicotylenchus microlobus, Helicotylenchus 
pesudorobustus, Heterodera schachtii, Longidorus maximus, Meloidognye arenaria, Me- 
loidogyne hap la, Meloidogyne incognita acrita, Meloidogyne javanica, Meloidogyne tha- 
mesi, Paratylenchus minutus, Pratylenchus penetrans, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Scutellonema 
clathricaudatum, Trichodorus christiei, dXiá Xiphinema ifacolum^'^^^'^^^
173
HYPHAENE THEBAICA (L.) Mart. (ARECACEAE) Doum Palm
U ses — Unripe kernels are edible, but the ripe kernels are hard as a marble, and even 
strung together to make a weapon. In Bomu Africa, the nuts are pounded to make a meal 
sold instead of millet. The rind of the fruits is dry and sweet, edible in some, inedible in 
others. The part of the germinating seedling just below ground is edible, as is the cabbage 
or palm heart. Trunks yield a sago starch. Osbom^'*^ relates how people in Kharga gnaw on 
the glossy brown fruits. Though fibrous and tough, the fruits have a pleasant flavor suggestive 
of carob or ginger bread. Beverages are made from the fruits. In parts of the Sahara desert, 
the spongy internal parts of the fruit are an important dietary element. Mixed with date 
infusion, the doum nut constitutes a cooling drink much valued medicinally. Stalks of the 
cotyledons are eaten. Inner leaves are valued for forage, while the outer may be used for 
fuel. Fronds, usually unexpanded, used in plaited strips to make mats, hats, baskets, fans, 
bowls, and ropes. A fiber obtained from the root is used for snares and fish nets. Fronds 
of the palm are used for fuel. The hard fruit, used as vegetable ivory, is also the source of 
a black dye. Stems are used in house construction. Ashes are used as
F olk m ed icin e — According to HartwelF^^ the fruits are used in folk remedies for 
indurations of the limbs. The thick root is used in African folk remedies for hematuria, in 
some cases due to bilharzia. According to Boulos,"*^ the resin from the tree, diaphoretic and 
diuretic, is recommended both for tapeworm and for the bites of poisonous animals. The 
fruits are astringent and anthelmintic. Breads made from the fruit have been recommended 
in fluxes. The beverage made from the fruits is recommended, at least around Kharga, for
174 Handbook of Nuts
strenghtening the heart and for gastroenteritis. Mixed with date infusion, the doum is rec
ommended for febrile conditions on the Sahara.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the dried nut contains 395 calories, 5.7 to 6.2 g H2O, 2.4 to 
5.0 g protein, 4.9 to 8.0 g fat, 6.5 to 11.0 g fiber, 1.9 to 5.4 g ash, 121 to 168 mg Ca, 
and 170 to 281 mg P. GohP*® reports that whole nuts of the doum palm (91.4% DM) contain 
(ZMB): 4.5% crude protein, 24.7% crude fiber, 3.6% ash, 2.6% fat, and 64.6% nitrogen- 
free extract. Ground kernels (90.4% DM) from Somalia contain 9.0% CP, 7.3% CF, 2.8% 
ash, 7.0% EE, and 73.9% NFE. Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) contains 420 calories, 4.1 g 
protein, 6.8 g fat, 85.7 g total carbohydrate, 10.0 g fiber, 3.3 g ash, 153 mg Ca, and 240 
mg P.^^ According to Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk,^^^ the nut contains 50% mannitol, which 
when hydrolyzed with dilute acid furnishes 56 to 58% reducing sugars, 80% of which is 
mannose.
Description — Palm to 10 m tall, the trunk branching dichotomously 1 to 2 or more 
times. Leaves large, flabellate, with linear-lanceolate lobes, and numerous upward-curved 
hooks on petioles. Flowers small and whitish, monoecious, the male spadices surrounded 
by pointed male spathe-bracts, branches of female spadix being stouter. Fruits 5 x 5 cm, 
yellowish-brown, globose-guadrangular, with strong fiber surrounding the hard seeds.
Germplasm — Native to the African and Middle Eastern Centers of Diversity, the doum 
palm is said to tolerate drought and fire. The closely related H . indica Becc., often confused 
with H. th ebaica, is probably the only germplasm native to the Middle East.
Distribution — Sometimes gregarious, forming dense stands along rivers in hot dry 
valleys of tropical Africa, the Middle East, and western India, especially common in the 
coastal regions of East Africa and in Eritrea.
Ecology — Flourishes in rich sandy loam. Growth, flowering, and fruiting are luxuriant 
in moist places, but in dry places the fruits become small. With no hard data at hand, I 
estimate that the palm is most at home in Subtropical to Tropical Thom to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, tolerating even drier climates along water-courses. Johnson^^^ calls it a promising 
desert palm for deserts and semideserts up to 600 m. Plants wind-polinated. Fmits dissem
inated by elephants, baboons, and donkeys, all of which may eat the fmits. Young leaves 
are eaten by camels.
Cultivation — Cultivated as an ornamental curio, e.g., in India, the palm can be prop
agated by seed or off-shoots.^®
Harvesting — Plant parts harvested as needed.
Yields and economics — No data available.
Energy — Around Bomu, Africa, the leaves are used as fuel, especially in boiling down 
salt. The sap can be used for alcohol production. Since this is a very destmctive process, 
it has been outlawed in Eritrea and Kenya. The pod yields an active charcoal with high 
decolorizing and absorbing power.
Biotic factors — Nuts and the beads made from them may be attacked by the scolytid 
beetle, C occotrypes dactyliperda Fabr. Preventive measures are discussed in The W ealth o f 
India
175
INOCARPUS EDULIS Forst. (FABACEAE) — Tahiti Chestnut, Otaheite Chestnut, Poly
nesia Chestnut
Syn: Inocarpus fagiferus (P ark in son ) F osberg?
U ses — Nuts said to be edible after processing. Menninger^^ says what I have long 
observed: almost any nut which is difficult to describe is said to taste like a chestnut. So 
with this one. Seeds are sometimes allowed to ferment in pits in the ground. Natives of 
Santa Cruz roast the fruits or slowly dry the unhusked fruit over a fire.^^^ More often they 
are boiled or roasted in ashes. Some Samoans make purees from the cooked seeds. Said to 
be the principle food of the mountaineers of Fiji. Cattle are said to eat the leaves.^^ Seeds 
are strung as beads.Wood used in furniture.
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be antidotal to fish poisoning, and useful for blood-shot 
eyes, diarrhea, and hemorrhage.^* Mixed with the fern Drynaria to treat virulent gonorrhea 
in Indonesia. Astringent bark is used for intestinal complaints in Malaya.Seed is boiled 
in coconut milk for parturitional uterine hemorrhage.
C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 426 calories, 6.7 g protein, 
7.9 g fat, 82.8 g total carbohydrate, 4.4 g fiber, 2.6 g ash, 0.46 mg thiamine, and 4 mg 
ascorbic acid.®^ BurkilP^ reports the seeds (ZMB) analyze 7% fat, 10% albumens, 2.5% 
ash, and 80% non-nitrogenous substances, mostly starch.
D escrip tion — Tree to 25 m tall, handsome; trunks usually deeply furrowed, commonly 
fluted or buttressed; crown dense. Leaves simple, entire, large, oblong-lanceolate, short- 
petioled, pinnately nerved, leathery; stipules very small, soon caducous. Flowers white, 
cream, or yellow, fragrant, in axillary, simple or branched spikes resembling catkins when 
young; bracts small, connate with rachis, somewhat pouched; bracteoles small; calyx tubular- 
campanulate, bilabiate, membranous, irregularly 2- to 5-toothed; petals 4 to 6, usually 5, 
subequal, imbricate in bud, linear-lanceolate, upper part crinkled; stamens twice the number 
of petals, alternately long and short, the longer ones briefly joined to the petals; anthers 
small, uniform, ovary subsessile or short-stalked, 1-, seldom 2-ovuled; style very short; 
stigma oblique. Pod short-stalked, oblique-obovate, flattened, 2-valved, subdrupaceous, 
leathery, indéhiscent, 1-seeded.®
176 Handbook of Nuts
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian and Polynesian Centers of Diversity, the 
Tahiti chestnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate swamps, waterlogging, and perhaps 
some salt. (2n = 20.)^’^^°
Distribution — Native of eastern Malaysia and the Pacific, cultivated in the Malay 
Peninsula. Cultivated successfully in Peradeniya and Singapore. Allen and Allen describe 
it as ubiquitous throughout the South Pacific Islands.^
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet to Tropical Dry through 
Moist Forest Life Zones, Tahiti chestnut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 
to 50 dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0. Rosengarten says, “ It 
prefers a hot, humid, tropical climate at low altitude, with well-distributed rainfall, and 
thrives along the banks of streams and even in swamps.” Often a second-story component 
of low-lying forest.
Cultivation — Rarely cultivated. In Santa Cruz, the seeds are sprouted in the shade and 
transplanted. It is more gathered than cultivated.
Harvesting — Fruits start bearing at about age 8. In Santa Cruz, Solomon Islands, there 
are two main harvests per year, and nuts are stored with the fibrous pods intact after cooking 
in large earth ovens.
Yields and Economics — No data available.
Energy — No data available.
Biotic factors — Nitrogen-fixing nodules were not detected in Philippine specimens.^
177
JATROPHA CURCAS L. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Physic Nut, Purging Nut
Uses — According to Ochse,^^^ “ the young leaves may be safely eaten, steamed or 
stewed.” They are favored for cooking with goat meat, said to counteract the peculiar smell. 
Though purgative, the nuts are sometimes roasted and dangerously eaten. In India, pounded 
leaves are applied near horses’ eyes to repel flies. The oil has been used for illumination, 
soap, candles, adulteration of olive oil, and making Turkey red oil. Nuts can be strung on 
grass and burned like candlenuts.^^^ Mexicans grow the shrub as a host for the lac insect. 
Ashes of the burned root are used as a salt substitute.A gaceta, Dumag, and Batolos^ 
conclude that it has strong molluscicidal activity. Duke and Wain^^ list it for homicide, 
piscicide, and raticide as well. The latex was strongly inhibitory to watermelon mosaic 
virus.Bark used as a fish poison.In South Sudan, the seed as well as the fruit is used 
as a contraceptive.^®^ Sap stains linen and can be used for marking.Little, Woodbury, 
and Wadsworth list the species as a honey plant.
Folk medicine — According to Harwell,the extracts are used in folk remedies for 
cancer. Reported to be abortifacient, anodyne, antiseptic, cicatrizant, depurative, diuretic, 
emetic, hemostat, lactagogue, narcotic, purgative, rubefacient, styptic, vermifuge, and vul
nerary, physic nut is a folk remedy for alopecia, anasarca, ascites, bums, carbuncles, 
convulsions, cough, dermatitis, diarrhea, dropsy, dysentery, dyspepsia, eczema, erysipelas, 
fever, gonorrhea, hernia, incontinence, inflammation, jaundice, neuralgia, paralysis, par
turition, pleurisy, pneumonia, rash, rheumatism, scabies, sciatica, sores, stomachache, sy
philis, tetanus, thmsh, tumors, ulcers, uterosis, whitlows, yaws, and yellow fever.
Latex is applied topically to bee and wasp stings.Mauritians massage ascitic limbs with
178 Handbook of Nuts
the oil. Cameroon natives apply the leaf decoction in arthritis.Colombians drink the leaf 
decoction for venereal disease.Bahamians drink the decoction for heartburn. Costa Ricans 
poultice leaves onto erysipelas and splenosis. Guatemalans place heated leaves on the breast 
as a lactagogue. Cubans apply the latex to toothache. Colombians and Costa Ricans apply 
the latex to bums, hemorrhoids, ringworm, and ulcers. Barbadians use the leaf tea for 
marasmus, Panamanians for jaundice. Venezuelans take the root decoction for dysentery. 
Seeds are used also for dropsy, gout, paralysis, and skin ailments.Leaves are regarded 
as antiparasitic, applied to scabies; rubefacient for paralysis, rheumatism, also applied to 
hard tumors.Latex used to dress sores and ulcers and inflamed tongues.Seed is viewed 
as aperient; the seed oil emetic, laxative, purgative, for skin ailments. Root is used in 
decoction as a mouthwash for bleeding gums and toothache. Otherwise used for eczema, 
ringworm, and scabies.I received a letter from the Medical Research Center of the 
University of the West Indies shortly after the death of Jamacian singer Robert Morley:
I just want you to know that this is not because of Bob Morley’s illness, why I am revealing 
this . . . my dream was: this old lady came to me in my sleep with a dish in her hands; she 
handed the dish to me filled with some nuts. 1 said to her, “ What were those?” She did not 
answer. I said to her, “ PHYSIC N U T S.” She said to me, “ This is the cure for cancer.”
I found this Jamaican dream rather interesting. Four antitumor compounds, including 
jatropham and jatrophone, are reported from other species of Jatropha.®^ Homeopathically 
used for cold sweats, colic, collapse, cramps, cyanosis, diarrhea, and leg cramps.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 6.6 g H2O, 18.2 g protein, 38.0 
g fat, 33.5 g total carbohydrate, 15.5 g fiber, and 4.5 g ash.®^ Leaves, which show anti
leukemic activity, contain alpha-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and campesterol, 7- 
keto-beta-sitosterol, stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7-alpha-diol, and stigmast-5-ene-3beta, 7 beta- 
diol.^^"^ Leaves contain isovitexin and vitexin. From the drug (nut?) saccharose, raffinose, 
stachyose, glucose, fructose, galactose, protein, and an oil, largely of oleic- and linoleic- 
acids.^®^ Poisonous seeds can cause death due to phytotoxin, curcin. Curcasin, arachidic-, 
linoleic-, myristic-, oleic-, palmitic-, and stearic-acids.
Toxicity — The poisoning is irritant, with acute abdominal pain and nausea about V2 
hour following ingestion. Diarrhea and nausea continue but are not usually serious. Depres
sion and collapse may occur, especially in children. Two seeds are strong purgative. Four 
to five seeds are said to have caused death, but the roasted seed is said to be nearly innocuous. 
Bark, fruit, leaf, root, and wood are all reported to contain HCN.^^^ Seeds contain the 
dangerous toxalbumin curcin.®^
Description — Shrub or tree to 6 m, with spreading branches and stubby twigs, with a 
milky or yellowish rufescent exudate. Leaves deciduous, alternate but apically crowded, 
ovate, acute to acuminate, basally cordate, 3- to 5-lobed in outline, 6 to 40 cm long, 6 to 
35 cm broad, the petioles 2.5 to 7.5 cm long. Flowers several to many in greenish cymes, 
yellowish, bell-shaped; sepals 5, broadly deltoid. Male flowers many with 10 stamens, 5 
united at the base only, 5 united into a colum. Female flowers borne singly, with elliptic 
3-celled, triovulate ovary with 3 spreading bifurcate stigmata. Capsules 2.5 to 4 cm long, 
finally drying and splitting into 3 valves, all or two of which commonly have an oblong 
black seed, these ca. 2 x 1
Germplasm — Reported from the Central and South American Centers of Diversity, 
physic nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate slope. There is an endemic species in 
Madagascar, J. mahafalensis, with equal energetic promise.
Distribution — Though native to America, the species is almost pantropical now, widely 
planted as a medicinal plant which soon tends to establish itself. It is listed, e.g., as a weed 
in Brazil, Fiji, Honduras, India, Jamaica, Panama, Puerto Rico, and Salvador.
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Moist through Subtropical Thom to Wet
179
Forest Life Zones, physic nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 23.8 dm 
(mean of 60 cases = 14.3) and annual temperature of 18.0 to 28.5°C (mean of 45 cases 
= 25.2).«2
Cultivation — Grows readily from cuttings or seeds. Cuttings strike root so easily that 
the plant can be used as an energy-producing living fence post.
Harvesting — For medicinal purposes, the seeds are harvested as needed. For energy 
purposes, seeds might be harvested all at once, the active medicinal compounds might be 
extracted from the seed, before or after the oil, leaving the oil cake for biomass or manure.
Yields and economics — According to Gaydou et al.,^®^ seed yields approach 6 to 8 
MT/ha with ca. 37% oil. They calculate that such yields could produce the equivalent of 
2,100 to 2,800 € fuel oil per ha (see table under Energy Section). In Madagascar, they have 
ca. 10,000 ha of purging nut, each producing ca. 2,400 € (or 24 h€) oil per ha for a potential 
production of 240,000 h€.*®'^
Energy — The clear oil expressed from the seed has been used for illumination and 
lubrication, and more recently has been suggested for energetic purposes, one ton of nuts 
yielding 70 kg refined petroleum, 40 kg “ gasoil leger” (light fuel oil), 40 kg regular fuel 
oil, 34 kg dry tar/pitch/rosin, 270 kg coke-like char, and 200 kg ammoniacal water, natural 
gas, creosote, etc. In their study, Gaydou et al.^®^ compare several possible energy species 
with potential to grow in Malagasy. Oil palm was considered energetically most promising, 
but this species was considered second most promising.
Crop Fuel Energetic
production production equivalent
(MXlia) (eiia) (kwlilia)
Elaeis guineenis 18—20 3,600-^,000 33,900—37,700
Jatropha curcas 6—8 2,100—2,800 19,800—26,400
Aleurites fordii 4—6 1,800—2,700 17,000—25,500
Saccharum officinarum 35 2,450 16,000
Ricinus communis 3—5 1,200—2,000 11,300—18,900
Manihot esculenta 6 1,020 6,600
Biotic Factors — A griculture H andbook N o. 165 lists the following as affecting Jatropha 
curcas: C litocybe tabescens (root rot), C olletotrichum g loesporioides (leaf spot), and Phak- 
opsora jatro p h ico la (rust)."^
180 Handbook of Nuts
JESSENIA BATAUA (Mart.) Burret. (ARECACEAE) — Seje, Mil Pesos, Jagua, Pataba, 
Pataua
S yn .: Jessenia polycarpa K arst.
U ses — Fruits provide an oil with a taste almost identical to that of the olive. “ There is 
no question about pataua oil being an excellent edible oil.” ^^^ Ripe fruits are harvested and 
piled up a day or so to encourage further ripening. They are then steamed in water, and the 
pulp separated from the bony seed with a mortar. Brazilians may simple press out the oil. 
The seeds are also consumed as food, and the milky residue from oil extraction, the “ yucuta’ ’, 
is consumed as a beverage. The oil, used as a cooking or edible oil, is also used in medicine. 
A chocolate-colored chicha is made by mashing the fruit, straining out the fruits, and adding 
sugar. Wood is used for both bows and arrow-points.
181
Table 1
JE S S E N IA COMPARISON OF OIL OF 
B A T A U A WITH OLIVE OIL
Jessenia bataua* Olive oil 
Fatty acid samples {%) samples (%
Palmitic 13.2 ± 2.1 11.2
0.6 ± 0.2 1.5 
Palmitoleic
Stearic 3.6 ± 1.1 2.0
Oleic 77.7 ± 3.1 76.0
Linoleic 2.7 ± 1.0 8.5 
0.6 ± 0.4 0.5
Linolenic
Other 1.6 (range 0.2 — 4.6)
Values given as the mean standard deviation of
12 separate samples.
From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 
35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botan
ical Garden. With permission.
Folk medicine — In the Guahibo area, the oil is used for asthma, cough, tuberculosis, 
and other respiratory problems. Elsewhere it is used for bronchitis, catarrh, consumption, 
flu, leprosy, and parturition.^®’^* At least four scientists have speculated that natives gain 
weight, appear healthier with more endurance, and reported fewer respiratory infections 
during the season of daily consumption of “ mil pesos.” Colombians consider the oil ver
mifugal.*®^
Chemistry — I repeat Balick and Gershoff s^^ useful table (Table 1) comparing the oil 
of bataua with olive oil, because olive oil has recently gotten press as very salubrious. Note 
that the bataua, like the olive, contains about 80% oleic acid, a feature recently praised in 
Lubrizol’s special high-oleic sunflower. Parenthetically, I add that Johnson*^^ reports much 
lower oleic acid values, 0.48 to 40.67%. He puts the entire fruit’s oil content at 7.4%, the 
mesocarp pulp at 18.2%, and the seed at 3%. If Lubrizol’s sunflower is good for the temperate 
zone, this oil should be great for the tropical zone. I also repeat Balick and Gershoff’s^^ 
Table 3. The data suggest that, though tryptophan and lysine were the limiting amino acids, 
bataua protein is better than most grain and legume proteins.(see Table 2.) Balick and 
Gershoff’s Table 4^^ compares the “ milk” of the seje with human milk, cowmilk, and 
soybean milk, (see Table 3.)
Description — Unbranched palm to 15 (to 25) m tall, the mature trunk spineless (when 
young, the trunk is covered with dark brown fibers and spines to 80 cm long). Leaves 
pinnate, arching, 6 to 8 (to 10) m long, the rachis deep, canaliculate, vaginate at the base. 
Leaflets alternate, lanceolate, acute, 40 to 75 mm wide. Spathe ca. 1 m long, woody, 
terminating in an acute process. Spadix with 100 to 225 racemes, flowers cream-colored; 
petals valvate. Panicles may contain 1,000 fruits, each weighing 10 to 15 g. There may be 
two panicles per year. Fruits drupaceous, ellipsoid to ovoid, 2.5 to 4 cm long, deep purple 
when ripe.^^’^®’^^
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, mil peso is 
reported to tolerate waterlogging. Although taxonomists have tended to recognize at least 
two species of Jessenia, Balick and Gershoff^ suggest that there is only one. Guajibo Indians 
distinguish a type with whitish mesocarp and another with purplish or pinkish mesocarp. 
Further, they recognize a slender variant with a reddish inner skin tissue.^®
Distribution — Distributed over much of the northern half of South America, including 
Panama and Trinidad.
182 Handbook of Nuts
Table 2
AMINO ACID ANALYSIS OF J E S S E N IA B A T A U A
Mg amino acid per g protein Amino acid Per cent of FAOAVHO
Amino acid component (mean ± standard deviation)* scoring pattern*’ scoring pattern
Isoleucine 47 ± 4 40 118
Leucine 78 ± 4 70 111
Lysine 53 ± 3 55 96
Methionine 18 ± 6
Cystine 26 ± 6
Methionine ± cystine 44 ± 9 35 126
62 ± 3
Phenylalanine
Tyrosine 43 ± 5
105 ± 7 60 175
Phenylalanine -f tyrosine
69 ± 6 40 173
Threonine
68 ± 4 50 136
Valine
Tryptophan 9 ± 1 10 90
Aspartic acid 122
Serine 54
Glutamic acid 96
Proline 75
Glycine 69 ± 4 
Alanine 58 ± 4 
Histidine 29 ± 4 
Arginine 56 ± 2
“ Values represent mean ± standard deviation for 7 separate samples with the exception of tryptophan, for 
which only 3 samples were analyzed.
^ FAO/WHO provisional amino acid scoring pattern. The scoring pattern represents an “ ideal protein’’ con
taining all the essential amino acids to meet requirements without excess (FAO/WHO, 1973).
From Balick, M. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, The New York Botanical 
Garden. With permission.
Table 3
COMPARISON OF “MILK’’ O F J E S S E N IA B A T A U A AND 
OTHER MILKS
Approx. % calories from each component
Jessenia bataua 
milk Human milk* Cow milk* Soybean milk*
Fat 55.3 45.9 49.8 37.6
Protein l A 5.6 20.9 37.9
Carbohydrate 37.3 48.5 29.3 24.5
* USDA, 1963.
From Balick, M. J. and Gershoff, S. N ., Econ. Bot., 35, 261, 1981. Copyright 1981, 
The New York Botanical Garden. With permission.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry (along river courses) to Rain through 
Subtropical Dry to Rain Forest Life Zones, the mil pesos is estimated to tolerate annual 
precipitation of 15 to 100 dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 4.5 to 7.5. 
Once said to have formed solid gallery forests, but also occurring in inland forest up to
1,000 m.
183
Cultivation — Though not normally cultivated, this palm should be given priority in 
testing for plantation culture. “ It has never been cultivated, the minute amounts of oil that 
have entered local native markets always having been extracted from wild tre e s .S e e d s 
apparently take 20 to 40 days to germinate.
Harvesting — Trees may not fruit for 10 to 12 years.^^^ Fruits ripen from April to 
November in Colombia, September to January in Brazil. Natives believed it bears heavier 
in alternate years like so many of our native fruits.Too often the trees are felled to obtain 
the fruits. But about two months after felling, the Guajibo also harvest the edible grubs of 
the palm weevil.^^’^®
Yields and economics — Trees average 14 kg fruit per season.Schultes^^® says the 
fruit clusters may weigh 30 kg yielding 1.5 to 3 kg oil. The high price of the similar olive 
oil would suggest introducing this palm into cultivation. An effort towards this end has 
been initiated by the Centro de Dasarollo Las Gaviotas in the Orinoquia of Colombia. 
PIRB256 calculates that the oil can be produced for about $0.20/kg, 1/8 the cost of olive oil. 
Many Latin Americans, nonetheless, import edible oils. Unfortunately, most of the Brazilian 
stands are remote from Belem where there are large vegetable oil factories. “ The low yield 
of oil, coupled with a lack of machinery adapted to processing this fruit, have resulted in 
very limited production.
Energy — “lam not terribly optimistic on Jessenia as an oilseed fuel, as the oil is simply 
too valuable to bum. In the world market, it (is) probably four times the price of palm oil, 
and thus would be a waste to put in engines.Still, the Colombian natives extract 3 to 4 
bottles of oil from a raceme.
Biotic factors — No data available.
184 Handbook of Nuts
JU G LAN S AILANTHIFOLIA Carr. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Heartnut, Japanese or Siebold 
Walnut
Syn.: Juglans sieboldiana Maxim., Juglans mirabunda Koidz., Juglans lavallei Dode,
Juglans sachalinensis (Miyabe et Kudo) Komar., Juglans allardiana Dode, 
Juglans coarctata Dode
Uses — Heartnut is grown primarily for the kernels of the nuts, used in confectioneries 
and pastries. Wood soft, not strong, of little value as lumber.^^® Wood dark-brown, not 
easily cracked or warped, used for gunstocks, cabinet work, and various utensils in Japan. 
Bark and exocarp of fruit used for dying.Good shade tree and often planted as an 
ornamental.
Folk medicine — Reported to be antitussive and tonic.
Chemistry — Not data available.
Description — Tall erect tree, to 20 m tall, often grown as a low, wide-branching tree; 
branches grayish-brown, densely glandular-pubescent when young; bark whitish. Leaves 
large, petiolate, with 9 to 21 leaflets; leaflets ovate-oblong, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 4 cm 
wide, abruptly acute to acuminate, appressed-serrulate, minutely stellate-pubescent above 
on both surfaces when young, sessile and obliquely truncate at base; petioles and rachis 
densely glandular. Staminate aments 10 to 30 cm long; pistillate aments 10- to 20-flowered, 
pedunculate, densely brown pubescent with crisped hairs. Nut pubescent, with hard shell, 
broadly ovoid to nearly globose, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, mucronate, rugose, with raised sutures. 
Very variable. Flowers May; fruits summer to fall.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity.Nuts vary consid
erably in size and roughness. Best-known varieties of common Siebold walnut are ‘DardinelT 
and ‘English’. Heartnut {Juglans ailanthifolia var. cordiform is [Maxim.] Rehd. [Syn.: J. 
cordiform is Maxim; J. su bcordiform is Dode]) has a cordate or cordate-ovoid, rather de
pressed shell, with relatively thin shell, is nearly smooth with a shallow groove on each 
side, and has better shelling quality. ‘Fodermaier’ and ‘Wright’ are the best cvs, although 
a great many selections have been made and named. Most named heartnuts were introduced 
to the U.S. in the 1920s and 1930s. This cv is extensively cultivated in Japan and the U.S. 
Hybrids with butternuts (Butterjap or buttemut-siebold) resemble the Siebold in branching, 
leaves, and long racemes of nuts, but resemble the butternut in shape of nut, tree hardiness, 
and resistance to serious diseases. Leaves larger than in the butternut. In breeding, its high 
resistance to M elanconis fungus is transmitted to its hybrids with butternuts. The small size 
of the nut has led to selections of clones. Siebold walnut is susceptible to butternut curculio 
and to witches’ broom or bunch disease, the cause of which is unknown, but an insect- 
transmitted virus is suspected. Hybrid ‘Grietz’ is better adapted to southern localities than 
butternut; and ‘Helmick’ is hardier and very promising. Some cvs are not hardy as far north 
as New York. Juglans aveliana Dode and J. notha Rehd. are alleged hybrids between J. 
ailanthifolia Carr, and J. regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam.^^® A number of cvs and hybrids 
of heartnut have been developed which should prove useful for cross-breeding. Vigorous 
hybrids, called “ buartnuts” have been produced by crossing heartnuts and butternuts. These 
hybrids combine the butternut’s desirable kernel flavor and superior climatic adaptability 
with the heartnut’s higher yield and better crackability.^®^ (2n = 32.)
Distribution — Native to Japan. Introduced to San Jose Valley of California about 1870; 
now grown more extensively in northeastern U.S. and southern Ontario. Not worth planting 
in pecan country, and not valued where Persian walnuts (7. regia) thrive. Unadapted to 
extreme temperatures on Northern Plains and Rocky Mountain regions.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, heartnut is 
reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.0 dm (mean of 4 cases = 8.3), annual 
temperature of 14.7 to 25.0°C (mean of 4 cases = 18.1), and pH of 5.5 to 6.8 (mean of
185
3 cases = 6.4).*^ Thrives on wide range of soils from clay to sand, and even makes rapid 
and luxuriant growth on rather poor soil.^^^ Very common along streams and on wettish 
plains.Bears early, and endures temperatures to — 40°C. However, it is more successfully 
grown in areas from Nova Scotia, through Wisconsin and Iowa to southern Oregon and 
British Columbia and south to Virginia, New Mexico, and northern Arizona.Able to 
withstand winters not too cold for peaches. Grown throughout Atlantic coastal states. Pacific 
northwest, and more protected northern areas.Foliage is sometimes injured and season’s 
crop destroyed by late spring frosts.
C ultivation — Propagation by grafting, methods being the same as for butternut and 
black walnut. Siebold grafts easily on its own seedlings and on butternut (7. cinered). It 
also grafts easily on black walnut, but does not outgrow the stock. Also propagated by 
layering, by bending low-growing branches to the ground and burying about 10 cm, leaving 
remainder of branch protruding upright. Limb is cut half through on underside close to 
trunk, firmly bound with cord to form a girdle, and treated with tree dressing. Bent-down 
limb should be shaded from trunk to ground to prevent sunscald. Layers require about 2 
years to root. Grafted trees or rooted limbs are planted in the orchard about same distances 
as other walnuts, about 20 m each way.^^*
H arvestin g — Fruits are borne in long racemes and in good locations, trees produce 
prolifically. Nuts fall to ground in late summer and early fall, and should be harvested by 
picking up the nuts as soon as they fall, to discourage infestation by maggots. Hulls are 
removed and nuts dried for a few days, and then stored as for other walnuts.
Y ields and econ om ics — Heartnuts yield from 106 to 275 nuts per kg, and crack out 
about one-fourth to one-third kg in kernels.Grown on a noncommercial basis in north
eastern U.S. and lower Ontario.
E n ergy — All walnuts are oilseeds, producing good timber, but their value is greater for 
ends other than energetic ends. Yielding better than butternut, this might conceivably be a 
better energy species.
B iotic factors — In some parts of New York State, a beetle burrows in the terminal 
shoot. Because of Siebold walnut and heartnut’s high resistance to M elanconis fungus, it is 
used for hybridizing with butternut, to which it transmits its resistance.Nearly decimated 
in the U.S. in the early 20th century by walnut bunch disease.The A griculture H andbook 
165"^ reports the following as affecting heartnut: M elanconis ju glan dis (canker, dieback), 
M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes), X anthom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also 
listed are brooming disease (virus), rosette (physiogenic, (?) zinc deficiency), and witches’ 
broom (cause unknown).
186 Handbook of Nuts
JU G LA N S CINEREA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Butternut, White Walnut, Oil Nut
Uses — Butternut grown primarily for its nuts, used fresh, roasted, or salted, in confec
tioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. Sugar may be made from the sap. Green husks of fruit 
are used to dye cloth, giving it a yellow-to-orange color.Bark used by pioneers to make 
a brown dye.^^ Narragansett Indians called the butternut ‘wussoquat’ and used the nuts to 
thicken their pottage.Amerindians ate butternuts raw, cooked, or ground into a meal for 
baking in cakes. Iroquois used seed oil for cooking and as a hair dressing. Nuts were 
combined with maple sugar in New England to make maple-butternut candy.The early 
settlers in New England found they could store the nuts for years as insurance against 
starvation. The wood is coarse-grained, light-brown, turning darker upon exposure, used 
for boat construction, boxes, buildings that come into contact with the ground, cabinet work, 
carving, crates, fence posts, furniture, interior finishing of houses, and mill work. Used to 
make some propellers for early windmills.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,pills made from the bark and poultices made 
from the shucks are said to be folk remedies for cancer. Reported to be alterative, cathartic, 
laxative, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, butternut is a folk remedy for cancer, dysentery, 
epithelioma, liver ailments, mycosis, tapeworms, tumors, and warts.Butternut bark (the 
inner bark of the root) is used for fevers and as a mild cathartic.Grieve**^ reports the 
inner bark of the root, collected in May or June, is the best for medicinal use. Has been 
recommended for syphilis and old ulcers; said to be rubefacient when applied to the skin.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 654 calories, 24.6 g 
protein, 63.6 g fat, 8.7 g total carbohydrate, 3.0 g ash, and 7.1 mg Fe.^^ Smith^*® reports 
the butternut to be 86.40% refuse, 4.5% water, 27.9% protein, 61.2% fat, 3.4% total 
carbohydrates, 3.0% ash, and 3,370 calories per pound. Butternut bark (the inner bark of 
the root) contains resinoid juglandin, juglone, juglandic acid, and an essential oil.^^® Roots 
give off a toxin that poisons many other plants in the root area.^^^
Description — Tree to 35 m, with straight trunk 0.6 to 1 m in diameter, round-topped; 
bark smooth, light-gray on young branches, becoming light-brown and deeply fissured, to 
2.5 cm thick; winter-buds terminal, 1.3 to 2 cm long, flattened, outer scales covered with 
pale pubescence; axillary buds dark-brown with rusty pubescence, ovoid, flattened, rounded 
at apex, 0.3 cm long. Leaves 35 to 75 cm long, with stout pubescent petioles, compound 
with 11 to 17 oblong-lanceolate leaflets, 5 to 7.5 cm long, to 5 cm wide, finely serrate, 
glandular, sticky, yellow-green and rough above, pale pubescent beneath; leaves turning 
yellow or brown before falling in fall; hairy fringe present above leaf-scars. Flowers dioe
cious, staminate flowers in thick aments to 1.2 to 5 cm long, calyx 6-lobed, light-yellow 
to green, puberulent on outer surface; bract rusty-pubescent, acute at apex, stamens 8 to 12 
with nearly sessile dark-brown anthers, slightly lobed connectives; pistillate flowers in 6- 
to 8-flowered spikes, constricted above the middle, coated with sticky glandular hairs, 
stigmas red, about 1.3 cm long. Fruits in drooping clusters of 3 to 5, obscurely 2- or 4- 
ridged, ovoid-oblong, covered with rusty, clammy hairs, 3 to 6 cm long with thick husk; 
nut elongated, ovoid, deeply ridged with 4 prominent and 4 less-prominent ribs, light-brown, 
2-celled at base, 1-celled above the middle; kernel white to cream, sweet, very oily, soon 
becoming rancid. Flowers April to June; fruits fall.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the North America Center of Diversity, butternut, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, fungus, limestone, poor soil, slope, and weeds. 
Cvs have been selected with excellent shelling qualities, some of them now being grown 
are ‘Kenworthy’, ‘Kinneyglen’, ‘Buckley’, ‘Helmick’, ‘Craxezy’, ‘Henick’, ‘Johnson’, 
‘Sherwood’, ‘Thrill’, and ‘Van der Poppen’. x ju glan s quadrangulata Rehd., a natural 
hybrid between7. cinerea and7. regia, occurs occasionally in eastern Massachusetts. Hybrids 
between butternut (7. cinerea) and heartnut (7. ailanthifolia) have appeared in the U.S.^^^
187
‘Aiken’ was the first grafted butternut available.Grafted cv ‘Deeming’ reported to bear 
“ when it is two feet high’’.^*° (2n = 32.)
Distribution — Native to eastern North America, from southern New Brunswick to 
Ontario, Michigan, southern Minnesota, and South Dakota, south to eastern Virginia, central 
Kansas, and northern Arkansas, and in the mountains to northern Georgia, Alabama, and 
western Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated elsewhere. Most abundant northward.
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Warm Temperate Dry 
Forest Life Zones, butternut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.4 to 12.3 dm 
(mean of 8 cases = 8.6), annual temperature of 8.4 to 18.0°C (mean of 8 cases = 12.1°C), 
and pH of 4.9 to 7.2 (mean of 7 cases = 6.2).®^ Thrives in rich, moist soils near banks of 
streams, on low rocky hills, as well as in forests, along fences, and road-sides. However, 
it cannot be depended upon as an ornamental planting. Succeeds fairly well on poor upland 
soils, but thrives best on fertile, slightly acid or neutral soils with good drainage. Hardiest 
of any of the northern nuts, but short-lived under some conditions, apparently due to fungus 
disease.Hardy to Zone 3.^"^^
Cultivation — Trees in the forest and along road-sides develop from natural dispersal of 
nuts. When cultivated, nuts or small trees can be planted. To assure viability, seeds should 
not be more than a few years old. Plant where tree is to grow, in spring or fall, burying 
about 2.5 cm in the ground. Fall-planted nuts should be well protected from nut-hunting 
squirrels. Spring-planted nuts should be planted as early as possible, so they can be frozen 
in the ground a few times. Nuts may be stored in freezer a few days before planting to 
insure sprouting. Mid-summer sprouting seedlings grow rapidly, possibly reaching 1 m by 
summer’s end. Plant 10 to 12 m apart for nut production; 5 m apart for timber production. 
Generally takes 10 years from planting to first harvest; the first crop should be a big one.'^^ 
Trees are usually grafted either on seedling butternut or black walnut stocks. Black walnut 
stocks are reported to give earlier bearing trees. Butternut is a rather rapid-growing tree; 
however, it begins to deteriorate when it reaches medium size. Trunks of older trees are 
usually hollow. Otherwise, it requires about the same care and cultivation as other nut 
trees.Ashworth^® reports that it is difficult to graft, possibly due to high sap pressure and 
abundant sap flow in the spring.
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested by picking them up from the ground after they have 
fallen in early to late fall. Husk is removed and nuts are allowed to dry for a few weeks by 
spreading them one deep on a warm attic floor, a greenhouse bench, a sunny garage floor, 
etc. Should be stirred up occasionally so they dry thoroughly. Store in a well-ventilated, 
dry, cool, squirrel-proof place. Kernels are removed by cracking nuts. A hammer and anvil 
or a block of hard wood seems to be the best cracking method. Another method is to cover 
the nuts with hot water and soak them until the water cools. They will crack easily and 
meats come out intact. Kernels may be stored dried, salted, or frozen until used.^^®
Yields and economics — Yield data for this species are usually included with other native 
and cultivated walnuts. Kernels of butternut are harvested along with other walnuts and sold 
salted or variously packaged.Two billion board feet of butternut lumber was reported to 
be cut in 1 year in 1913. Production in 1941 was ca. 920,000 board feet. West Virginia, 
Wisconsin, Indiana, and Tennessee have been the leading states in production of butternut 
lumber. West Virginia mills shipped ca. 250,000 board feet to North Carolina furniture 
plants in 1963. In 1960, the total veneer production was ca. 4 billion square feet; in 1965, 
ca. 14 billion square feet face veneer was shipped. Butternuts are less important commercially 
than black walnuts.
Energy — Both timber and seed oils could be used for energy, but they are, at the 
moment, probably more suitable for other ends. This species is said to yield less than J. 
ailanthifolia.
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack butternut: Actinothecium
188 Handbook of Nuts
juglandis, Botryosphaeria ribis, Cercospora juglandis, Cylindrosporium sp., Fusarium av- 
enaceum, Gnomonia leptostyla, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis juglandis, Microstroma 
brachysporum, M. juglandis, and Nectria galligena. Trees are attacked by Witches’ broom, 
the cause of which is unknown. The nematodes Caconema radicicola and Meloidogyne sp. 
have also been isolated from the tree.*^^’^^*
189
JUG LAN S HINDSII Jeps. ex R.E.Sm. (JUGLANDACEAE) — California or Hind’s Black 
Walnut
Syn.: J u g la n s californ ica var. h in d sii Jeps.
Uses — Kernels of nuts edible, of good quality, but small, used for confectioneries, 
pastries, and roasted or salted nuts. Wood hard, coarse-grained, dark-brown, often mottled, 
with pale thick sap wood. Often cultivated in California as street and shade tree.^"^^
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Deciduous, round-topped tree 10 to 20 m tall, occasionally to 25 m, with 
erect, unbranched trunk 3.3 to 13 m, 30 to 60 cm in diameter; bark strong-scented, gray- 
brown, smoothish, longitudinally fissured into narrow plates; branches pendulous; branchlets 
villose-pubescent, reddish-brown, lenticels pale. Leaves 22 to 30 cm long, alternate, com
pound; petioles and rachis villose-pubescent; leaflets 15 to 19, thin, 6 to 10 cm long, 2 to 
2.5 cm wide, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, long-pointed, often slightly flacate, margin 
serrate, base rounded cuneate to cordate, upper surface puberulous while young, becoming 
bright-green and glabrous, lower surface with tufts of hairs and villose-pubescent along 
midrib and primary veins. Staminate flowers in slender glabrous or villose aments 7.5 to 
12.6 cm long, calyx elongated, covered with pubescence, 5- or 6-lobed, stamens 30 to 40, 
with short connectives bifid at apex; pistillate flowers oblong-ovoid, thickly covered with 
villose-pubescence about 0.3 cm long. Fruit globose, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, husk thin, dark- 
colored with soft pubescence; nut nearly globose, somewhat flattened at ends, faintly grooved 
with remote longitudinal depressions, shell thick; seed small and sweet.
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, Hind’s black 
walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate high pH.^^ In California, natural hybrids are 
known between this walnut and Juglans nigra; also a hybrid ‘Paradoxa’ (J. hindsii x J. 
regia) has been produced artificially. J. hindsii var. quercina Sarg. (7. c a lif ornica (var.) 
quercina Babcock) has leaves with 1 to 5 leaflets, usually 3, short-stalked or sessile, broadly 
ovate to oblong, obtuse or emarginate, serrate or entire, 1.3 to 5 cm long. (2n = 24.)^^^
Distribution — Native to Coastal region of central California. Sometimes cultivated in 
California, eastern U.S., and Europe.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Dry Forest Life Zones, Hind’s black 
walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 6.6 dm (mean of 2 cases = 
4.9), annual temperature of 12.7 to 14.7°C (mean of 2 cases = 13.7), and pH of 6.8 to 
8.2 (mean of 2 cases = 7^).^^ In natural habitats, trees are found along streams and rivers. 
Trees not suitable for lawn-planting because rootstock is very susceptible to crown rot 
(Phytophthora cactorum ), especially if given frequent summer irrigation.
Cultivation — Trees used as stock for Persian walnut (7. regia), top-worked high to 
provide butt logs for walnut timber.
Harvesting — Fruit gathered when ripe in fall. Treated like other walnuts.
Yields and economics — Valued mostly as a shade or street tree in California, and as 
stock on which to graft varieties of Persian walnut (7. regia). Butt logs 45 cm in diameter 
bring about $200 each.^^®
Energy — Endangered or threatened species are not recommended as energy species. 
However, if abundant in cultivation, this species could serve as a high-priced oilseed and 
firewood, though the fmit and timber could find better uses.
Biotic Factors — Trees are resistant to oak root fungus, but particularly susceptible to 
crown rot {P hytophthora cactorum ). The following are also reported as affecting this species: 
C acopaurus epacris, C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot). M icrostrom a ju glan dis, Xan- 
thom onas ju glan dis (bacterial blight). Also reported are Black-line (girdle-graft incompat
ibility) and Little leaf (zinc deficiency)."^
190 Handbook of Nuts
JUGLANS NIGRA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — Eastern Black Walnut
Uses — Black walnut is one of most valuable natural forest trees in the U.S. The nuts 
furnish a food product, used mainly for flavoring baked goods, pastries, and confectioneries. 
The wood has good texture, strength, and is coarse-grained, very durable, of a rich dark- 
brown color with light sapwood; used in cabinet-making, gun-stocks, interior finishes of 
houses, furniture, air-planes, ship-building. Wood is also easy to work, resistant to destruc
tive fungi and insect pests. Woody shells on fruits are used to make jewelry. Green fruit 
husks are boiled to provide a yellow dye. Trees are used for shade and ornamentals.
Folk medicine — The bark and leaves are considered alterative, astringent, detergent, 
laxative, and purgative. They are used for eczema, herpes, indolent ulcers, scrofula. The 
unripe fruit is sudorific and vermifugal, and used for ague and quinsy, and is rubbed onto 
cracked palms and ringworm. Oil from the ripe seeds is used externally for gangrene, leprosy, 
and wounds. Burnt kernels, taken in red wine, are said to prevent falling hair. Green husks 
are supposed to ease the pain of toothache. Indians used the root bark as a vermifuge. 
Macerated in warm water, the husks and/or leaves, are said to destroy insects and worms, 
without destroying the grass. Insects are said to avoid the walnut; hence it is often used as 
a poor man’s insect repellent. Rubbed on faces of cattle and horses, walnut leaves are said 
to repel flies. The roots and/or leaves exude substances which are known to inhibit ger
mination and/or growth of many plant species. All parts of the plant contain juglone, which 
inhibits other plant species. Juglone has antihemorrhagic activity.
191
Chemistry — The genus Juglans is reported to contain the following toxins: folic acid, 
furfural, inositol, juglone, nicotine, and tryptophane.^^ Juglone has an oral LD50 of 2500 
|xg in mice. Chloroform is said to constitute a large part of the essential oil of the leaves. 
Per 100 g, black walnut contains 3.1% water, 628 calories, 20.5 g protein, 59.3 g fat, 14.8 
g total carbohydrate (1.7 g fiber), 2.3 g ash, a trace of Ca, 570 mg P, 6 mg Fe, 3 mg Na, 
460 mg K, 3(X) lU Vitamin A, 0.22 mg thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin.
Description — Tree up to 33 m tall, occasionally to 50 m, and often 100 years old; trunk 
straight, often unbranched for 20 m, 1.3 to 2 m in diameter; branches forming a round- 
topped crown, mostly upright and rigid; branchlets covered at first with pale or rusty matted 
hairs, and raised conspicuous orange lenticels; bark 5 to 7.5 cm thick, dark-brown tinged 
red, deeply furrowed with broad rounded ridges; twigs light-brown with channeled pith; 
terminal bud as broad as long; no hairy fringe above leaf-scar; leaves compound, deciduous, 
30 to 60 cm long, petioles pubescent, with 13 to 23 leaflets; leaflets 7.5 to 8 cm long, 2.5 
to 3 cm wide, long-pointed, sharply serrate, slightly rounded at base, yellow-green, thin, 
glabrous above, soft-pubescent beneath, turning bright-yellow in fall before falling; staminate 
aments thick, 7.5 to 12.5 cm long, compact, not-stalked, single; calyx 6-lobed, lobes 
concave, nearly orbicular, pubescent on outer surface, its bract nearly triangular with rusty 
brown tomentum; stamens 20 to 30, in many series, connectives purple, truncate, nearly 
sessile; pistillate aments in 2 to 5-flowered spikes, bracts with pale glandular hairs, green, 
puberulous, calyx-lobes ovate, acute, puberulent on outer surface, glabrous or pilose within; 
fruit solitary or in pairs, globose, oblong or pointed at apex; husk yellow-green or green, 
smooth or roughened with clusters of short pale articulate hairs, 3 to 5 cm in diameter, 
indéhiscent; nut oval, oblong or round, rough or sculptured, 3 to 3.5 cm in diameter, dark- 
brown tinged red, 4-celled at base, slightly 2-celled at apex; kernel sweet, soon becoming 
rancid. (2n = 32.) Flowers April to May; fruits at frost in fall.®^’^^^
Germplasm — At present, nearly 100 varieties of black walnuts have been selected and 
named. Many can be propagated to order, or scions may be obtained for grafting upon 
established stocks. Varieties or cultivars differ in hardiness, response to length of growing 
season, summer heat, resistance to diseases and susceptibility to insect damage. ‘Thomas’ 
is the most cultivated variety in New York; ‘Synder’ and ‘Cornell’ have good cracking 
quality for northern areas; ‘Wiard’, for Michigan; ‘Huber’ and ‘Cochrane’, for Minnesota; 
‘Sparrow’, ‘Stambaugh’, and ‘Elmer Myers’ are all good in parts of the South; ‘Ohio’ and 
‘Myers’ are good in north central areas. Natural hybrid, x Juglans intermedia Carr (7. 
nigra x J. regia) has been recorded in the U.S. and Europe. In California, ‘Royal’ (7. 
nigra X 7. hindsii) has been artificially produced. Reported from the North American Center 
of Diversity, walnut is reported to be relatively tolerant to disease, drought, fire, frost, 
fungi, high pH, heat, insects, limestone, slopes, smog, and weeds.
Distribution — Grows naturally in 32 states and in southern Ontario, Canada; most 
abundant in Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and Tennessee. Occasionally cultivated 
as an ornamental in eastern U.S., western and central Europe. Planted in Europe for timber.
Ecology — Wind pollinated, walnut may play a small role in hay fever. Suited to rich 
bottomlands and fertile hillsides from lower Hudson Valley southward, walnut will grow a 
few hundred miles outside its natural range, but may not bear nuts. Seedling trees mature 
fruit rather generally throughout area with a growing season of about 150 days and an average 
summer temperature of 16.5°C. Best suited to deep, rich, slightly acid or neutral soil, with 
good drainage, but will not succeed on infertile upland soil or on soils with poor drainage. 
Reliable indicators for suitable land are good stands of white oak and tulip popular, or where 
com grows well. Because trees have a deep tap-root, they are drought-resistant. Black walnut 
is reported from areas with annual precipitation from 3 to 13 dm (mean of 19 cases = 9), 
annual temperature from 7 to 19°C (mean of 19 cases = 11), and pH from 4.9 to 8.2 (mean 
of 15 cases = 6.3).®^’^^®
192 Handbook of Nuts
Cultivation — Improved varieties do not come true from seed, hence, propagation is by 
grafting scions (twigs) from trees of desired varieties onto main stems of 2- to 3-year old 
native seedlings. Scions develop crowns that bear nuts of their own variety. As there is little 
information available to indicate the best varieties for different localities, local nurseries 
should be consulted as to the best for a given locality. Trees are self-fertile, but the sequence 
of male and female blooming, called dichogamy, can and often does minimize chances of 
a tree shedding pollen on its own pistils. In different trees pollen may be shed before the 
receptivity period of female flowers, or at same time, or after pistil receptivity. For greatest 
possible nut production, plant trees of 2 or more varieties, as different varieties have over
lapping pollen-receptivity periods and can pollinate each other. Young plants are best trans
planted in early spring, at which time new roots will grow rapidly to replace those lost in 
transplanting. In the South, young trees may be planted in fall or winter. For nut production, 
trees are spaced 20 m apart. For trees up to 2.3 m tall, dig hole 0.6 m deep and 1 m wide. 
Place tree at same depth in hole as it stood in nursery and spread out roots well. Fill hole 
with topsoil and firm down soil. Form a basin around edge of hole and soak soil immediately. 
Black walnuts require large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus. Apply mixed fertilizer 
(5-10-5 or 10-10-10) each year under tree branches when buds begin to swell in early spring. 
Use rates of 450 g/year of 5-10-5 fertilizer, or 230 g/year for 10-10-10, per tree. Do not 
use during first year, because of danger of injuring roots. In strongly acid soils, apply lime 
to change pH to 6 or 6.5. Do not over-lime, as this makes zinc in soil unavailable to tree. 
Soils east of Mississippi River are often deficient in magnesium, so crushed dolomite 
limestone is used to correct this condition and reduce acidity of soil. Prune any suckers that 
come from below graft on trunk. In orchards, trees over 15 years old may be interseeded 
with grasses and legumes, and animals may be turned in to pasture, as they will not damage 
older trees. All black walnuts tend to bear heavy nut crops every second year. No cultural 
practices have been developed to offset this type of alternating. Some trees bear every year, 
while others bear every third year. Others mainly react to climatic conditions with no pattern. 
In the U.S. growing seasons are divided into 3 zones: North of Mason-Dixon Line, 140 to 
180 days; south to North Carolina, northern Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and 
Oklahoma, 180 to 200 days; south of that, 220 to 260 days. Varieties are selected for each 
area. When trees bearing fruits of exceptional quality are found, they are propagated and 
cultivated for nut production in that area.^^^
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested from native trees as well as from improved selections 
and cultivars. Fruit ripens in one season, usually by late September or early October. Most 
production is from wild trees growing on non-crop land, and these represent the main 
commercial source of kernels for today’s market. Nuts should be harvested as soon as they 
fall, in order to get light-colored kernels with mild flavor. Leaving them on ground causes 
some discoloration of kernel. Hulls of native trees are thick and heavy, whereas those of 
Thomas’ and ‘Ohio’ have thinner hull, those of ‘Myers’ being thinnest of all. Hull may be 
mashed and removed by hand, or by mechanical devices. After removing the hulls, nuts 
should be washed thoroughly and spread out to dry in direct sunlight. Drying takes 2 to 3 
weeks; nuts can then be stored in a cool, dry place until needed. Nuts are cracked and 
kernels removed for use.^^®
Yields and economics — Although Duke®^ reported yields of 7.5 MT seeds, this is 
probably highly optimistic. Elsewhere it is said that 95% of the wild black walnut seeds are 
empty or aborted. Perhaps yields could be as high as 2.5 MT/ha under intensive management, 
which is attainable in the commercial walnut, Juglans regia. Selections are made based on 
weight of nuts. Trees may bear at rates of 7,500 seed per ha. Nuts from wild trees weigh 
about 17 g (27 nuts per lb); for selected varieties, weights vary from 15 to 30 g; those 20 
g or over are: ‘Michigan’ (20); ‘Grundy’, ‘Monterey’, ‘Schreiber’ and ‘Thomas’ (21); 
‘Victoria’ (22); ‘Hare’ (23); ‘Pinecrest’ (25); and ‘Vandersloot’ (30). ‘Thomas’, ‘Ohio’ and
193
‘Myers’ begin bearing nuts in second or third year after planting, while native trees usually 
do not begin to bear until about 10 years after planting. In 5 to 6 years, these three varieties 
bear about one-fourth bushel of nuts; at 15 to 20 years of age, the first two bear 2 bu of 
nuts, ‘Myers’ about 1 bu, and native trees about V4 bu. Lumber trees yield about 1150 board 
feet at 76 years old. Nut shelling industry is centered in and around Arkansas, Kansas, 
Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, West Virginia, and Virginia. Because of the 
scarcity of trees and the long growing period required to get wood, walnut lumber is not in 
great demand as it used to be. More frequently grown in Europe for lumber. Walnuts are 
grown in the U.S. for nuts and ornamentation. In the U.S. the following are said to deal in 
walnut oil: Main Pure Food Company (13660 S. Figueroa, Los Angeles, California) and 
Tunley Division, Welch, Home and Clark Co. (1000 S. 4th Street, Harrison, New Jersey) 
Well-formed trees will yield lumber worth thousands of dollars.
Energy — Oil contents of the seeds run about 60%, suggesting that if the walnut yields 
of 7.5 MT/ha were attained, there might be as much as 4.5 MT oil there. Hulls and exocarp 
might be used to fuel the processing, as the value of the timber improves with age (one tree 
commanded $35,0(X) at an Ohio auction). Prunings and culls, as well as fallen and dead 
limbs, might about to 5 MT/ha/year.
B iotic factors — Walnut anthracnose is most serious disease to native trees. ‘Ohio’ is 
resistant to this disease; ‘Myers’ is less resistant. Disease over-winters in fallen leaves and 
reinfects new leaflets in mid-May until mid-June, often defoliating entire trees. Many nuts 
are empty or contain blackened, shriveled kernels. Bunch disease, of which the cause and 
means of spread are unknown, stunts growth of the tree and lowers nut production. The 
most serious insect pests are walnut lace bug, curculios, walnut husk maggot, walnut cat
erpillar and fall web-worm. Serious damage may also be caused by leaf-eating caterpillars, 
scales, aphids and twig girdlers. County agricultural agents should be consulted for measures 
to control these in a particular area.^^® Nematodes include M eloidogyne sp., P ratylenchus 
cojfeae, P . p ra ten sis, and P. vulnus.^^^ The following are reported in A gricu ltu re H an dbook 
165"^ as affecting Juglans nigra: B otryosph aeria ribis, C ercospora ju g la n d is (leaf spot), 
C ladosporium sp. (? scab), C. pericarpiu m , C ylindrosporium ju g la n d is (leaf spot), C ytospora 
sp. (canker), C. albiceps, P om es igniarius, G nom onia leptostyla (anthracnose, leaf spot, 
leaf blotch), M eloidogyne spp. (root knot nematodes). M icrostrom a ju g la n d is (downy spot, 
white mold), N ectria ditissim a, P h leospora m ultim aculans (leaf spot), P horandendron fla - 
vescens (mistletoe), P hym atotrichum om nivorum (root rot), P hytophthora cinnam om i (collar 
rot of seedlings), P ratylenchus m usicola, R habdospora ju glan dis, Sclerotium rolfsii (seedling 
blight), S phaeropsis druparum , Stereum fa scia tu m , and X anthom onas ju g la n d is (bacterial 
blight)."^
194 Handbook of Nuts
JUGLANS REGIA L. (JUGLANDACEAE) — English Walnut, Carpathian or Persian Walnut
Uses — Principally valued as an orchard tree for commercial nut production. Nuts are 
consumed fresh, roasted, or salted, used in confectioneries, pastries, and for flavoring. The 
shells may be used as antiskid agents for tires, blasting grit, and in the preparation of 
activated carbon. Ground nut shells are used as an adulterant of spices. Crushed leaves, or 
a decoction are used as insect repellant and as a tea. Outer fleshy part of fruit, very rich in 
Vitamin C, produces a yellow dye. Fruit, when dry pressed, yields a valuable oil used in 
paints and in soap-making; when cold pressed yields a light-yellow edible oil used in foods 
as flavoring. Young fruits made into pickles, also used as fish poison. Twigs and leaves 
lopped for fodder in India. Decoction of leaves, bark, and husks used with alum for staining 
wool brown. Wood hard, durable, close-grained, heavy, used for furniture and gun-stocks. 
Tree often grown as ornamental.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,English walnuts are used in folk remedies 
for aegilops, cancer, carbuncles, carcinoma, condylomata acuminata, corns, excrescences, 
growths, indurations, tumors, warts, and whitlows, especially cancerous conditions of the 
breast, epithelium, fauces, groin, gullet, intestine, kidneys, lip, liver, mammae, mouth, 
stomach, throat, and uterus. Reported to be alterative, anodyne, anthelmintic, astringent, 
bactericide, cholagogue, depurative, detergent, digestive, diuretic, hemostat, insecticidal, 
laxative, lithontryptic, stimulant, tonic, and vermifuge, the English walnut is a folk remedy 
for anthrax, asthma, backache, caligo, chancre, colic, conjunctivitis, cough, dysentery, 
eczema, ejaculation, favus, heartburn, impotence, inflammation, intellect, intestine, intox
ication, kidney, legs, leucorrhea, lungs, rheumatism, scrofula, sore, syphilis, and worms.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 647 to 657 calories, 2.5 to 4.2 
g H2O, 13.7 to 18.2 g protein, 63.6 to 67.2 g fat, 12.6 to 15.8 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 
to 2.1 g fiber, 1.7 to 2.0 g ash, 92 to 106 mg Ca, 326 to 380 mg P, 3.0 to 3.3 mg Fe, 2 
to 3 mg Na, 450 to 536 mg K, 0.50 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.27 to 0.50 mg thiamine, 
0.08 to 0.51 mg riboflavin, 0.7 to 3.0 mg niacin, and 0 to 5 mg ascorbic acid. Wealth of 
India^^ also reports, per 100 g, 2.7 mg Na, 687 mg K, 61 mg Ca, 131 mg Mg, 2.4 mg Fe, 
0.3 mg Cu, 510 mg P, 104 mg S, and 23 mg Cl, and 2.8 |jLg I (as well as Ar, Zn, Co, and 
Mn). About 42% of the total phosphorus is in phytic acid; lecithin is also present. The 
immature fruit is one of the richest sources of ascorbic acid, the skin with 1,090 mg/100 g, 
the pulp with 2,330 mg. The leaves, also rich in ascorbic acid (almost 1% of the weight), 
are rich in carotene (ca. 0.3% wet weight). Juglone is the active compound in the leaves; 
also quercetin, cyanadin, kaempferol, caffeic acid, and traces of p-coumaric acid, hyperin 
(0.2%), quercitrin, kaempferol-3-arabinoside, quercetin-3-arabinoside. The seed oil contains 
3 to 7% palmitic, 0.5 to 3% stearic, 9 to 30% oleic, 57 to 76% linoleic, and 2 to 16% 
linolenic acids. The oil cake, with 86.6% dry matter (DM), contains 35.0% protein, 12.2% 
fatty oil, 27.6% carbohydrates, 6.7% fiber, 5.1% ash (digestible nutrients: 31.5% crude 
protein, 11.6% fatty oil, 23.5% carbohydrates, and 1.7% fiber). The shells contain 92.3% 
DM, 1.7% protein, 0.7% fatty oil, 31.9% carbohydrates, 56.6% fiber, and 1.4% ash.^®’®^ *®^
Description — Deciduous, monoecious trees, 12 to 15 m tall (Payne vars.), 17 to 20 m 
tall (‘Eureka’, ‘Placentia’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Franquette’), or rarely up to 60 m tall; bark brown 
or gray, smooth, fissured; leaf-scars without prominent pubescent band on upper edge. 
Leaves alternate, foetid, pinnate, without stipules; leaflets 15 to 24, opposite, 6 to 15 cm 
long, ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, acuminate; margin irregularly serrate, glabrescent 
above, pubescent and glandular beneath. Flowers developing from dormant bud of previous 
season’s growth; staminate flowers in axillary, pendulous aments 5 to 15 cm long, developing 
1 to 4 million pollen grains each; flowers in axils of scales, with 2 bracteoles, perianth- 
segments 1 to 4, stamens 3 to 40; pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to 9, developing as many 
nuts; in selected varieties not only terminal bud produces fruit, but all lateral buds on previous
195
years growth also produce; perianth 4-lobed. Fruit 3.5 to 5 cm in diameter, globose or 
slightly obovoid, pubescent; nut ovoid, acute, strongly ridged, not splitting.
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Eurosiberian and Central Asian Centers of Diversity, 
English walnut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate frost, high pH, heat, insects, low pH, 
and slope. (2n = 32,36.)^^ Varieties are selected on basis of high heat tolerance, resistance 
to walnut blight {X anthom onas ju glan dis), tolerance for winter cold, and yield and quality 
of kernels. Most promising cvs are of Carpathian origin and have been introduced from 
Poland; they withstand temperatures below those recorded in the the fruit belt of New York. 
Recent superior cvs include: ‘Broadview’, ‘Schafer’, ‘Littlepage’, ‘McKinster’, ‘Metcalfe’, 
‘Jacobs’, and ‘Colby’. Other varieties widely grown in the world include: ‘Marmot’, ‘Mey- 
lanaise’, ‘Come’, ‘Gourlande’, ‘Mayette’, ‘Brantôme’, ‘Ashley’, ‘Glackner’, ‘Nugget’, 
‘Poe’, ‘Franquette’, ‘Concord’, ‘Ehrhardt’, ‘Payne’, and ‘Waterloo’. Persian walnuts have 
been hybridized with butternuts, black walnuts, and other European and Oriental walnuts. 
Juglans regia var. orientis (Dode) Kitam. J. orientis Dode; J. regia var. sinensis sensu 
auct. Japan (non DC.) is a widely cultivated Chinese tree, with glabrous leaves and bran- 
chlets, leaflets 3 to 9, obtuse, entire, except in young trees, and nuts relatively thin-shelled.
D istrib u tion — Native to the Carpathian Mountains of eastern Europe, but often found 
growing wild eastward to Himalayas and China. Widely cultivated throughout this region 
and elsewhere in temperate zone of the Old and New World. Thrives in temperate Himalayas 
from 1,000 to 3,000 m altitude. In North America, thrives as far north as New York State. 
Introduced from Spain by way of Chile to California about 1867. In 1873 ‘Kaghazi’ was 
introduced in northern California and a seedling ‘Eureka’ has become the important source 
of our commercial cvs.^^®
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Steppe to Wet through Subtropical Thom to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, English walnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 
to 14.7 dm (mean of 25 cases = 8.4), annual temperature of 7.0 to 21.1°C (mean of 25 
cases = 12.0), and pH of 4.5 to 8.2 (mean of 21 cases = 6.4). Thrives on rich, sandy 
loam, well-drained, slightly acid or neutral. Responds well to cultivation and fertilization. 
In areas where hardiness is a problem, trees should not be forced into excessive vegetative 
growth. Minimum temperature should not go below - 29°C. One fault of Carpathian walnut 
is that it begins growth early in spring with the result that crop and foliage may be damaged 
by late frosts. When fully dormant, trees can withstand temperatures from — 24°C to — 2 T C 
without serious damage. French cvs may be more winter hardy. ‘Eureka’ is less hardy than 
newer cvs being produced for northern California, Oregon, and higher altitudes. High summer 
temperatures damage kernels, slightly at 38°C, severely at 40.5 to 43.5°C. Quite variable 
resistance to heat among varieties. Reported from areas with pH 4.5 to 8.3, annual rainfall 
3 to 15 dm, and annual temperature 7 to 19°C. Rains in late spring and summer increase 
walnut blight infections.
C ultivation — Since trees are deep-rooted, soil should be fertile, well-drained, alluvial, 
2 m or more deep, of medium loam to sandy or silt loam texture, and free of alkali salts, 
especially excessive boron. Seedling trees show great variation as to hardiness, type of fruit 
and fruitfulness. ‘Paradox’ hybrids, ‘Royal’ hybrids m d Juglans hindsii are used as rootstocks 
for grafting Persian and Carpathian walnuts. Rootstock of Juglans regia may be used if oak 
root fungus {A rm illaria m ellea) is absent in area. Persian walnuts have been grafted to 
Chinese wingnut (P terocarya stenoptera) Selected varieties are best whip- or bark-grafted 
or patch-budded on seedling trees, or top-worked on existing trees. Persian walnuts are 
planted in the orchard from 10 to 20 m each way; however, many spacings are in use 
depending on cv and cultivation methods. Intercropping young walnuts may be useful for 
the first 5 to 10 years. Intercropping may be difficult because of irrigation, spraying, and 
use of equipment for cultivation of the intercrop. Holes should be dug amply wide to 
accommodate roots, planting no deeper than they were in the nursery. Roots should never
196 Handbook of Nuts
be allowed to dry out. Topsoil should be used to fill hole, firmly tamped around roots. Do 
not transplant when soil is wet. Nut trees must have tops reduced or cut back, either before 
or after planting, usually to about 1.5 to 2 m from ground level. Lower buds should be 
suppressed so the upper ones will be forced to grow and make the framework of the tree. 
Newly planted trees should be staked, either with a single stake driven close to the tree and 
tying it to the stake, or driving three stakes equidistant, fastening tree to each with stout 
cord so as not to injure bark. After trees are planted, they should be watched, and watered 
during dry spells until established. When irrigated, a total of 2V2 to 5 acre feet of water per 
acre should be applied throughout the year, including normal rainfall. The modified central 
leader system of training young walnuts is recommended for western orchards, in which 4 
or 5 main framework branches spaced both vertically and horizontally are developed; the 
first branch should be started no lower than 2 m from the ground. The trend is toward 
heavier and more consistent pruning both in young and old trees; very fruitful new varieties 
respond more readily than some of the older varieties. Standard method for applying zinc 
to walnut trees is to drive zinc-bearing metal pieces or glazing points into outer sapwood 
of trees. Other mineral deficiencies which must be corrected are iron, manganese, boron, 
potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, and copper.
Harvesting — Pollination is often a problem, as Persian walnuts are monoecious, with 
separate staminate and pistillate flowers in different parts of the same tree. Staminate catkins 
are 10-15 cm long and produce 1-4 million pollen grains each. Sometimes freshly picked 
catkins are put on paper in room at 2 rC and the shed pollen stored in desiccator at 0°C. 
Then pollen is blown on trees by fan mounted on truck. Helicopters are sometimes used to 
blow pollen over orchard. Under favorable conditions, the husks of nuts crack open and 
adhere temporarily to twigs, allowing nuts to fall to the ground, usually between September 
1 and November 7. Nut fall may be hastened by shaking the trees with long poles or a boom 
shaker. During harvest period, nuts are picked up 3 or 4 times before the total crop has 
matured and dropped. Nuts should not be allowed to remain on ground too long. Nuts are 
washed, if dirty, and spread out in shallow trays with bottom slats spaced 1.5 to 2 cm apart. 
Nuts should not be exposed to sun for entire day. Trays are piled up so as to permit ventilation 
after nuts have become warm. Too-fast drying causes shell to crack and open. In large 
orchards, a drying house is constructed for curing process. After curing and bleaching, nuts 
are graded and packed for shipment.
Yields and economics — Newer cvs begin producing nuts in 5 to 6 years; by 7 to 8 
years, they produce about 2.5 tons of nuts per hectare. Orchards on relatively poor, unir
rigated mountain soil report 1.5 to 2.25 MT/ha; orchards in well-cultivated valleys, 6.5 to 
7.5 MT/ha. A grown individual can yield about 185 kg, but 37 kg is more likely.In the 
U.S., California is the major producing area, with about 129,400 acres producing 77,000 
tons nuts per year; Oregon is second with about 3,500 tons annually; the total valued at 
about $32.3 million. About 60% of Persian walnuts are sold shelled. Lumber from large 
trees may bring up to $1,500 per
Energy — If the walnut yields of 7,500 kg/ha®^ yielded all their 65% (63 to 67%) oil, 
there is a potential oil yield of nearly 5 MT per year, a very worthwhile target, if attainable. 
The green hulls have recoverable ascorbic acid content (2.5 to 5% of dry weight). Hulls 
contain 12.2% tannin, bark contain 7.5%, leaf blades contain 9 to 11%. After extraction of 
the vitamin C and tannin, the residues might be used for fuel or ethanol. Prunings from the 
trees might contribute another 5 MT biomass per year.
Biotic factors — Seedlings are very susceptible to mushroom root rot, and Walnut girdle 
disease ‘Blackline’ is thought to occur when certain horticultural varieties of Juglans regia 
are grafted on rootstocks of Juglans hindsii and its hybrids, associated with graft incom
patibility. Fungi known to attack Persian walnuts include: A ltern arla nucis, A rm illaria 
m ellea, A scoch yta ju glan dis, A spergillus fla vu s, A uricularia auricula-judae, A uricularia
197
mesenterica, Cerrena unicolor, Cladosporium herbarum, Coniophora cerebella, Coprinus 
micaceus, Coriolus tephroleucus, Cribaría violaceae, Cryptovalsa extorris, Cylindrosporium 
juglandis, C. uljanishchevii, Cytospora juglandina, Cytosporina juglandina, C. juglandi- 
cola, Diplodia juglandis, Dothiorella gregaria, Erysiphe polygoni, Eutypa ludibunda, Ex- 
osporina fawcetti, Fomes fomentarías, F. igniarius, F. ulmarius, Fusarium avenaceum, F. 
lateritium, Ganoderma applanatum, Glomerella cingulata, Gnomonia ceratostyla, G. Jug
landis, G. leptostyla, Hemitricia leiotyichia, Hypoxylon mediterraneum, Inonotus hispidas, 
Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinus cyathiformis, Ficea tenera, Marsonia juglandis, Melanconis 
carthusiana, M. juglandis, Melanconium juglandis, M. oblongum, Melanopus squamosus, 
Microsphaera alni, M. juglandis, Microstroma juglandis, Mycosphaerella saccardoana, M. 
woronowi, Nectria appianata, N. cinnabarina, N. ditissima, Oxyporuspopulinus, Phelliunus 
cryptarum, Phleospora multimaculans, Phoma juglandis, Phomopsis juglandis, Phoma jug
landis, Phyllactinia guttata, Phyllosticta juglandina, P. juglandis, Phymatotrichum omni- 
vorum, Phytophthora cactorum, P. cinnamomi, P. citrophthora, Pleospora vulgaris, Pleurotus 
ostreatus, Polyporus hispidas, P. picipes, P. squamosus, Polystictus versicolor, Rhizopus 
nigricans, Stereum hirsutum, Trametes suaveolens, Tubercularia juglandis, T. vulgaris, 
Verticillium albo-atrum. Bacteria attacking Persian walnut include: Agrobacterium tume- 
faciens. Bacillus mesentericus. Bacterium juglandis. Pseudomonas juglandis, Xanthomomas 
juglandis. Cuscuta pentagona also parasitizes the tree. The following nematodes have been 
isolated from Persian walnut: Cacopauruspestis, Diplogaster striatus, Diplogaster coronata, 
Ditylenchus intermedias, Meloidogyne arenaria, M. javanica, M. sp., Pratylenchus coffeae, 
P. pratensis, P. vulnus, Rhabditis debilicauda, R. spiculigera, Tylolaimophorus rotundi- 
cauda. Among the insect pests of this walnut are the following: Walnut Blister mite (Er- 
iophytes tristriatus). Walnut aphid (Chromaphis juglandicola), Italian pear scale (Diaspis 
piricola). Calico scale (Eulecanium cerasorum), Frosted scale (Parthenolecanium prui- 
nosum). Walnut scale (Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae). Codling moth (Cydia pomonella). 
Fruit tree leaf-roller {Archips argyrospila), Indian meal moth {Plodia interpunctella), Walnut 
caterpillar {Dataña integerrima). Red-humped caterpillar (Schizura concinna). Walnut span 
worm (Phigalia plumigeraria), and Walnut husk fly (Rhagolestis completa).
198 Handbook of Nuts
LECYTHIS MINOR Jacq. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Coco de Mono 
Syn: L ecyth is elliptica H.B.K.
Uses — These trees are cultivated for the nuts, which have a delicious flavor and possess 
a high oil content. Small trees are highly ornamental.
Folk medicine — Duke and Wain^^ cite the species as antiasthmatic, depilatory, and 
poisonous.
Chemistry — The seeds have been reported to be somewhat toxic, especially if eaten in 
large quantities. Ingesting the nuts is known to cause loss of hair and nails, at least in 
seleniferous areas. Though seeds taste agreeable, injestion may induce nausea, anxiety, and 
giddiness. Dickson^^ attributes the temporary loss of hair and fingernails that he experienced 
after eating 300 to 600 seeds of L. minor to toxic elements in the seeds. Throughout northern 
Colomiba, L. minor is thought to be poisonous. Castaneda,however, feels they are 
nontoxic. The toxicity of the seeds may depend upon the soils. Some evidence suggest that 
toxic seeds come from plants found on soil high in selenium.Mori^^^ suggests that the 
data suggesting toxicity in L. ollaria may in fact refer to this species. Without voucher 
specimens, weTl never know.
Toxicity — Identified as a selenium-containing analog of the sulfur amino acid, cysta
thionine, the active compound has the following formula: HOOC-Ch(NH2)-CH2-Se-CH2- 
CH(NH2)C00H.3^"
Description — Small to medium-sized trees, often branched from base when in open 
habitats, 5 to 25 m tall, to 70 cm DBH, the crown dilated. Twigs gray, glabrous to pubescent. 
Bark gray, relatively smooth when young, with deep vertical fissures when older. Leaf 
blades ovate, elliptic, or oblong, 8.5 to 24.5 x 4.5 to 10 cm, glabrous, coriaceous, with 
12 to 19 pairs of lateral veins; apex mucronate to acuminate, infrequently acute; base obtuse 
to rounded, infrequently truncate, narrowly decurrent; margins usually crenulate to serrate, 
infrequently entire; petiole 5 to 20 mm long, usually puberulous, infrequently glabrous. 
Inflorescences racemose, unbranched, or once-branched, terminal or in axils of uppermost 
leaves, the principal rachis 10 to 35 cm long, with 10 to 75 flowers, all rachises pubescent, 
the pedicels jointed, 1 to 3 mm long below articulation, subtended by an ovate, caducous 
bract 2 to 4 x 2 to 3 mm, with 2 broadly ovate, caducous bracteoles 3 to 6 x 3 to 4 mm 
inserted just below articulation. Flowers 5 to 7 cm diameter; calyx with 6 widely to very 
widely ovate, green lobes 6 to 11 x 6 to 9 mm; petals 6, widely obovate or less frequently 
widely oblong to oblong, 27 to 42 x 14 to 25 mm, green in bud, usually white, less 
frequently light-yellow at anthesis; hood of androecium dorsiventrally expanded, 20 to 23 
X 19 to 25 mm, with well-developed, inwardly curved, antherless appendages, the outside 
of hood white or light-yellow, the appendages always light-yellow; staminal ring with 300 
to 410 stamens, the filaments 2 mm long, dilated at apex, light-yellow, the anthers 0.5 to
0.7 mm long, yellow; hypanthium usually pubescent, infrequently glabrous; ovary 4-locular, 
with 3 to 6 ovules in each locule, the ovules inserted on floor of locule at juncture with 
septum, the summit of ovary umbonate, the style not well differentiated, 2 to 4.5 mm long. 
Fruits cup-like, globose or turbinate, 5 to 7 x 7 to 9 cm, the pericarp 7.5 to 11 mm thick. 
Seeds fusiform, 2.4 to 3 x 1.3 to 2 cm, reddish-brown, with 4 to 6 light-brown longitudinal 
veins when dried, the testa smooth, with cord-like funicle surrounded by fleshy white aril 
at base."'"’"^’""5
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, coco de mono, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate low pH.^^ Very closely related to another coco de 
mono, Lecythis ollaria, found east of the Andes and also suspected to exhibit seed toxicity. 
(X = 17.)
Distribution — Introduced at Mayaguez, P.R.; La Lima, Honduras: Summit, Panama; 
and Soledad, Cuba. Ranges from the Maracaibo lowlands of Venezuela to the northern coast
199
of Colombia from where it ascends the Magdalena and Cauca Valleys. This species most 
often occurs in dry, open, somewhat disturbed habitats, where it grows as a small, much- 
branched tree. However, it is also found in moister forests, especially along watercourses, 
where it forms a handsome, single-trunked tree to 25 meters.
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, coco de mono 
is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15.1 dm), 
annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.5°C (mean of 3 cases = 25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 8.0 
(mean of 3 cases = 6.6).^^ Thrives along rivers in tropical forests.
Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seeds, but never systematically culti
vated.^^®
Harvesting — Flowers most profusely from April to December and produces mature fruit 
from December to February throughout its native range. At Summit Gardens, Panama, where 
it is cultivated as an ornamental, this species flowers during the wet season from April to 
November.Like Brazil nuts, these nuts are collected from native trees when ripe. Trees 
may begin to bear fruit when only 2 m tall.^^®
Yields and economics — Formally, before 1968, nuts were distributed regularly, at least 
locally in Honduras.
Energy — These relatively slow-growing trees and their prunings could serve as energy 
sources. Annual leaf litter from another species of Lecythis was nearly 2 MT/ha/year.^^^
Biotic factors — Probably pollinated by bees and disseminated by fruit bats as in Lecythis 
pisonis.
200 Handbook of Nuts
LECYTHIS OLEARIA L. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Monkey Pod, Monkey Pot, Olla de Mona
Uses — The Monkey Pot is grown and/or collected for the seeds, which are edible and 
are the source of an oil used for illumination and for making soap. Sap may be mixed into 
an agreeable drink. Wood is easy to split, strong, and polishes well. Resistant to insects, 
termites, and barnacles, it is used for wharves, piles, sluices, and house-framing. Bark is 
recommended for tanning.
Folk medicine — Oil extracted from the seeds is considered a powerful hemostat.'^^ 
Latex of the pericarp is used by South American Indians as a depilatory.
Chemistry — Ingestion of the seed has associated with alopecia and selenium poisoning, 
as manifested by acute intoxication, fever, diarrhea, and various neurological symptoms, 
the active principle being the selenium analog of the sulfur amino acid cystathionine.*^ 
While I might try the seeds were I suffering cancer or AIDS, there are enough toxicology 
data to make me avoid the seeds as part of my regular diet. After prolonged exposure to 
active extracts or the seeds, sacrificed guinea pigs exhibited hair growth inhibition, atrophy 
and disappeamce of the sebaceous glands, marked atrophy of the epidermis, edema, and 
intraalveolar hemorrhage of the lungs, necrotic foci of the liver and spleen, and intense 
sinusoidal congestion of the adrenals.Such symptoms might also result from experimental 
self-medication.
Description — Small-to-medium tree with warty branches; bark reddish-yellow, hard and 
heavy; wood reddish-yellow to dark-brown, very strong. Leaves sessile or subsessile, al
ternate, chartaceous, ovate to oblong-ovate, apex acute to obtuse, base rounded to subcordate, 
subserrate, the reticulate venation not prominent, 5.2 to 9 cm long, 2.5 to 5 cm wide. 
Inflorescence in terminal spikes, with ovate deciduous bracts. Flowers variable; sepals 6, 
oblong, uneven with rounded margins, concave, persistent; petals 6, larger than the sepals, 
spathulate, subequal, oblong, to subrounded, concave, with a reflex margin, white. Capsule
201
pot-shaped, brown, rounded, 3.5 to 6 x 5.6 to 8.2 cm, with a 6-lobed ring-shaped, obtuse 
calycine ring; pericarp woody; seeds with brown covering and a yellowish oily meat.^^’^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, monkey pot, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone and low pH.^^ Some authors think this is 
conspecific with L. minor. Prance and Mori,^^^ tabulating the differences, maintain them as 
distinct.
Distribution — North-central Venezuela, east of the easternmost branch of the Andes, 
west of the Paria Peninsula, and north of the Rio Orinoco.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist Forest 
Life Zones, monkey pot is reported to tolerate precipitation of 9.1 to 22.8 dm (mean of 4 
cases = 13.3), annual temperature of 23.7 to 26.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 24.8°C), and pH 
of 5.0 to 7.1 (mean of 4 cases = 6.4).^^ Usually a small tree in savanna-like environments, 
sometimes to 20 m tall in more favorable environments.
Cultivation — Trees are easily propagated from seed, in nature probably disseminated 
by bats.
Harvesting — Seeds harvested from wild trees as available. Extraction of oil said to be 
carried out by local populations.
Yields and economics — Seed collected locally and used for oil or as a food, especially 
by natives of northern South America.
Energy — I can only speculate about these tropical trees with no real yield data. With 
breeding for dwarfing and improved reliability and quantity of yield, I think these trees 
could yield 1 to 3 MT oil per ha. Prunings, fruit husks, and leaf litter could also be captured 
for energy conversion.
Biotic factors — No pests or diseases reported on this plant.
202 Handbook of Nuts
LECYTHIS PISONIS Cambess. (LECYTHIDACEAE) — Sapucaia
Uses — Sapucaia nuts and paradise nuts are almost contradictory terms, paradise implying 
a good exotic flavor, and sapucaia because, according to one interpretation, the nuts were 
fed to chickens by Amazonian 
Indians.Mori is of the opinon that sapucaia is the Tupi- 
guorani name given to the fruit because of the wailing sound of the wind blowing across 
the empty open fruits.Some connoisseurs consider them the finest of nuts. The kernels, 
eaten raw or roasted, are occasionally used to make candies or cakes. An edible oil expressed 
from the kernels is also used to produce soap and illumination. Since monkeys are fond of 
the seeds, the empty pods, with lids removed, are baited with com to trap monkeys who 
can get their open hands in but have trouble getting their closed hands out. The trees could 
be widely planted, as they furnish fuel, food, timber, and are ornamental.Still they have 
their detractions. Falling empty pods are dangerous to pedestrians. Trees are deciduous, so 
leaves must be raked after they have fallen. The fleshy flowers are also messy.
Folk medicine — The oil is regarded as antipodriagic and cardiotonic. Water preserved 
in the fmits for 24 hr is said to remove skin blemishes.While I find no anticancer data 
for this species, I would not hesitate to eat the seeds of the seleniferous varieties if I had 
cancer or AIDS. I might suffer from nausea and alopecia, side effects common with synthetic 
chemotherapy. Some people trek to New York to visit with an M.D. (I. Revici) who has 
“ anti-AIDS medications” based on synthetic combinations of selenium and fatty acids or 
vegetable oils. I urge further testing of seleniferous Lecythidaceous fmits in the U.S. cancer 
screening program.
Chemistry — Rosengarten^^^ suggests that the kernels contain ca. 62% fat and 20% 
protein. Pereira^^^ says fmits contain 9% oil. Finding no more data on these Lecythis species, 
I suggest that they might be comparable in composition to Brazil nuts in component fatty 
acid percentages, i.e., ca. 15% palmitic-, ca. 5% stearic-, ca. 45% oleic-, and ca. 35% 
linoleic. Selenium content might be predicted to vary with provenance. Nuts are said to get 
rancid within a week or two.^^
Description — Tree to 40 m tall, 1V2 m DBH, deciduous near the end of the dry season. 
Leaves simple, alternate, entire, penninerved. Flowers large, attractive, yellow to lilac or 
lavender or blue, sepals 6, petals 6, stamens numerous, ovary 4-locular. Pods 30 to 40 
seeded, operculate. Seeds wrinkled, irregularly oblong, ca. 5 cm long, more rounded than 
Brazil nuts, lighter brown and with thinner shell. Kernels ivory white, with a creamy texture. 
Mori and Prance,keenly aware of the taxonomic complexities of the group, list 10 
characteristics, the combination of which uniquely identifies the “ sapucaia group” :
1. Large trees (at maturity they are emergents)
2. Brownish bark with pronounced vertical fissures
3. Laminated outer bark
4. Deciduous leaves which are flushed shortly before or at the same time as the flowers
5. Leaves, flowers, and fmits which possess an unidentified compound that oxidizes 
bluish-green when the parts are bmised
6. Hood of androecium flat with the proximal appendages anther-bearing and the distal 
ones antherless
7. Pollen of the hood anthers turning from yellow or white to black after 24 hr
8. Short styles with an annular expansion towards the apex
9. Large, dehiscent, woody fmits
10. Seeds with a long cord-like funicle which is surrounded by a large fleshy aril
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, sapucaia and 
closely related species, show a rather general lack of tolerance to environmental extremes.
203
Such narrow tolerances seem to be characteristics of rainforest species. As defined by Mori 
and Prance,the sapucaia group consists of three species, in addition to L. piso n is (incl. 
L. usitata): L. am pla (incl. L. costaricen sis) from Nicaragua to Colombia, L. lanceolata, 
from Rio de Janeiro to Bahia, and L. zabucaja (incl. L. tum efacta), from Venezuela and 
the Guianas disjunctly to Central Amazonia. Many of the data in the literature on sapucaia 
may refer to one or the other of these.
D istrib u tion — Common in the coastal forests of eastern Brazil and Amazonia.
E cology — Estimated to range from Tropical Moist to Wet through Subtropical Dry to 
Wet Forest Life Zones, sapucaia is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 12 to 42 
dm, annual temperature of 23 to 2 T C , and pH of 4 to 8. Said to occur in samll groups near 
hilltops in forests. The ‘sapucaia’ group of L ecythis is not found at elevations over 800 m 
or in the dryer savanna or caatinga habitats. They inhabit forests with around 20(X) mm or 
more rainfall per year and in some areas tolerate moderate dry seasons of up to 6 months. 
Nevertheless, this is a typical moist-forest group which provides a good example of the 
effects of climatic and geological changes on the distribution and evolution of neotropical 
lowland trees.T he annual leaf litterfall of a 10-year-old stand was estimated at 1,849 
kg/ha at Pau-Brasil Ecological Station, on oxisols (haplorthoxs) pH 4.5 to 5.5, annual 
precipitation 13 to 14 dm, annual temperature 24 to 25°C with annual amplitude of 7 to 
362 on the phenology and floral biology are treated by Mori et al.^^° Over 6 years 
in Bahia, leaf fall was mostly from September to December, flowering in October and 
November, and fruiting 7 months later in March and April (southern hemisphere).
C ultivation — Seeds could be planted in situ or in pots for transplant later.
H arvestin g — Said to start bearing when 8 to 10 years old, the seeds are largely harvested 
from the wild, often by animals other than man. Bats are the dispersal agent. It is very 
difficult for man to get the seeds before bats get them.^*^
Y ield s and econ om ics — Rosengarten^®^ quotes estimates of 70 kg nuts per tree. None
theless, there are no large plantations, only a few small plantings in Brazil, the Guianas, 
the West Indies, and Malaysia. The fact that the fruit is dehiscent, exposing the delicious 
nuts to the nut-eating animals and birds, makes this much less attractive than its relative, 
the Brazil nut, for commercial exploitation. Dwarfed cvs, which might be bagged for 
protection from predators, might make the sapucaia a more attractive commercial possiblity.
E n ergy — Assuming 50 kg nuts per tree and 100 trees per ha (they may bear quite 
precociously) and 60% oil, there is an incredible 3 MT oil per hectare, if you could capture 
it all. This edible oil could be used for fuel, if fuel were more valuable than food, and the 
press-cake, if non-seleniferous, could be used for food or feed. Prunings from the trees, as 
well as the husks, might be used for fuel. As Periera^^^ notes, the dry fruits serve as fuel. 
Leaf litter alone approaches 2 MT/ha/hr.
B iotic factors — Mori and Prance^^^ found that the carpenter bee, X ylocopa fro n ta lis, is 
a regular visitor to the flowers. It transports two types of pollen from the flower, viable 
pollen from the staminal ring and non viable pollen (the reward) from the hood of the flowers. 
Non viable pollen is collected and placed in pollen baskets; viable pollen, deposited on head 
and back, causes fertilization.Bats, monkeys, parrots, and peccaries probably obtain most 
of the pro duc tion.In Trinidad, bats {P hyllostom us hastatus) remove the seeds, 
dropping them after eating the aril, either in flight or under their roosts. Bats are the main 
dispersers.
204 Handbook of Nuts
LICANIA RIGIDA Benth. (ROSACEAE) — Oiticica 
Syn.: P lera g in a um hresissim a Arruda Camara
Uses — Seeds of this tree are the source of Oiticica Oil, a drying oil used in place of 
tung oil for varnishes and protective coatings. Trees are sometimes grown as shade trees in 
villages where the plants are native. Timber sometimes used in construction.*’
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Hilditch and Williams*^^ indicate that the seed fat contains 61% alpha- 
licanic acid (4-keto-9,l 1,13-octadecatrienic acid) (C18H28O3) and 17% alpha- elaeostearic 
acids. Licanic acid is unique among natural fatty acids in containing a ketonic group. 
According to Vaughan,the oil most closely resembles tung oil in chemical and physical 
properties. The oil cake contains 9% protein, but contains so much tannin and residual oil 
as to be unsuitable for animal feed. Hager’s Handbook*^^ puts the oil content of the whole 
fruit at 33 to 45%, the kernels at 49 to 65%. Of this, 70 to 82% is alpha-licanic acid, 4 to 
12% oleic-, up to 4% linoleic-, 10 to 11% palmitic-, and stearic- and isolicanic-acid. 
Myricetin is also reported. Here we have no exception to disprove the rule. In general, 
tropical oilseeds have higher percentages of saturated fatty acids, compared to their temperate 
counterparts. In the Rosaceae, seed fats of tropical genera have about 10% saturated fatty 
acids, temperate genera about 5%. The tropical oils hence become rancid more rapidly. *^®’*^* 
Description — Small tree to 15 m tall, with spreading crown, the young branches lanate 
to tomentellous, soon becoming glabrous and lenticellate. Leaves oblong to elliptic, 6.0 to
13.0 (to 16.0) cm long, 2.8 to 6.5 cm broad, coriaceous, rounded to cordate at base, glabrous 
and shining on upper surface, the lower surface with deeply reticulate venation quite or 
nearly describing stomatal cavities, with lanate pubescence among but not on veins; midrib 
prominulous above, puberulous toward base when young; primary veins 11 to 16 pairs.
205
prominent on lower surface, prominulous above; 5.0 to 8.0 cm long, tomentose when young, 
becoming glabrescent with age, terete, with two sessile glands. Stipules linear, to 10.0 mm 
long, membranous, caducous. Inflorescenes racemose panicles, the rachis and branches 
gray-tomentose. Flowers 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, in small groups, sessile on primary branches 
of inflorescence. Bracts and bracteoles 1.5 to 2.5 mm long, ovate, tomentose on exterior, 
persistent, entire to serrulate, eglandular. Receptacle campanulate, gray-tomentose on ex
terior, tomentose within; pedicels to 0.5 mm long. Calyx lobes acute, tomentose on exterior, 
tomentellous within. Petals 5, densely pubescent. Stamens ca. 14; filaments equalling calyx 
lobes, connate to about half-way from base, densely pubescent. Ovary attached to base of 
receptacle, villous. Style equalling calyx lobes, villous nearly to apex. Fruit elliptic, 4.0 to 
5.5 cm long; epicarp smooth, drying green or black; mesocarp thin, fleshy; endocarp thin, 
fibrous, fragile, fibers arranged longitudinally promoting longitudinal dehiscence, sparsely 
pubescent within. Germination hypogeal.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, oiticica, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought. Some efforts have been made to develop high- 
yielding strains which can be propagated vegetatively. The number of native trees is limited 
by their habitat requirements and cannot be increased to meet increasing demands for oil.®^^^^
Distribution — Dry forests and gallery forests of northeastern Brazil. According to 
Prance,this species is cultivated outside its natural range, e.g., in Trinidad, “but is not 
used commercially outside Brazil.” This tree is confined primarily to the arid regions of 
northeastern Brazil, including the states of Ceara, Rio Grande de Norte, Bahia, Piaui, 
Maranhao, Paraiba, and northern Pernambuco. Introduced to Trinidad and a few other regions 
with similar ecological conditions.
Ecology — Oiticica trees thrive on dry tropical lowlands where there is a dry season from 
July to December and where the annual rainfall varies from ca. 9 to 14 dm.®^ It is often 
found in dry open grasslands bordering rivers. Plantations should be put on well-drained, 
alluvial, fertile soils, rich in potash, with a pH of about 7.0. The average temperature should 
be 31.7 to 32.9°C.^^^ Markley^^ suggests that it is especially common along the banks of 
rivers, said to form dense groves in rich alluvial soils.
Cultivation — Propagation is by seed, grafting, and budding. Seeds lose their viability 
soon after ripening, seeds 6 months old having lost most of their viability. Best growth is 
obtained when the seeds are sown in well-watered, good alluvial soils, in a nursery. Seedlings 
are about 17 cm tall in 60 days. The nursery should be irrigated and deeply cultivated. 
Transplants are set 0.5 m apart in rows 1 m apart and irrigated every 10 to 15 days during 
the dry season. Four months after transplanting (when the seedling is about 6 months old) 
seedlings average nearly a meter tall. Stocks are grafted when 5 to 7 months old. Several 
methods of grafting, including inarching and budding, have been tried, with budding being 
most practicable, because of the difficulty in transporting stocks when inarching. Buds 
sprouted in 25 to 80 days after grafting, mostly in 24 to 40 days. The period between sowing 
of seed and final setting of the grafted tree in the orchard is about 22 months, depending 
upon the time of the rainy season.
Harvesting — Usually 3 years after the beginning of nursery work or 2 years and 3 
months after grafting, about 12% of the trees were found to flower and set fruit. Then the 
trees continue to bear for many years, some estimate as long as 75 years. Ripened fruits 
fall to the ground or are knocked off by shaking the trees. They are collected by men, 
women, and children, and delivered to local warehouses. Extracting companies maintain 
collection stations at the end of or along the few available roads or railroads in the regions 
where the nuts grow native. After the refining companies receive the fruits, they ship them 
to larger warehouses or the extracting companies where the fruits are cleaned and prepared 
for processing. Seed (kernel) is easily removed from the husk and the oil obtained by pressure 
alone, or by pressure plus action of solvents. Because of its unpleasant odor and semisolid
206 Handbook of Nuts
state, its uses will be greatly restricted until means are found for refining it and keeping it 
in a liquid state. After pressing, the oil is transported to the refinery. Harvesting is from 
December through April. As Vaughan^^^ puts it, “ From December to March, the fruits 
fall to the ground and are collected.”
Yields and economics — Having seen no published yield data on this tree, I estimate 
that in good years a tree may drop 2 to 3 MT fruits per hectare, suggesting potential kernel 
yields of 1,200 to 3,000 kg, and oil yields of 700 to 1,800 kg/ha. Concerning the oil yields, 
the following data may be helpful: average weight per nut = 2.27 to 4.7 g; average percent 
of kernel per nut = 58 to 70%; average percent of oil per kernel = 52.9 to 60%.^^^ Felling 
the tree and exporting seed are prohibited. Brazil has the monopoly on production of Oiticica 
Oil, producing annually ca. 20,000 MT, this amount fluctuating from year to year. Vaughan^^^ 
suggested an annual seed production of 54,000 MT. In 1941, Brazil produced 18 to 19 MT, 
exporting more than 16 MT.^^^ Oiticica oil must compete with tung, dehydrated castor oil, 
and in some cases, with linseed oil. Around 1957, the industry was centered in Ceara, where 
14 of the 20 processing mills were located. The largest mill, Brazil Oiticica S.A., had a 
reported crushing capacity of 3,500 tons per month, mostly oiticica and cashew.
Energy — Prunings and falling biomass from large trees like this could easily add up to 
5 to 10 MT/ha. Seed yields should be higher than those of temperate tree members of the 
Rosaceae, e.g., almond. The press-cake, because of a relatively toxic reputation, might be 
better for fuel than for food.
Biotic factors — Fertilization of the flowers is by means of insects, but a large number 
of buds drop before opening or without setting fruit. It has been estimated that for a tree to 
set 150,000 seeds (458 kg), it would have to bear 12 million buds.^^®
207
MAC AD AMI A INTEGRIFOLIA Maiden & Betche, MAC AD AMI A TETRAPHYLLA L. John
son (PROTEACEAE) — Macadamia Nuts, Australian Nuts
Uses — Macadamia nuts are eaten raw or, after cooking in oil, are roasted and salted; 
also used to make an edible bland salad oil. Rumsey^®^ recommends it also as a timber tree 
and ornamental. Years ago a coffee-like beverage known as “ almond coffee” was marketed 
from the seeds.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the nut is reported to contain 691 calories, 3.0 to 3.1 g H2O, 
7.8 to 8.7 g protein, 71.4 to 71.6 g fat, 15.1 to 15.9 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 g fiber, 1.7 
g ash, 48 mg Ca, 161 mg P, 20 mg Fe, 264 mg K, 0 mg (3-carotene equivalent, 0.34 mg 
thiamine, 0.11 mg riboflavin, 1.3 mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ According to 
MacFarlane and Harris, the oil is high in monounsaturates (79%) and palmitoleic acid 
(16 to 25%). The composition ranges from 0.1 to 1.4% lauric, 0.7 to 0.8 myristic, 8.0 to 
9.2 palmitic, 15.6 to 24.6 palmitoleic, 3.3 to 3.4 stearic, 54.8 to 64.2 oleic, 1.5 to 1.9 
linoleic, 2.4 to 2.7 arachidic, 2.1 to 3.1 eicosenoic, and 0.3 to 0.7% behenic acids. The 
oil-cake contains 8.1% moisture, 12.6% oil, 2.6% crude fiber, 33.4% crude protein, and 
43.3% N-free extract.
Description — Macadamia integrifolia: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves 
opposite in seedlings, later in whorls of 3, pale-green or bronze when young, 10 to 30 cm 
long, margins with few or no spines, petioles about 1.3 cm long. Flowers creamy white, 
petalless, borne in groups of 3 or 4 along a long axis in racemes, much like grapes. Fruit
208 Handbook of Nuts
consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing a spherical seed; nuts round or nearly so, surface 
smooth or nearly so, 1.3 to 2.5 cm in diameter; shell tough, fibrous, difficult to crack; 
kernel white, of uniform quality, shrinking only slightly after harvesting. Flowers June 
through to March, some strains almost ever-bearing, flowering while fruiting.
M acadam ia tetraph ylla: trees up to 20 m tall, with spread of 13 m. Leaves opposite in 
seedlings, commonly in fours rarely in threes or fives, purple or reddish when young, margins 
serrate with many spines, up to 50 cm long, sessile or on very short petioles. Flowers pink, 
in large racemes. Fruit consisting of a fleshy green husk enclosing one seed; nuts usually 
elliptical or spindle-shaped, surface pebbled; kernel grayish; variable in quality and shrinking 
some after harvest. Flowers between August and October, producing one main crop. Between 
these two distinct types are numerous intermediate forms varying in spininess of leaves, 
color of flower, size of nut and thickness of shell.
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, macadamias or cvs 
thereof are reported to tolerate drought, slope and wind.^^ Since 1956, M acadam ia inte- 
grifolia (smooth-shelled type) and M acadam ia tetraphylla L. (rough-shelled type) are the 
names properly applied to the cultivated Macadamia nuts. Prior to this time they had been 
generally referred to M acadam ia ternifolia. F. Muell. is a distinct species, bearing small, 
bitter, cyanogenic seeds less than 1.3 cm in diameter, inedible and never cultivated. Many 
cultivars have been developed, and grafted trees of promising selections have been made. 
Three cvs of M . integrifolia, ‘Kakea’, ‘Ikaika’ and ‘Keauhou’, have been planted extensively 
in Hawaii, all giving satisfactory production under favorable conditions. ‘Keaau’ has been 
more recently recommended for commercial planting in Hawaii, since it is highly resistant 
to wind and yields 5 to 10% more than previous cvs, the entire crop maturing and dropping 
before the end of November. Most of the Australian crop is based upon M . tetraphylla, 
with some orchards of grafted M . integrifolia cvs. Among the medium- to thick-shelled 
selections, used mainly for processing, are ‘Richard’, ‘Tinana’, ‘Our Choice’ and ‘Hinde’. 
Rough-shelled types, mostly grown for table purposes, are ‘Collard’, ‘Howard’, ‘Sewell’ 
and ‘Ebony’. Cvs showing hybrid characteristics are ‘Oakhurst’ and ‘Nutty Glen’. ‘Ted- 
dington’ is a hybrid with thin shell.
Distribution — Native to coastal rain-forests of central east Australia (New South Wales 
and Queensland). Introduced in other parts of tropics, e.g., Ceylon, and commercially grown 
in Costa Rica, Hawaii, and France, at medium elevation.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry (without frost) through Tropical Moist 
Forest Life Zones, macadamias are reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7 to 26 dm, 
annual temperature of 15 to 25°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0.^^ Macadamia grows best in rain
forest areas, along coasts with high humidity and heavy rainfall. However, it is tolerant of 
adverse conditions when once established. Inland crops are usually lighter than coastal crops. 
Trees produce a deep taproot and relatively few lateral roots; therefore, they may need 
windbreaks in exposed areas. Under orchard conditions, trees are shapely, robust, and more 
heavily foliaged than they are in rain-forest. Grows well on a wide range of soils, but fails 
on infertile coastal sands, heavy clays, or gravelly ridges. Yields well on deep, well-drained 
loams and sandy loams. Slopes steeper than 1 in 25 should be planted on the contour, and 
every precaution taken to prevent soil erosion.
Cultivation — Propagation by seed is not difficult, but seedlings are variable in production 
and nut characteristics, and of little value for commercial plantings. Freshly harvested nuts 
are best for germination, but require 30 to 90 days before germination. Propagation is usually 
by cuttings, marcottage, and side-tongue grafts. Root-stocks for grafting are readily grown 
from seed by ordinary nursery means. Grafting in Macadamia is more difficult than in most 
nut trees, due to hardness of wood. Best results are obtained when seedling root-stocks are 
side-wedge grafted with selected scions. After-care of graft is similar to that practiced in 
other trees. Budding is much less satisfactory than grafting. The most suitable time for
209
transplanting young trees to orchard is from February to April in Australia and in Hawaii, 
when rainfall is good and sufficient soil moisture available. Taproot should be severed about 
30 cm below ground about 6 weeks before time to transplant, to allow fibrous roots to 
develop. Roots are very susceptible to exposure and should not be allowed to dry out. Grafted 
trees should be planted with the union well above ground level and watered immediately. 
Since trees have a tendency to grow tall, young trees, when about 75 cm tall, should be 
topped little by little to produce a few evenly spaced limbs, thus developing a strong, rounded 
symmetrical tree. Little pruning is required in bearing trees except to discourage leaders, to 
reduce lateral growth, to let in light, and to make cultural and harvesting operations more 
favorable. Pruning should be done toward the end of winter after the crop is harvested. 
Macadamia grows best in soils with a good supply of humus. Farm-yard manure may be 
added, and green manure crops can be grown between trees in summer. Under orchard 
conditions, regular applications of fertilizer are required, as a 8:10:5 formula, at a rate of 
.45 kg per tree per year of age, maximum of 4.5 kg. Fertilizer should be applied in early 
spring just before trees make new growth and start flowering. Zinc deficiencies seem to be 
a problem with this tree — the symptoms being small, yellowish or slightly mottled leaves 
which are bunched together, crop retardation, and poor shoot growth. The condition corrected 
by application of foliar spray in early spring after the first flush of growth, at a rate of 4.5 
kg zinc sulfate, 1.3 kg soda ash (or 1.7 kg hydrate lime) in 100 gal water. However, spray 
is effective at any period of year if symptoms are obvious. Since root system is rather close 
to surface, shallow cultivation for weed control should be practiced. Summer cover crops, 
e.g., cowpeas, and autumn green manure crops may be grown between trees until harvest 
time. Grazing cattle on weeds and grass in orchards has the advantage of adding animal 
manure.
Harvesting — Nuts mature 6 to 7 months after flowering and should be allowed to ripen 
on the trees. Usually the nuts fall to the ground when mature. In some cvs, nuts remain on 
trees and must be removed with rakes. After harvesting, nuts are dehusked, usually with an 
improvised com-sheller, washed, placed on wire trays for about 6 weeks to dry out, graded, 
and shipped to market. Machinery for cracking shells has been designed for processing 
purposes, in addition to several efficient hand-operated crackers, which produce a kernel 
undamaged. Kernels which are broken during cracking are used by confectioners. Shelled 
kernels deteriorate rather quickly unless kept in vacuum-sealed jars. Processed nuts when 
roasted and slightly salted keep extremely well.^^^’^"^®
Yields and economics — Most trees begin bearing fruit at 6 to 7 years, while other trees 
must be 10 to 15, vegetatively propagated trees bearing earlier. Yield records vary widely, 
depending on strain characteristics and environmental factors. Macadamia has great com
mercial potential in the tropics and makes an excellent door-yard tree. In addition to pro
duction of nuts in Australia, production in Hawaii in 1970 amounted to 5750 tons. Presently, 
production is being developed in South Africa, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Samoa, and 
Zimbabwe.
Energy — According to Saleeb et al.,^^® nuts of M. integrifolia and M. tetraphylla are 
equal in oil content, with an iodine value of 75.4 and 71.8, respectively. They describe a 
method for partially extracting the oil (6 to 14% of the weight of intact oven-dry kernels), 
rendering them more attractive, digestible, and less fattening, while diverting 14% of the 
weight to oil production. In Australia yields are estimated at about 45 kg per tree annually; 
in Hawaii, at 135 kg per tree. New cultivars are known to yield as much as 3.75 tons/ha, 
averaging 1 ton of kernels, which should contain more than 700 kg oil/ha renewably (oil 
makes up 65 to 75% of the kernel).
Biotic factors — Macadamia trees are attacked by G loeosporium sp. (Blossom blight) 
and M acrophom a m acadam iae. Nematodes isolated from trees include: H elicotylenchus 
dihystera, R otylenchus erythrinae, and Xiphinem a am ericanum . In Hawaii, the Southern 
green stink-bug is a serious problem, damaging about 10% of the seed.^*^
210
MADHUCA LONGIFOLIA (L.) Macbr. (SAPOTACEAE) — Mahua, Illupei Tree, Mawra 
Butter Tree
Syn.: Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel., Bassia longifolia L.
Uses — Mahua is valued for its edible flowers and oil-bearing seeds. Fresh flowers are 
extremely sweet, less so when dried, having a flavor resembling that of figs. Rich in vitamins, 
the flowers are eaten fresh or dried and cooked with rice, grains or shredded coconut, fried 
or baked into cakes, or ground into flour and used in various foodstuffs. A large portion of 
the crop of flowers is made into syrup containing ca. 60% sugar, suitable for making jams, 
sweetmeats, or as a honey substitute, for production of alcohol (with average yields of 90 
gals of 95% alcohol per ton of dried flowers), for making vinegar, or distilled liqueurs and 
wine. Molasses sugar of good quality is made from mahua. Syrup is used by natives of 
Bastar (in Madhya Pradesh) instead of brown sugar. Flowers, and spent flowers after fer
mentation, are used as feed for livestock. The flesh of animals fed on mahua flowers has a 
delicate flavor. Pressed cake of corollas is used as fertilizer. Mahua cake has insecticidal 
and piscicidal properties. Because the saponin present in it has a specific action against 
earthworms, it is applied to lawns and golf greens. Used, along with Acacia concinna, as 
a hairwash in South India. Seeds, with 50 to 60% fat content, are the source of Mahua Oil 
or Tallow Mawra Butter, used for manufacturing soaps and candles, and when refined, used 
as butter. Oil has poor keeping quality. Used for edible and cooking purposes in some rural 
areas. Refined oil is also used in the manufacturer of lubricating greases and fatty alcohols, 
and as a raw material for the production of stearic acid. Wood is durable, lasting exceptionally 
well under water, planes well, and takes a good finish, but is difficult to saw, and has a 
tendency to split or crack. Wood is used for building purposes, as door and window frames, 
beams, and posts, furniture, sports goods, musical instruments, oil and sugar presses, boats 
and ship-building, bridges, well construction, turnery, agricultural implements, drums, carv
ing, and has been tried for railway sleepers. The bark contains 17% tannin and is used for 
dyeing and tanning. Mahua berries are eaten raw or cooked, and are eaten by cattle, sheep, 
goats, monkeys, and birds. Sometimes used as green manure.
211
Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers are used in folk remedies for 
abdominal tumors. Reported to be anodyne, antidote, astringent, bactericide, carminative, 
demulcent, emetic, emollient, expectorant, insecticide, lactagogue, laxative, piscicide, re
frigerant, stimulant, and tonic, mahua is a folk remedy for bee-sting, bilious conditions, 
blister, blood disorders, breast ailments, bronchitis, cachexia, cholera, colds, consumption, 
cough, diabetes, dysuria, ear ailments, eye ailments, fever, fistula, gingivitis, headaches, 
heart problems, intestinal ailments, itch, leprosy, orchitis, phthisis, piles, pimples, rheu
matism, skin ailments, smallpox, snakebite, suppuration, tonsillitis, tuberculosis, tumors of 
the abdomen, and wounds.^’ The gummy juice is used for rheumatism, the bark decoction 
as an astringent and emollient, and as a remedy for itch; root, bark, leaves, and flowers for 
snakebite, the flowers for scorpion sting.Mahua is considered to be astringent, stimulant, 
emollient, demulcent, and nutritive in Ayurvedic medicine. Bark used to treat rheumatism, 
ulcers, itches, bleeding and spongy gums, tonsillitis, leprosy, and diabetes. The emollient 
oil is used in skin diseases, rheumatism, bilious fevers, burning sensations, headaches; being 
laxative, it is useful in habitual constipation, piles, and hemorrhoids; and is used as an 
emetic. Used in winter for chapped hands. Roots are applied to ulcers, bleeding tonsillitis, 
rheumatism, diabetes mellitus, and spongy gums. Medicinally, flowers are reported to be 
cooling, aphrodisiac, demulcent, galactagogue, expectorant, nutritive, tonic, and carmina
tive, are considered to be beneficial in heart diseases, bronchitis, coughs, wasting diseases, 
burning sensation, biliousness, and ear complaints; dried flowers used as a fomentation in 
orchitis. Fried flowers are eaten by people suffering from piles. Mahua flowers show anti
bacterial activity aginst Escherichia coli. The edible honey from the flowers is reported to 
be used for eye diseases. Liquor made from the flowers used as an astringent and a tonic. 
Mahua leaves are astringent, used in embrocations. Fruit used for bronchitis, consumption, 
and blood diseases; seeds are galactagogue.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the inflorescence (ZMB) is reported to contain 5.0 g protein, 
1.8 g fat, 89.0 g total carbohydrate, 1.6 g fiber, 4.2 g ash, 130 mg Ca, and 120 mg P. Per 
100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 9.1 g protein, 3.9 g fat, 79.4 g total carbohydrate,
19.0 g fiber, 7.6 g ash, 1460 mg Ca, and 210 mg P.®^ An insoluble gum from incisions on 
the trunk contains 48.9% gutta, 38.8% resin, and 12.3% ash. Bark contains 17% tannin. 
The wood contains naphthaquinone, lapachol, and alpha- and beta-lapachones; the essential 
oil from the fruit pulp contains ethyl cinnamate, alpha-terpineol, and a sesquiterpene fraction. 
Myricetin and myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside has been isolated from the leaves.In addition. 
The Wealth of India^^ reports 51.1% fatty oil, 8.0% protein, 27.9% N-free extract, 10.3% 
fiber, and 2.7% ash in an analysis of the seed kernel. Senaratne et al.^®^ report the fatty 
acid components of the seed oil to be 23% palmitic, 15% stearic, 46% oleic, 14% linoleic, 
and traces of linolenic acids. The glyceride structure of the oil is reported to be 1% dipalmito- 
stearins, 1% oleo-dipalmitins, 27% oleo-palmitostearins, 41% palmito-dioleins, and 30% 
stearodioleins. The Wealth of India'^^ reports the values are trace trisaturated, 47% mono- 
unsaturated-disaturated, 36% mono-saturated-diunsaturated, and 17% tri-unsaturated. Per 
100 g, the corollas are reported to contain 18.6% moisture, 4.4% protein, 0.5% fat, 72.9% 
total sugars, 1.7% fiber, 2.7% ash, 140 mg P, 140 mg Ca, and 15 mg Fe; magnesium and 
copper are present. The sugars are identified as sucrose, maltose, glucose, fructose, ara- 
binose, and rhamnose. Corollas also contain 39 lU carotene, 7 mg ascorbic acid, 37 |xg 
thiamine, 878 |xg riboflavin, and 5.2 mg niacin per 100 g. Folic acid, pantothenic acid, 
biotin, and inositol are also present. Corollas also contain an essential oil, anthocyanins, 
betaine, and salts of malic and succinic acids. The ripe fruits, per 100 g, are reported to 
contain 73.64% moisture, 1.37% protein, 1.61% fat, 22.69% carbohydrates, 0.69% mineral 
matter, 45 mg Ca, 22 mg P, 1.1 mg Fe, 512 lU carotene, and 40.5 mg ascorbic acid; tannins 
are present. The oil contains 22.7% ethyl cinnamate, 3.5% alpha-terpineol, and 67.9% 
sesquiterpene and sesquiterpene alcohol. The green leaves contain 78.95% moisture, 19.60%
212 Handbook of Nuts
organic matter, 0.43% N, 1.45% mineral matter, 0.43% potash (K2O), 0.087% phosphoric 
acid (P2O5). and 0.10% silica. Analysis of samples of coagulum from incisions made in the 
bark show 12.2 to 19.9% caoutchouc, 48.9 to 75.8% resin, and 11.9 to 38.9% 
insolubles.
Toxicity — According to Burkill,^^ there is a saponin or sapo-glucoside in the seeds 
which has a destructive action on the blood. Awasthi et al.^'^ report the presence of a bitter 
glucosidic principle from mahua seed that was shown to possess digitalis-like action on frog 
heart. Over-consumption of mahua flowers is reported to cause vomiting and stomach 
disorders. ;2^
Description — Large deciduous tree, 13 to 17 m tall, with a short trunk and numerous 
spreading branches forming a dense rounded crown. Leaves elliptic to linear-lanceolate, 8 
to 20 cm long, 3 to 4.5 cm wide, tapering to base, glabrous when mature, clustered at ends 
of branches. Flowers small, in dense clusters of 30 to 50 at ends of branches; corolla tubular, 
1.5 cm long, yellowish to cream-colored, thick, fleshy, globe-shaped, enclosed at the base 
in a velvety chocolate-brown calyx. Fruit an ovoid berry up to 5 cm long, yellow when 
ripe. Seeds 1 to 4, yellow to brown, ovoid, shining, 2.5 to 3 cm long, kernel about 70% 
by weight of seed and containing 35 to 40% of a greenish grease (fat-oil). Trees shed their 
leaves in February, and flowers appear in March and April, at which time the ground beneath 
the trees is carefully cleared. Flowers March to April; fruits May to June.^^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity, mahua, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate drought, frost, insects, poor soil, slope, savanna, and waterlogging.®^ 
According to The W ealth o f India van Royen revised the taxonomy and nomenclature of 
the genus M adhuca of the Malaysian area. He merged M . indica and M . longifolia under 
the latter name and distinguished two varieties, var. longifolia and var. latifolia.'^^
Distribution — Native to southern India. Although it grows spontaneously in some parts, 
it is extensively cultivated throughout India and Sri Lanka.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist 
Forest Life Zones, mahua is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 7.0 to 40.3 dm (mean 
of 4 cases = 17.7), annual temperatures of 24.2 to 27.5°C (mean of 4 cases = 25.4°C), 
and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 3 cases = 6.6).®^ Mahua, usually drought-resistant, is 
especially suited for dry or waste lands where little else will grow. Trees thrive on dry, 
stony ground in all parts of India, and are protected by the natives. Trees are frost-hardy, 
but do suffer from severe conditions. It is sometimes found in waterlogged or low-lying 
clayey and shallow soils. Requires full sun and is readily suppressed by shade. When cut 
in dry season, plants coppice well, but not during the rainy season.^^®
Cultivation — In southern India, trees are frequently cultivated as an avenue tree. Seeds 
may germinate naturally during the rainy season, soon after falling, where earth is washed 
into small hollows. Subsequent growth is slow, but is favored by sunlight. For artificial 
propagation, seeds are sown directly or for transplant. Fresh seeds are sown in July and 
August, in prepared lines or patches. Transplanting may be risky due to the long, delicate 
taproots. In India, seeds are sown directly in deep containers or the seedlings transplanted 
into them from the nursery during the first rainy season a few weeks after germination. 
Young trees are frequently intercropped with annual crops, at least during the first 10 to 15 
years. ^^®
Harvesting — Under favorable soil and climatic conditions, mahua trees begin to bear 
fruit in 8 to 10 years after planting, and continue to do so for over 60 years. Corollas fall 
in great showers in early morning to the previously cleaned ground, from about the end of 
March until the end of April. They are collected by women and children and spread out on 
mats to dry in the sun, shrinking to about one-half their weight and turning reddish-brown. 
Sometimes flowers are collected before they drop; in some places it is the practice to remove 
only the corolla, leaving the pistil to ripen to a fruit. Harvest period is 7 to 10 days for a
213
single tree. Flowers, when dried, are sold to distilleries, where they are immersed in water 
for about 4 days, allowed to ferment and thereafter distilled. The spirit, somewhat similar 
to Irish whiskey, has a strong, smokey, and rather fetid flavor, improved by aging, producing 
a strong palatable drink. One ton of dried flowers produces ca. 90 gal of 95% ethyl alcohol. 
Fruits may occur in alternate years. Fruits fall from tree when ripe or may be dropped by 
shaking the branches. Season for collecting is short, from May to June, but may be extended 
until December in southern India. Seeds are separated from the smooth chestnut-brown 
pericarp by bruising, rubbing, or subjecting them to moderate pressure. Then they are dried 
and shelled to get the kernel, these constituting the Mahua seed of commerce. Mahua oil 
is extracted by cold expression; the yield of oil, depending on the efficiency of equipment, 
varies from 20 to 43%, the highest gotten when extracted by solvents. In Central India, 
kernels are pounded, boiled, wrapped in several folds of cloth, and then the oil is expressed. 
Fresh Mahua Oil from properly stored seeds is yellow with a disagreeable odor. In warmer 
areas, the oil is a liquid; in cold weather or areas, it solidifies to a buttery consistency. 
Mahua cake from seeds is used as a manure, alone or mixed with mineral fertilizers, or 
made into a compost with sawdust, cane trash, or bagasse, about 3 months being required 
for nitrification of the cake. Quantities (1,000 to 1,750 tons) of this compost are exported 
from India to Sri Lanka and Britian annually. Mahua cake also has insecticidal and piscicidal 
properties, and is applied to lawns and golf courses against earth worms.
Y ield s and E con om ics — Trees require about 20 years to attain full production of flowers 
and seeds; an average tree producing from 90 to 125 kg of flowers per year. Mahua is 
essentially a forest crop. Still, the total amount of seeds collected in the forest is less than 
from trees in semi-cultivated areas. An estimated 7 million trees in India produce about
100,000 tons of seed per year. India is the principal producer of all products of mahua, and 
the bulk of the crop is consumed locally. Some products are exported to Belgium, Germany, 
France, and Britain. Indian mills convert 15,000 to 30,000 tons of seeds into oil annually.
E n ergy — A good fuel wood, it is hard and heavy, specific gravity approximately 0.95 
to 0.97. Pruning, perhaps amounting to 2 to 4 MT ha, could be used for firewood. Sap wood 
has a calorific value of 4,890 to 4,978 calories (8,802 to 8,962 Btu); heartwood, 5,005 to 
5,224 calories (9,010 to 9,404 Btu). Seed oil (20 to 43%) could be used for diesel substitution, 
the press-cake converted to power alcohol. Assuming 100 trees per ha and 1(X) kg flowers 
per tree, one might expect 900 gallons (>20 barrels) ethanol per hectare.
B iotic factors — Trees are damaged by loranthaceous parasites. Mahua trees are affected 
by several fungi: S copella (U rom yces) echinulata (rust), P olystictus steinheilianus (white 
spongy rot). P om es caryoph ylli (heart rot of stems), and P olyporus gilvus (root and butt 
rot). Leaves are eaten by caterpillars: A chaea ja n a ta , A nuga m ultiplicans, B om boletia nu- 
gatrix, M etanastria hyrtaca, and R hodoneura s p p ., A crocercops spp. (leaf-miners); the bark 
is destroyed by O donoterm es obesus, C optoterm es ceylanicus, and K aloterm es sp. (white 
ants) and X yloctonu s scolytoides (bark borers); sap wood of dead trees is damaged by Schis- 
toceros an abioides and X ylocis tortilicornis (ghoon borers).Also attacked by the sap- 
sucker U naspis acum inata In addition, Browne^^ lists Angiospermae: D en drophthoe fa l- 
cata; Lepidoptera: O phiusa ja n a ta .
214 Handbook of Nuts
MORINGA OLEIFERA Lam. (MORINGACEAE) — Horseradish-Tree, Benzolive Tree, 
Drumstick-Tree, Sohnja, Moringa, Murunga-Kai
Syn.: Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn., Moringa nux-ben Perr., Guilandina moringa L.
Uses — Described as “ one of the most amazing trees God has created” .A lm o st every 
part of the Moringa is said to be of value for food. Seed is said to be eaten like a peanut 
in Malaya. Thickened root used as substitute for horseradish. Foliage eaten as greens, in 
salads, in vegetable curries, as pickles and for seasoning. Leaves pounded up and used for 
scrubbing utensils and for cleaning walls. Flowers are said to make a satisfactory vegetable; 
interesting particularly in subtropical places like Florida, where it is said to be the only tree 
species that flowers every day of the year. Flowers good for honey production. Young pods 
cooked as a vegetable. Seeds yield 38 to 40% of a nondrying oil, known as Ben Oil, used 
in arts and for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. Haitians obtain the oil by 
crushing browned seeds and boiling in water. Oil is clear, sweet and odorless, said never 
to become rancid (not true, according to Ramachandran et al.).^®"^ It is edible and used in 
the manufacture of perfumes and hairdressings. Wood yields blue dye. Leaves and young 
branches are relished by livestock. Commonly planted in Africa as a living fence (Hausa) 
tree. Ochse^^® notes an interesting agroforestry application; the thin crown throws a slight 
shade on kitchen gardens, which is “ more useful than detrimental to the plants” . Trees 
planted on graves are believed to keep away hyenas and its branches are used as charms 
against witchcraft. In Taiwan, treelets are spaced 15 cm apart to make a living fence, the 
top of which is lopped off for the calcium- and iron-rich foliage.Bark can serve for 
tanning; it also yields a coarse fiber. Trees are being studied as pulpwood sources in India. 
Analyses by Mahajan and Sharma^®^ indicate that the tree is a suitable raw material for 
producing high alpha-cellulose pulps for use in cellophane and textiles. In rural Sudan, 
powdered seeds of the tree Moringa oleifera are used to purify drinking water by coagulation. 
In trials, the powder was toxic to guppies (Poecilia reticulata)^ protozoa {Tetrahymena 
pyriformis), and bacteria {Escherichia coli), and it inhibited acetylcholinesterase. It had no
215
effect on coliphages, lactic dehydrogenase, or invertase, and the equivalent of cotyledon 
powder up to 1000 mg/liter had no mutagenic effect on salmonella. Pericarp had no effect. 
Powdered cotyledon at 5 mg/liter affected oxygen uptake of T. pyriformis, 30 to 40 mg/liter 
disturbed locomotion of guppies, and the 96-H LC50 for guppies was 196 mg/liter. Toxic 
effects may have been due to 4(alpha-1-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate, a glycosidic 
mustard oil. The toxin seemed not to be a danger to the health of man, at least not in the 
concentrations present during the use of the seeds for nutrition, medicine, or water purifi
cation.^®^ For the low-turbidity waters of the Blue Nile, only a quarter seed per liter of water 
is required, for moderately turbid water, half a seed, and for fully turbid, 1 to 1.5 seeds 
per liter. Such seed are hulled, crushed, and reduced to a powder.
Folk Medicine — According to Hartwell,the flowers, leaves, and roots are used in 
folk remedies for tumors, the seed for abdominal tumors. Reported to be abortifacient, 
antidote (centipede, scorpion, spider), bactericide, cholagog, depurative, diuretic, ecbolic, 
emetic, estrogenic, expectorant, purgative, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge, and 
vesicant — horseradish-tree is a folk remedy for adenopathy, ascites, asthma, baldness, 
boils, bums, catarrh, cholera, cold, convulsion, dropsy, dysentery, dysuria, earache, epi
lepsy, erysipelas, faintness, fever, gout, gravel, hematuria, hysteria, inflammation, madness, 
maggots, neuralgia, palsy, pneumonia, rheumatism, scabies, scrofula, scurvy, skin ailments, 
snakebite, sores, spasms, splenitis, sterility (female), syphilis, toothache, tumors, ulcers, 
vertigo, wounds, and yellow-fever.^^ The root decoction is used in Nicaragua for dropsy. 
Root juice is applied externally as mbefacient or counter-irritant. Leaves applied as poultice 
to sores, mbbed on the temples for headaches, and said to have purgative properties. Bark, 
leaves, and roots are acrid and pungent, and are taken to promote digestion. Oil is somewhat 
dangerous if taken internally, but is applied externally for skin diseases. Bark, regarded as 
antiscorbutic, exudes a reddish gum with properties of tragacanth; sometimes used for 
diarrhea. Bitter roots act as a tonic to the body and lungs, and are emmenagogue, expectorant, 
mild diuretic, and stimulant in paralytic afflictions, epilepsy, and hysteria. Other medicinal 
uses are suggested in Kirtikar and Basu,^^^ Morton,and Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk.^^^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the pod is reported to contain 86.9 g H2O, 2.5 g protein, 0.1 
g fat, 8.5 g total carbohydrate, 4.8 g fiber, 2.0 g ash, 30 mg Ca, 110 mg P, 5.3 mg Fe, 
184 lU Vitamin A, 0.2 mg niacin, and 120 mg ascorbic acid, 310 |xg Cu, 1.8 |xg I. Young 
pods contain indoleacetic acid and indole acetonitrile.^®® Leaves contain 75 g H2O, 6.7 g 
protein, 1.7 g fat, 14.3 g total carbohydrate, 0.9 g fiber, 2.3 g ash, 440 mg Ca, 70 mg P, 
7 mg Fe, 110 |xg Cu, 5.1 |xg I, 11,300 lU Vitamin A, 120 |xg Vitamin B, 0.8 mg nicotinic 
acid, 220 mg ascorbic acid, and 7.4 mg tocopherol per 100 g. On a ZMB, leaf curries 
contain 25.8 ppm thiamin, 7.26 ppm riboflavin, and 35 ppm niacin.^®^ If ascorbic acid is 
the target, leaves should be gathered before flowering and consumed quickly. Estrogenic 
substances, including the antitumor compound, beta-sitosterol, and a pectinesterase are also 
reported. Leaf amino acids include 6.0 g arginine per 16 g N, 2.1 histidine, 4.3 lysine, 1.9 
tryptophane, 6.4 phenylalanine, 2.0 methionine, 4.9 threonine, 9.3 lucine, 6.3 isoleucine, 
and 7.1 valine. Pod amino acids include 3.6 g arginine per 16 g N, 1.1 g histidine, 1.5 g 
lysine, 0.8 g tryptophane, 4.3 g phenylalanine, 1.4 g methionine, 3.9 g threonine, 6.5 g 
leucine, 4.4 g, isoleucine, and 5.4 valine. Seed kernel (70 to 74% of seed) contains 4.08 
g H2O, 38.4 g crude protein, 34.7 g fatty oil, 16.4 g N free extract, 3.5 g fiber, and 3.2 g 
ash. Seeds contain 100 ppm Vitamin E and 140 ppm beta-carotene.^^ The seed oil contains 
9.3% palmitic, 7.4% stearic, 8.6% behenic, and 65.7% oleic acids among the fatty acids. 
(Myristic and lignoceric acids have also been reported.) The cake left after oil extraction 
contains 58.9% crude protein, 0.4% CaO, 1.1% P2O5 and 0.8% K2O. Gums exuding from 
the trunks contain L-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucuronic acid, L-rhamnose, and D-xylose.^^^ 
Pterygospermin (C22H18O2N2S2), a bactericidal and fungicidal compound, isolated from 
Moringa has an LD50 subcutaneously injected in mice and rats of 350 to 400 mg/kg body
216 Handbook of Nuts
weight. It might serve as a fruit- and vegetable preservative. In low concentrations, it protects 
mice against staphylococcus infections.^® Root-bark yields two alkaloids: moringine and 
moringinine. Moringinine acts as a cardiac stimulant, produces rise of blood-pressure, acts 
on sympathetic nerve-endings as well as smooth muscles all over the body, and depresses 
the sympathetic motor fibers of vessels in large doses only. The root alkaloid, spirochin, 
paralyzes the vagus nerve, hinders infection, and has antimycotic and analgesic activity. In 
doses of 15 g, the root bark is abortifacient.^^^
Description — Short, slender, deciduous, perennial tree, to about 10 m tall; rather slender 
with drooping branches; branches and stems brittle, with corky bark. Leaves feathery, pale- 
green, compound, tripinnate, 30 to 60 cm long, with many small leaflets, 1.3 to 2 cm long, 
0.6 to 0.3 cm wide, lateral ones somewhat elliptic, terminal one obovate and slightly larger 
than the lateral ones; flowers fragrant, white or creamy-white, 2.5 cm in diameter, borne 
in sprays, with 5 sepals, 5 petals; stamens yellow. Pods pendulous, brown, triangular, 
splitting lengthwise into 3 parts when dry, 30 to 120 cm long, 1.8 cm wide, containing 
about 20 seeds embedded in the pith, pod tapering at both ends, 9-ribbed. Seeds 1 to 2 cm 
wide, dark-brown, with 3 papery wings. Main root thick. Fruit production in March and 
April in Sri Lanka.
Germplasm — Reported from the African and Hindustani Centers of Diversity, Moringa 
or CVS thereof is reported to tolerate bacteria, drought, fungus, laterite, mycobacteria, and 
sand.*^ Several cvs are grown: ‘Bombay’ is considered one of the best, with curly fruits. 
Others have the fruits 3-angled or about round in cross-section. In India, ‘Jaffna’ is noted 
for having fruits 60 to 90 cm, ‘Chavakacheri murunga’ 90 to 120 cm long. (2n = 28.)
Distribution — Native to India, Arabia, and possibly Africa and the East Indies; widely 
cultivated and naturalized in tropical Africa, tropical America, Sri Lanka, India, Mexico, 
Malabar, Malaysia, and the Philippine Islands.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Moist 
Forest Life Zones, Moringa is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 40.3 cm 
(mean of 53 cases = 14.1) annual temperature of 18.7 to 28.5°C (mean of 48 cases = 
25.4) and pH of 4.5 to 8. (mean of 12 cases = 6.5). Thrives in subtropical and tropical 
climates, flowering and fruiting freely and continuously. Grows best on a dry sandy soil, 
but grows “ in all types of soils, except stiff clays’’.^® Drought resistant.
Cultivation — In India, the plant is propagated by planting limb cuttings 1 to 2 m long, 
from June to August, preferably. The plant starts bearing pods 6 to 8 months after planting, 
but regular bearing commences after the second year. The tree bears for several years.
Harvesting — Fruit or other parts of the plant are usually harvested as desired, according 
to some authors; but in India, fruiting may peak between March and April and again in 
September and October. Seed gathered in March and April and oil expressed.
Yields and economics — I feel, from personal observations, that Moringa’s biomass and 
pod production should approach that of Prosopis growing in the same habitat. A single tree, 
3 years old, can yield more than 600 pods per year, or up to 1000."^® A single fruit will have 
ca. 20 seeds, each averaging 300 mg, suggesting a seed yield of 6 kg per tree, an oil yield 
conservatively of 2 kg per tree. Such could be very useful in poor developing countries 
which import vegetable oils. I would suggest a target yield of about 10 MT pods per hectare. 
Horseradish-tree is grown locally in India, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere, and is consumed as 
a local product, either ripe or unripe.
Energy — According to Verma et al.,^^® “ saijan” is a fast-growing tree being planted 
in India on a large scale as a potential source of wood for the paper industry. At Fort Meyers, 
Florida, trees attain ca. 5 m height 10 months after seed is planted.It seems doubtful that 
the wood and seed oil could both be viewed as fountains of energy. According to Burkill,^^ 
“ The seeds yield a clear inodorous oil to the extent of 22 to 38.5%. It bums with a clear 
light and without smoke. It is an excellent salad oil, and gives a good soap . . . It can be
217
used for oiling machinery, and indeed has a reputation for this purpose as watch oil, but is 
now superseded by sperm oil.” Sharing rather similar habitat requirements with the jojoba 
under certain circumstances, perhaps it might be investigated as a substitute for sperm whale 
oil like jojoba. Growing readily from cuttings, the ben oil could be readily produced where 
jojoba grows. Coming into bearing within two years, it could easily be compared to jojoba 
in head-on trials. I recommend such.
Biotic factors — Fruitflies (Gitona spp.) have infested the fruits which then dried out at 
the tip and rotted.Leaves of young plants and freshly planted stumps are attacked by 
several species of weevils {Myllocerus discolor var. variegatus, M. 1 l-pustulatus, M. ten- 
uiclavis, M. viridanus and Ptochus ovulum). Also parasitized by the flowering plant, Den- 
drophthoe flacata. Fungi which attack the horseradish-tree include: Cercospora moringicola 
(Leaf-spot), Sphaceloma morindae (Spot anthracnose), Puccinia moringae (rust), Oidium 
sp., Polyporus gilvus, and Leveillula taurica (Papaya powdery mildew).
218 Handbook of Nuts
N ELU M BO NUCIFERA Gaertn. (NELUMBONACEAE) Sacred Lotus, Lotus Root, Indian 
Lotus, Hasu
Syn.: Nymphaea nelumbo L., Nelumbo nelumbo (L.) Karst., Nelumbium nelumbo
(L.) Druce, Nelumbium speciosum Willd.
Uses — Rhizomes and seeds of the sacred lotus are frequently used for food, especially 
in the Orient. The small scale-like leaves on the rootstock, up to 30 cm long, are used as 
food in some countries. Plants are grown by Chinese and Japanese for the edible tubers, 
which are used much like sweet potatoes, roasted, steamed, or pickled. In China, a type of 
arrowroot is prepared from the rhizomes. Leaves may be eaten raw as a vegetable in salads. 
Fruits can be eaten after the seeds are removed. Flowering stalks are eaten as a vegetable. 
Seeds are usually boiled or roasted after removing the bitter-tasting embryo, or eaten
r a w 209,278.283
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the lotus is used in folk remedies for corns.
219
calluses, and tumors, and/or indurations of the abdomen, cervix, ear, limbs, kidney, liver, 
and spleen. In China, the leaf juice is used for diarrhea or decocted with licorice for sunstroke 
or vertigo. Flowers decocted, alone or with roses, for premature ejaculation. Floral receptacle 
decocted for abdominal cramps, bloody discharge, metrorrhagia, and non-expulsion of am- 
niotic sac. Fruit decocted for agitation, fever, heart, and hematemesis. Seed used for diarrhea, 
enteritis, insomnia, metrorrhagia, neurasthenia, nightmare, spermatorrhea, splenitis, leu- 
corrhea, and seminal emissions. The nourishing seeds are believed useful in preserving 
health and strength, and promoting circulation. Root starch given for diarrhea, dysentery, 
dyspepsia, the tonic paste applied to ringworm and other skin ailments. Plant refrigerant in 
smallpox, said to stop eruptions. Antidote to alcohol and mushroom. Honey from bee visitors 
is considered tonic; used for eye ailments. The embryo is used for cholera, fever, hemoptysis, 
spermatorrhea. Knotty pieces of rootstock used for épistaxis, dysentery, hematemesis, he- 
matochezia, hematuria, hemoptysis, and metrorrhagia. Cotyledons believed to promote vi
rility and alleviate leucorrhea and gonorrhea. Stamens said to purify the heart, permeate the 
kidneys, strengthen the virility, blacken the hair, make joyful the countenance, benefit the 
blood and check hemorrhages; for hemoptysis, spermatorrhea.^ According to Kirtikar and 
Basu,‘^^ nearly every part of the plant has a distinct name and economic use. Ayurvedics 
use the whole plant to give tone to the breast, and to correct biliousness, fever, nausea, 
strangury, thirst, and worms. They use the root for biliousness, body heat, cough, and thirst, 
the stem for blood disorders, leprosy, nausea, and strangury, the leaves for burning sen
sations, leprosy, piles, strangury, and thirst, the flower for biliousness, blood defects, cough, 
eyes, fever, poisoning, skin eruptions, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” anthers in bleeding 
piles, diarrhea, inflammations, mouth sores, poisoning, thirst, and as a uterine sedative, the 
fruit for blood impurities, halitosis, and thirst, the “ aphrodisiac” seeds for burning sensa
tions, diarrhea, dysentery, leprosy, nausea, and to strengthen the body, and the honey as 
an excellent tonic, useful in eye diseases. Yunani employ the diuretic root in chest pain, 
leucoderma, smallpox, spermatorrhea, and throat ailments, the flower for bronchitis, internal 
ailments, thirst, and watery eyes, and as a tonic for the brain and heart, the seeds for chest 
complaints, fevers, leucorrhea, menorrhagia, and as a uterine tonic.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 318 to 390 calories, 16.6 
to 24.2 g protein, 1.0 to 2.7 g fat, 70.2 to 76.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.5 to 13.1 g fiber, 
4.5 to 5.2 g ash, 139 to 330 mg Ca, 298 to 713 mg P, 6.1 to 7.1 mg Fe, 17.4 to 49.0 mg 
Na, 942 to 1665 mg K, 0 to 35 jxg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.65 to 0.75 mg thiamine, 
0.18 to 0.26 mg riboflavin, 1.9 to 7.8 mg niacin, and 0 to 44 mg ascorbic acid. The rhizome 
(ZMB) contains 16.7 mg protein, 0.6 g fat, 74.1 g total carbohydrate, 4.9 g fiber, 6.8 g 
ash, 370 mg Ca, 1.36 mg thiamine, 0.37 mg riboflavin, 12.96 mg niacin, and 93 mg ascorbic 
acid.®^ Saline extracts bacteriostatic. Extracts show antitumor activity, vindicating its herbal 
anticancer reputation. Liriodenine is active in the KB tumor system, oxoushinsunine, cy
totoxic; nuciferine and nomuciferine, antispasmodic. Anonaine, armepavine, demethylco- 
claurine, gluconic acid, isoliensinine, liensenine, liriodenine, lotusine, D-N-methylcoclaurine, 
neferin, nelumboside, N-nomuciferine, nomuciferine, nuciferine, pronuciferine, quercitin, 
and roemerine are reported.Hagers Handbook^®^ mentions quercetin, isoquercitrin, leu- 
cocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the leaves, quercetin, isoquercitrin, luteolin, glu- 
coluteolin, kaempferol, and robinin in the petals and stamens. Seeds contain the active beta- 
sitosterol and related esters, as well as glutathione, the embryo containing methylcorypalline 
(a coronary dilator^'^O» luteolin-7-glucoside, mtin, and hyperoside. Raffmose and stachyose 
have been isolated from the rhizome, ( + )catechin, ( + )-gallocatechin, neochlorogenic acid, 
gallocatechin, leucocyanidin, and leucodelphinidin from the roots.H su et al.^"^^ add the 
cardiotonic alkaloid higenamine. Is it a wonder that a chemistry set like this is considered 
sacred in some parts of the world?
Description — Perennial rhizomatous herbaceous aquatic, from a stout, creeping root
220 Handbook of Nuts
stock 10 to 20 m long, branching, bearing numerous scale-like leaves as well as foliage 
leaves, with milky juice; leaves blue-green with a silvery sheen, waterproof, peltate, circular, 
up to 90 cm in diameter, concave, on petioles up to 1 m long above water, margins raised 
upwards, the leaf-stalks and flower-stalks 1 to 2 m tall, hollow, with small scattered prickles; 
flowers borne singly at ends of stalks, opening on three successive days before fading, 
fragrant, extending above the leaves on long cylindrical stems; flowers 10 to 26 cm in 
diameter, sepals 4 to 5, green caducous, inserted at base of receptacle, petals numerous, 
rose-red to white, free, obovate, obtuse, 8 to 12 cm long, 3 to 7 cm broad, anthers linear, 
yellow, 15 to 20 mm long, the filaments linear, 7 to 25 mm long; receptacle spongy, in 
fruit in 10 cm high and wide, flat, the nuts (seeds) embedded within; nuts 2.0 cm by 1.3 
cm, ovoid to ellipsoidal, brown to blackish, protruding like knobs, without endosperm, with 
a hard pericarp. Flowers June to August.
Germplasm — Reported from the Near Eastern Center of Diversity, sacred lotus, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate bacteria, frost, and waterlogging.®^ Many varieties are cul
tivated in various parts of the world. Some of the best known cvs are album grandiflorum; 
album plenum (‘Shiroman’, with double white flowers 30 cm across); kermesinum (light 
rose); kinshiren (white shaded pink); osiris (deep rose); pulchrum (dark rosy-red); pekinese 
rubrum (rosy-carmine); roseum (rosy-pink); plenum (large and double); pygmaeum (dwarf). 
Seeds known to be 200 years old have been germinated from collections in dry Gobi Desert 
lakes, plants of these are now being grown in the Kenilworth Aquatic Gardens in Washington, 
D.C.^^® Priestley and Posthumus^^® describe viable Manchurian seed radiocarbon dated as 
over 450 (ca. 466) years old. (2n = 16.)
Distribution — Native from the southern border of the Caspian Sea to Manchuria, south 
throughout the warmer parts of India, Pakistan, China, Iran, Japan, and Australia. It is 
cultivated in some Mediterranean countries and is naturalized in Rumania. It was commer
cially introduced in the U.S. about 1876; it has now become naturalized.^^®
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, sacred lotus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 
40.3 dm (mean of 11 cases = 14.2), annual temperature of 14.4 to 27.5°C (mean of 11 
cases = 19.6°C), and pH of 5.0 to 7.5 (mean of 10 cases = 6.2).®^ Lotus thrives with 
plenty of sunshine and rich soil. The rhizomes grow in mud at the bottom of water, 60 to 
90 cm deep. They require a minimum winter temperature above freezing. A good soil would 
contain two parts loam and one part well-decayed manure. Once set, the plants flower freely. 
Unless the roots are frozen, they are not harmed by the cold.^^®
Cultivation — Sacred lotus may be propagated from seed, sown in shallow pans of sandy 
soil, immersed in water tanks heated to 15°C. Seedlings are allowed to grow in the seed 
pans until large enough to plant out in tubs or ponds. When seeds are sown directly in ponds 
or pools, they are rolled in a ball of clay and dropped in the water. The hard seeds germinate 
better if scarified by boring or filing. Plants may be propagated by sections of the rhizomes 
placed in large tubs or pools, indoors or outdoors. Divisions of the tubers may also be used 
similarly. From 30 to 45 cm of compost is placed in a vessel, or tubs may be filled with 
soil and submerged so that the soil surface is 18 to 30 cm below water level. Planting should 
be in spring when weather has definitely warmed. Plants will grow in ponds or larger bodies 
of water, as well as in tubs or half-barrels. Tubers may also be planted in late spring just 
before they start new growth, in rich soil in the bottom of a pond, in water 30 to 90 cm 
deep. If rhizomes are covered with sufficient water to prevent them from freezing (about 
90 cm), they will over winter satisfactorily. If water is not deep enough to prevent the 
rhizomes from freezing, the pool should be drained in the fall, the tubs removed to a cellar 
or some place where the temperature is maintained about 1 to 8°C, or the plants should be 
covered with 1 m or so leaves, hay, or straw and left outdoors for the winter.^^®’^®^
Harvesting — Parts are harvested when available or needed.^^®
221
Yields and economics — Commercially, only the rhizomes are sold in shops and markets 
in southeastern Asia.^^® Duke®^ reports rhizome yields of 4.6 MT/ha.
Energy — This aquatic plant seems better viewed as an edible ornamental rather than a 
vigorous biomass candidate. I don’t find it recommended (like the water hyacinth and cattail, 
for example) by the champions of aquatics for energy.
Biotic factors — Sacred lotus is attacked by several fungi: A ltern aría nelum bii, A. tenuis, 
C ercospora nelum bii, Fusarium bulbigenum , G loeosporium nelum bii, M acrosporium neF 
umbii, M yrothecium roridum , Phom a nelum bii, P h yllosticta nelum bonis, P hysoderm a n el
umbii, and Sclerotium rolfsii. It is also attacked by B acillus nelum bii.
222 Handbook of Nuts
NYPA FRUTICANS Wurmb. (ARECACEAE) — Nipa Palm
Uses — Menninger^^ summarizes that the palm supplies roofing, thatching, baskets, 
matting, cigarette wrappers, fuel, alcohol, sugar, toddy, and other products. Also useful for 
stabilizing soils in tidal terrain. The nut is jelly-like at first, becoming nutty, and finally so 
hard as to require grating or pounding for eating raw.^®^ The tender palm hearts are eaten 
as a vegetable. Leaves are much valued for thatching, basketry, and mats. Umbrellas, sun- 
hats, raincoats, mats, and bags are made from the leaves in the Philippine Islands. Midribs 
are used for making coarse brooms and as fuel. Young unexpanded leaves are used as 
cigarette wrappers. Leaflets, with 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans are used for tanning 
leather. When fishing, fishermen submerge nipa leaves in the sea to attract fish. Salt is 
obtained by burning the roots or leaves and leaching the ash. The ash is used, with wood- 
tar, in blackening teeth. Sap is used for making jaggery, sugar,^^^ alcohol, and vinegar. 
Arrows are made from the petioles in the Mentawai Islands.
Folk Medicine — Reported to be intoxicant, nipa palm is a folk remedy for centipede 
bites, herpes, sores, toothache, and ulcers.’* The sugar is used in a tonic prescription. The 
stem-bud has been used in making a charmed preparation to counteract poison.
Chemistry — Of 18% of solids in the fresh sap, 17% was found to be sucrose, 1/2% 
ash. The increase in total carbohydrates in the kernels was from 71 to 78%, between the 
time they were removed for sugar-tapping (3 months) and at maturity (4 months). Leaves 
contain 10% tannin.Fresh nipa sap contains ca. 17% sucrose and only traces of reducing 
sugars. Vinegar (from sap fermented ca. 2 weeks) contains 2 to 3% acetic acid. Inunature 
seeds contain ca. 70% starch. Leaflets contain ca. 10.2% tannin and 15.2% hard-tans.
Description — Gregarious palm, the rootstock stout, branched, covered with the sheaths 
of old leaves, leafing and flowering at the ends of the branches. Leaves pinnatisect; 4.5 to
223
9 m long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, 1.2 to 1.5 m long, the sides reduplicate in vernation. 
Spadix 1.2 to 2.1 m long, terminal, erect in flower, drooping if fruit. Flowers monoecious, 
male in catkin-like lateral branches of the spadix, female crowded in a terminal head, perianth 
glumaceous. Male flowers minute, surrounded with setaceous bracteoles; sepals linear with 
broad truncate inflexed tips, imbricate; petals smaller; stamens 3; filaments connate in a 
very short column; anthers elongate, basifixed; pistillode 0. Female flowers much longer 
than the male; sepals 6, rudimentary, displaced; staminodes 0; carpels 3, connate, tips free 
with an oblique stigmatic line; ovules 3, erect. Fruit large, globose syncarp, 30 cm in 
diameter, of many obovoid, hexagonal, 1-celled, 1-seeded carpels, 10 to 15 cm long, with 
pyramidal tips and infra-apical stigmas; pericarp fleshy and fibrous; endocarp spongy and 
flowery; seed erect, grooved on one side; testa coriaceous, viscid within, adherent to the 
endocarp; hilum broad; endosperm homy, equable, hollow; embryo basilar, obconic.*^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochinese-Indonesian Center of Diversity, the nipa 
palm, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate heavy soils, salt, and tidal waterlogging. (2n 
= 16.)
Distribution — India south to Australia and New Guinea,in tidal mud from the mouth 
of the Ganges to Australia.Introduced in the mangroves of South Nigeria, where it has 
mn wild.^^® Reported to have grown successfully in brackish waters of southern Florida.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, nipa palm is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 5 to 45 
dm, annual temperature of 21 to 27°C, and pH of 6.5 to 8.5. Often gregarious in mangrove 
swamps and tidal forests, growing best in alluvial deposits of clayey loam with sufficient 
salt.^®
Cultivation — Cultivated in Sumatra for wine and foliage production. Reproduces nat
urally by seed and detached portions of rhizome. It may attain 2 m height during its first 
year.*^® Management consists of thinning natural stands to 2,500 to 3,500 palms per ha, 1.5 
to 2 m apart. Periodic pmning to maintain 7 to 8 leaves if favorable to sap production. 
Other authors suggest much wider spacings, 380 to 750 trees per ha. Bangladesh nursery 
results are best where submerged at least 230 min/day.
Harvesting — Nuts are harvested as needed. The palm is ready for wine tapping after 
the second flowering, when about 5 years old. Tapping may continue 50 years or more. If 
the plant bears more than one spadix, one is topped, the other removed. Sap collection is 
continued for about 3 months.
Yields and economics — The average yield of sap per plant is 43 €. According to 
McCurrach,^®^ one hectare of nipa will yield 8,000 gals of sweet syrup, inexpensive source 
of sugar, vinegar, and particularly alcohol. Nipa production is rural-based and labor intensive, 
though probably less so than other alcohol plants.
Energy — On Bohol Island in the Philippines, a mini-distillery was set up to evaluate 
potential for the production of ethanol from the nipa palm. Sap of the nipa contains ca. 15% 
sugar, which can be collected from mature fruits stalks after cutting off the head. With care, 
this can be repeated over an extended period of time, yielding up to 40 € per tree per season. 
This translates to a projected 30,000 € juice per hectare. Cultivated palms may produce as 
much as 0.46 £ per tree per day, equivalent to ca. 8,000 £ alcohol per ha per year.^^^ 
Halos^^‘ states that nipa is a better alcohol producer on a hectare basis than sugarcane or 
coconut, comparing better with sweet potato. In 1919, 2 1/4 million gallons (more than 
50,(XK) barrels) alcohol were produced from nipa palm. Midribs of the leaves are sometimes 
used for fuel.
Biotic factors — Grapsid crabs are the worst pests of young nipa palms. Pollinated by 
Drosophila flies.
224 Handbook of Nuts
ORBIGNYA COHUNE (Mart.) Dahlgren ex Standi. (AREACEAE) Cohune Palm
Syn.: A tta lea coh u n e Mart.
Uses — Seeds are source of Cohune Oil, a nondrying oil, considered finer than that of 
coconut, used in food, as illuminant, and in the manufacture of soap. Very young buds, or 
cabbage, consumed as a vegetable. Young leaves used to make hats and other apparel, and 
for thatching.Pole-like rachis of the leaf used for forming the framework of huts. Large 
quantities of nuts were once used in England for preparing charcoal used in gas masks. 
Fruits made into sweetmeats and used as fodder for livestock. Trunk used for building. Sap 
used for winemaking and for making intoxicating beverage.^^®’^*^
Folk medicine — Reported to be poisonous.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 6.9 g protein and 52.2 
g fat. The tissue removed from the seed contained 1.2 g protein and 0.5 g fat.^^
Toxicity — “ It was said that if too much of the nut was eaten, constipation and sometimes 
death might result.
Description — Tall monoecious palm 16 to 20 m tall; trunk to 30 cm thick, spineless, 
usually ringed, covered with old leafbases. Leaves with petioles flat above, rounded below, 
fibrous at base; blade up to 10 m long, erect, pinnate with 30 to 50 pairs of leaflets; leaflets 
45 cm or less long, stiff, dark-green; flower-stalks from lowest leaves, in woody spathe. 
Flowers small; staminate flowers fall as spathe opens; anthers slender, pale, contorted and 
spirally twisted. Fruit 7.5 cm long, ovoid, in large grape-like clusters. Flowers February.
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, cohune palm, 
or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate limestone, poor soil, sand, slope, savanna, and wa
terlogging. 2n = 32.^^
Distribution — Native to wet Atlantic lowlands of Central America from Mexico to 
Honduras and Belize; grown south to Panama and northern South America.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through «Tropical Day Forest Life 
Zones, cohune palm is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.4 to 40.3 dm (mean of 
5 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 21.3 to 26.5°C (mean of 5 cases = 24.1°C), and 
pH of 5.0 to 8.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.9). Thrives in tropical swamps and uplands, or in 
tropical greenhouses, where night temperatures are not below 15.5°C; occurs from sea-level 
to 600 m altitude, and appears on all types of soils, including marls, limestones, granites, 
and slate-derived soils, as well as shales and mudstones. Grows in small congested patches. 
Occurs also along large streams, on upland sites, on hills and in valleys, preferring rich 
pockets of soil.®^’^^®
Cultivation — Lacking basal shoots, the palm is propagated by seed, in rich soil containing 
loam, manure, and sand in proportions of 3-1-1. Seeds retain their viability for ca. 6 months. 
Seeds should be planted about 5 cm deep and watered freely. Spacings between trees should 
allow about lOO/ha.^^®
Harvesting — When freed of competing vegetation, lianas, and epiphytes, each palm 
bears prolifically. In natural habitat, trees generally do not bear fruit until crown is free in 
the canopy.
Yields and economics — Yields vary; often nuts are not available enough to supply an 
oil-mill economically. Large supplies of nuts are not readily available and accessible. Fruits 
or nuts are exported from Central America for soapmaking.
Energy — Although not so promising as the babassu for oil production, the germplasm 
of the cohune may contribute to building a bigger genetic base for other oleiferous species. 
Specific gravity of the wood is 0.868 to 0.971.^^^
Biotic factors — The following fungi cause diseases in this palm: Achorella attaleae, 
Gloeosporium palmigenum, and Poria ravenalae.^^^'^^^ Bruchid beetles may damage the 
seeds, destroying both embryo and endosperm.
225
ORBIGNYA MARTIAN A Barb. Rodr., ORBIGNYA OLEIFERA Burret, ORBIGNYA SPE
CIOSA (Mart.) Barb. Rodr. (ARECACEAE) — Babassu
Uses — Babassu kernels taste, smell, and look like coconut meat, but contain more oil. 
The oil can be used for the same purposes as coconut oil, for margarine, shortening, general 
edibles, toilet soap, fatty acids, and detergents. Unlike many palm oils, the babassu oil does 
not quickly turn rancid. Babassu oil is rich in “ practically all of the elements needed in the 
manufacture of plastics, detergents, emulsifiers, and many related materials” (H. G. Bennett, 
as quoted in Balick^^). The protein- and oil-rich seed cakes are suitable for animal feed. 
The endocarp is a good fuel. Leaves are used for thatching. Palm hearts are also eaten.
Folk medicine — The oil is used in medicinal salves.
Chemistry — Atchley^^ cites analyses with 9.4 to 16.2% protein, fat content of 0.2 to 
62.9% oil — the higher oil figure possibly representing fruit rather than seed. NAS^^^ notes 
that fruit oil may be as high as 72%. Pesce^^^compares the analysis of the coconut with 
babassu (Table 1). Mesocarp runs 16.3 to 17% moisture, 1.5 to 4.9% fatty material, 63.8 
to 71.3% starch, 0.0 to 0.8% sugar, dextrim cellulose 2.05%, 3.12 to 3.19% nitrogenated
226 Handbook of Nuts
Table 1
BABASSU KERNELS AND COCONUT COPRA
Babassu Coconut 
(Orbignya martiana) {Cocos nucífera) 
(%)
Moisture
4.21 3.80
Oil
66.12 66.00
Protein
7.17 7.27
Digestible carbohydrates 14.47 15.95
Woody fiber
5.99 4.55
Ash
2.03 2.43
From Johnson, D. V ., Ed. and Transl. (Original by Pesce, C.), Oil Palms 
and Other Oilseeds of the Amazon Reference Publications, Algonac, M ich., 
1985, 199. With permission.
Table 2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 
AND PROPERTIES OF 
COCONUT AND BABASSU OIL
Coconut oil Babassu oil
Fatty acids
(%) (%)
Saturated
Caproic 0.0—0.8 0.0—0.2
Caprylic 5.5—9.5 4.0—6.5
Capric 4.5—9.5 2.7—7.6
Laurie 44.0—52.0 44.0-46.0
Myristic 13.0—19.0 15.0—20.0
Palmitic 7.5— 10.5 6.0—9.0
Stearic 1.3 3.0—6.0
Arachidic 0.0—0.4 0.2—0.7
Unsaturated
Oleic 5.0—8.0 12.0—18.0
Linoleic 1.5—2.5
1.4—2.8
From Eckey, E. W ., Vegetable Fats and Oils,
Reinhold Publishing, New York, 1954. With 
permission.
material, 1.2% ash, and 0.3 to 11.4% undetermined. The press-cake has 11.6% moisture, 
6.5% oil, 19.8% protein, 40.0% digestible carbohydrates, 16.5% woody fiber, and 5.6% 
ash.*^^ Eckeycompares the coconut oil with that of babassu (Table 2).
Description — Tall, erect, smooth-stemmed palm. Leaves erect-declined, large, elegant, 
recurved at the flexuous apex; leaflets long, rigid, proximate, oblique-acuminate, disposed 
in a vertical plane. Spadix large, ramose, pendent; branches rigid, bracted, dense; female 
spadices with many sessile flowers on branches and male flowers abortive, small in the 
apices; in male spadices, flowers with small calyx, petals two, rarely three, biquadridentate; 
curved inward, overlapped; stamens 24, aggregated in groups of eight; loculus of anthers 
irregularly coiled and twisted. Female flowers much larger, ovoid-oblong, bibracted, fer
ruginous tomentoso; sepals broadly oblong, obtuse-careened-acuminate; petals slightiy smaller, 
oblong, with irregularly serrated margins, at the protracted apex tri-dentate; androecia abor
tive, half the number of petals; stigmas 3 to 6. Drupe large, oblong, conical, pointed.
227
enveloped almost half-way, at the base ferruginous-tomentose and at the apex albo-tomen- 
tose, haloed, 3 to 6 seeded.
Germplasm — Reported from the Brazilian Center of Diversity, babassu, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate alkalinity, sand, savanna, and waterlogging, perhaps even brackish 
water.^°‘ Taxonomically confusing, the literature has contradictory references to O. martiana, 
O. oleifera, and O. speciosa as the true “ Babassu” . The taxon oleifera “ prefers a drier, 
semi-deciduous forest” .^^
Distribution — Babassu ranges from 3 to 10°S latitude and 40 to 70°W longitude in 
Brazil.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Tropical Dry to Wet through Subtropical Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, babassu is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 15 to 60 dm, 
annual temperature of 23 to 29°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Babassu grows best in alkaline or 
neutral soils, under average rainfall and good drainage; but it is found in areas of high to 
low rainfall, dry to swampy conditions, and generally in siliceous soils. It occurs as isolated 
specimens and in solid stands, but principally in mixed hardwood forests, except in Maranhao 
and Piaui, on the Pantanal of Mato Grosso and in local areas in some river valleys, where 
it may form dense f o r e s t s .T h e day I spent on the bus crossing Maranhao and Piaui 
was dominated by panoramas of babassu.
Cultivation — Mostly harvested from the wild, like Brazil-nuts and cashews. While 
plantations have been established, little has been done to examine the variability of wild 
trees for use in breeding and selection programs.
Harvesting — Slow to mature, babassu may start yielding at 8 years, rising to 12 years, 
and bearing for 75 years or longer. While the palm flowers year round, it does not always 
set fruit. In Brazil, fruits ripen from July to November, then fall to the ground. After 
collection, the fruit is usually dried in the sun to facilitate removing the kernel from the 
shell.With an axe and mallet, capable natives can shell up to 8 kg kernels a day, but are 
more likely to average 4 to 5 kg a day.
Yields and economics — At an Office of Technology Assessment in 1980, Duke adduced 
incredible figures stating that some babassu trees were reported to yield more than a ton of 
fruit per year. Of the fruit, 10% is kernel, 50% (to 68%) of which is oil, indicating a yield 
of ca. 40 kg oil per tree, or a barrel of oil for every four trees.Assuming a 63 to 70% oil 
content per kernel, Balick^^ suggests a possible maximum of ca. 63 kg oil per tree per year, 
indeed a living “ oil-factory” . Though individual trees are reported to produce 1000 kg nuts 
a year, palms on cultivated plantations have yielded 1,500 kg/ha nuts. The fruit weighs 150 
to 200 g and may contain 3 to 8 kernels containing 60 to 70% oil and constituting 10% of 
the fruit’s weight. The kernel is surrounded by a pulp that is 10% starch, enclosed by a 
hard woody shell nearly 12 mm thick. The pulp constitutes 20% of the weight of the fruit. 
American imports peaked in 1945 at nearly 45,000 tons in a year when Brazil harvested 
more than 70,000 tons. In 1974, Brazil produced >200,000 tons babassu kernels worth ca. 
500 million cruzeiros. Babassu is probably the only species that could replace coconut in 
the production of olein and stearin.Babassu, covering nearly 15 million swampy hectares 
in the Amazon and employing nearly 100,000 people in Brazil, has been recommended for 
further study and use by the NAS. Back in 1957, Markley^®® noted, “ It is probably the 
largest vegetable oil industry in the world wholly dependent on a wild plant, developed from 
an indigenous cottage industry and still capable of further expansion.” Markley^®* gives 
details of the historical production and value of the Brazilian crop. Pinto^^"^ tabulates data 
for 1940 to 1949.
Energy — As early as 1951, Pinto^^"^ noted, “ The shells and husks have proved to be a 
source of fuel and when distilled may yield useful hydrocarbon products and also carbon 
suitable for gas absorption. The whole nut is occasionally used for the production of oily 
smoke in the curing of wild rubber; also, buttons are made from the shells.” Michael Balick^*
228 Handbook of Nuts
says, “ the babassu palm is one of the best sources of fuel in the form of charcoal or coke. 
Babassu charcoal bums with a lower content of sulfur, and in some cases has more volatile 
material than certain mineral coals.” In Brazil during World War I, the nuts were found 
equivalent to coal in heat content, and the husks were easily converted to coke.^^ Analyzing 
62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*"^^ reported a spread of 19.92 to 
18.83 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for pmne pits. 
On a percent DM basis, the husks contained 79.71% volatiles, 1.59% ash, 18.70% fixed 
carbon, 50.31% C, 5.37% H, 42.29% O, 0.26% N, 0.04% S, and undetermined residue. 
Assuming 250 babassu trees per hectare, Pinto^^^ projects a potential production of 34,932,040 
MT of kernels and (using his 65% figure) >22 million MT oil (or more than 55 million 
barrels per year). This is about 15 times 1974 production of ca. 220,000 MT and 1978 
production of ca. 240,000 MT. During World War II, liquid fuels were derived from babassu, 
which burned easily and cleanly in diesel engines. Residues can be converted to coke and 
charcoal. Clearly, this and other oil palms deserve further study as potential energy sources.
Biotic factors — The tree is sometimes attacked by beetles. Pachymerus nucleorum often 
destroy the fallen fmits.
229
PACHIRA AQUATIC A Aubl. (BOMBACACEAE) — Saba Nut, Malabar Chestnut, Provision 
Tree, Maranhau Nut
Uses — According to Sturtevant,^^^ the roasted nuts taste like chestnut, no nut being 
better than this nut cooked with salt. Not all nut-eaters would agree. Young leaves and 
flowers are also used as a vegetable. The seeds contain 50 to 58% oil, with an aroma 
suggesting licorice or fenugreek. Panamanians and/or Colombians make a breadstuff from 
powdered roasted seed. UphoP^'* suggests that seeds of large fruited types are used as cacao 
substitutes. Choco witch doctors are said to use the seeds as a narcotic (but I’m not sure 
that, in fact, they do). Bark yields a yellow dye used to tint sails, fishing nets, and lines.
Folk medicine — Saba nut is a folk remedy for eye ailments and inflammations. Gua
temalans use the bark and immature fruits for liver afflictions. Bark, which has demonstrated 
antibiotic activity, is used for diabetes in Panama.*®
Chemistry — Per 100 g (ZMB), the seed of Pachira macrocarpa is reported to contain 
560 calories, 16.9 g protein, 41.4 g fat, 37.9 g total carbohydrate, 13.1 g fiber, 3.7 g ash, 
87.7 mg Ca, 302.3 mg P, 4.0 mg Fe, 76.1 mg Na, 7(X) mg K, 1300 |xg beta-carotene 
equivalent, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, 4.02 mg niacin, and 25.4 mg ascorbic 
acid.*^ Seeds contain 58% fat. The seed fats of a Congo specimen contained 46% palmitic, 
43% oleic, and 11% linoleic acids. Those of a Sudanian specimen contained 50.7% palmitic 
and stearic, 40.8% oleic, and 8.5% linoleic. Those from South America contained 56% 
palmitic, 3% stearic, 7.5% oleic, and 5% linoleic acids. There is also a report of 26.5% 
cyclopropenoid acids in the seed fat.^^* Bark contains 2.7% tannin.
D^ription — Evergreen tree to 23 m high and 70 cm dbh, often buttressed; outer bark 
hard, planar, thin, with weak distant vertical fissures; inner bark thick, reddish, marbled 
with white. Leaves palmately compound, glabrous; stipules ovate, ca. 1 cm long; petioles
230 Handbook of Nuts
to 24 cm long, often ribbed, swollen at both ends; leaflets 5 to 7(9), oblong-ovate to elliptic, 
caudate-acuminate to apiculate at apex, tapered to an acute base and decurrent on petiolule, 
5 to 29 cm long, 3 to 15 cm wide, whitish-lepidote especially below. Flowers sweetly 
aromatic, usually solitary in upper axils; pedicels stout, 1 to 5.5 cm long; calyx more or 
less tubular, truncate, the lobes obscure; petals 5, valvate, linear, greenish-white to brown, 
17 to 34 cm long, ca. 1.5 cm wide, curled outward at anthesis, stellate-puberulent outside, 
glabrous to villous inside; stamens many, scarlet in apical third, white basally, erect to 
spreading, slightly shorter than petals, variously united in small clusters basally to middle, 
the clusters finally uniting with staminal column; anthers horseshoe-shaped, dehiscing by 
straightening; ovary broadly ovoid, ca. 1 cm long; style colored like stamens but several 
cm longer; stigma of 5 tiny lobes. Capsules reddish-brown, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or 
subglobose, shallowly 5-sulcate, mostly to 20(30) cm long and 10(12) cm wide, the valves 
5, densely ferrugineous outside, appressed-silky-pubescent within; seeds usually 2 or 3 per 
carpel, irregularly angulate, mostly 3 to 4.5 cm long at maturity, brown, buoyant, embedded 
in solid, white, fleshy mesocarp.^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Latin America Center of Diversity, saba nut, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought and waterlogging. The genus apparently contains 
only one more species, the very similar Pachira insignis.^^^
Distribution — Native to the Americas, Mexico to Peru and Brazil, but cultivated in 
Angola and the Congo, Florida, and the West Indies. According to R obyns,it ranges 
from southern Mexico through Central America to Ecuador, northern Peru and northern 
Brazil; often cultivated throughout tropical America, in some isles of the Antilles, in Africa 
and Asia.
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Moist to Wet through Premontane Moist to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, saba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 50 dm, annual 
temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 6 to 8.5. Rather pure stands occur, rather typical of 
Tropical Moist and Wet Forests in Panama.Apparently confined to riverine and swamp 
situations in my experience. The seeds may germinate while floating, striking root when 
they lodge on soils.
Cultivation — Menninger^^ says it is grown commercially in the Congo, but I know of 
no cultivation, except as a curio, here in America.
Harvesting — Trees as short as 2 m may begin flowering and fruiting.In Panama, 
flowering all year though concentrated in February to April; most of the fruits mature from 
March to August. New leaves appear around May.
Yields and Economics — With precocious fruiting, the tree may produce many large 
fruits, with many large seeds.
Energy — With more than 50% oil, seeds might be viewed as an oilseed candidate for 
fresh-water and slightly brackish swamps in the tropical moist to wet forest life zones.
Biotic factors — Pachira insignis is listed as an important alternative host to Steirostoma 
breve (Cocoa beetle), major cocoa pest in tropical South America and the Caribbean Is
lands.
231
PAULLINIA CUPANA Kunth ex H.B.K. (SAPINDACEAE) — Guaraña, Uabano, Brazilian 
Cocoa
Syn.: Paullinia sorbilis Mart.
Uses — Guaraña is a dried paste, chiefly of crushed seeds, which may be swallowed, 
powdered, or made into a beverage. It is a popular stimulant in Brazil among natives who 
grate a quantity into the palm of hand, swallow it, and wash it down with water. Taste is 
astringent and bitterish, then sweetish. A refreshing guaraña soft drink is made in Brazil 
similar to making the ordinary drink, but sweetened and carbonated. Odor is similar to 
chocolate. Cultivated by the Indians and seed made into a paste, sold in two grades. Said 
to be used also in cordials and liqueurs (fermented with cassava). Brazilian Indians make a 
breadstuff from pounded seeds. Tyler^^^ notes that Coca-Cola — Brazil uses guaraña in a 
carbonated beverage it markets there. I enjoyed it with rum at the airport in Rio. “ Zoom” , 
a rather tasty beverage, has been promoted as a “ cocaine” substitute. Menninger calls it 
“ the most exciting nut in the world” . Erickson et al.^^ mention the product “ guaraña flor” , 
a flour extracted from burned flowers.
Folk medicine — A nervine tonic and stimulant, the drug owes its properties to caffeine. 
Used for cardiac derangements, headaches, especially those caused by menstrual or rheumatic 
derangements, intestinal disorders, migraine and neuralgia. Action is sometimes diuretic, 
and used for rheumatic complaints and lumbago. Said also to alleviate fever, heat stress.
232 Handbook of Nuts
and heart ailments. With words like aphrodisiac, diet, narcotic, and stimulant associated 
with guaraña in the herbal literature, it is little wonder that the herb has excited curiosity 
among avante-garde Americans. Promotional literature states that guaraña outsells Coke in 
Brazil, suggesting that Amazon natives sniff the powdered seeds, and stating (wrongly or 
rightly) that guaraña decreases fatigue and curtails hunger. However, Latin Americans used 
the plant mainly as a stimulant and for treating chronic diarrhea and headache.People 
accustomed to guaraña swear “ that it improves health, helps digestion, prevents sleepiness, 
increases mental activity” , and many whisper that it also improves sexual activity, but “ it 
might act as a limiting factor to fertility(Pio Correa, as quoted in Menninger^^).
Chemistry — Indians in South America also made an alcoholic beverage from the seeds 
along with cassava and water. Guaraña contains guaranine, an alkaloid similar to theine of 
tea and caffeine of coffee; about 2.5 to 5% caffeine; and 5 to 25% tannin, as catechutannic 
acid. An 800 mg tablet of “ Zoom” is said to contain ca. 60 mg caffeine.Adenine, 
catechin, choline, guanine, hypoxanthine, resin, saponins, theobromine, theophylline, tim- 
bonine, and xanthine are reported, in addition to the caffeine.^®®
Toxicity — May be quite high in caffeine (possibly the highest of any plant).Dysuria 
often follows its administration. Has been approved for food use (§172.510). In humans, 
caffeine, 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is demethylated into three primary metabolites: theo
phylline, theobromine, and paraxanthine. Since the early part of the 20th century, theo
phylline has been used in therapeutics for bronchodilation, for acute ventricular failure, and 
for long-term control of bronchial asthma. At 100 mg/kg theophylline is fetotoxic to rats, 
but no teratogenic abnormalities were noted. In therapeutics, theobromine has been used as 
a diuretic, as a cardiac stimulant, and for dilation of arteries. But at 100 mg, theobromine 
is fetotoxic and teratogenic.^^ Leung^^® reports a fatal dose in man at 10,000 mg, with 1,000 
mg or more capable of inducing headache, nausea, insomnia, restlessness, excitement, mild 
delirium, muscle tremor, tachycardia, and extrasystoles. Leung also adds “ caffeine has been 
reported to have many other activities including mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic 
activities; . . . to cause temporary increase in intraocular pressure, to have calming effects 
on hyperkinetic children . . . to cause chronic recurring headache . . . ” .
Description — Large, woody, evergreen perennial, twining or climbing vine to 10 m 
tall, usually cultivated as a shrub; leaves small, pinnate, 5-foliolate, alternate, stipulate, 10 
to 20 cm long, the petiole 7 to 15 cm long, flowers in axillary racemes, yellow; the sepals 
3 to 5, 3 mm long, petals 3 to 5 mm long, hairy; fruit a 3-valved capsule with thin partitions, 
in clusters like grapes, pear-shaped, 3-sided; seed(s) globose or ovoid, about the size of a 
filbert, purplish-brown to brown or blackish, half enclosed in the aril, flesh-colored, white, 
yellow, or red, easily separated when dry. Germination cryptocotylar, the eophylls unifo- 
liolate.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the South American Center of Diversity, guaraña, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate a pronounced dry season.®^
Distribution — Native to the Brazilian Amazon Basin, especially in the region of Maues, 
in the valley of the Papajoz River, below Manaos,^®"^ in the upper regions of the Orinoco 
Valley in southwestern Venezuela, and in the Moist Evergreen Forests of northern Brazil. 
It has been reported in parts of Uruguay and was introduced in Sri Lanka and France (1817) 
from South America.It seems to be thriving at the New Alchemist’s outpost in Gandoca, 
Costa Rica (TMF).
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through Subtropical Moist to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, guaraña is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10 to 24 dm and annual 
temperature of 23 to 27°C.®^ Guaraña grows naturally in deep acidic oxisols, where there 
is a pronounced dry season from June to September. Flowering commences at the end of 
the rainy season. The plant does not tolerate soil compaction. Although guaraña was originally 
a swamp creeper in the moist evergreen forests of the Amazon, it has been more successfully
233
grown on well-drained black sandy soils. Plants do not do well when cultivated on yellow 
clay soils.
Cultivation — Guaraña is obtained from both wild and cultivated plants.Pio Correa, 
however, states that the plants are never found wild.^^^ Since seeds require about 3 months 
to germinate, cultivated guaraña is usually propagated by shoots. Young shoots are spaced 
about 7 m apart, and a triangular bower is built over each plant to provide support for the 
climbing vine. Or seedlings may be spaced at 4 x 4 m (625 plants per ha) or 3 x 3 m 
(1,100 plants per ha). Young plants should be shaded. Leguminous ground covers are often 
established between the plants (P ueraria, V id a ). It has been suggested as an intercrop for 
B actris gasipaes. It can be planted among growing cassava plants. Planting is usually in 
February and March. Once established, plants require practically no care, except for 
weeding.
Harvesting — Plants begin to flower and produce a small quantity of fruit when about 
3 years old. Production increases with maturity, and vines live about 40 years. Fruits, like 
clusters of grapes, are hand-picked in October, November, and December, after they have 
ripened. As soon as the berries are harvested, they are thoroughly soaked in water, passed 
over a sieve to remove the seeds from the white pulp (aril) that surrounds them and the 
seeds placed in the sun to dry. After drying, seeds are immediately baked or roasted for 
half a day to prevent fermentation, which sets in rapidly after the fruit is picked from the 
vine. Seeds are roasted over a slow fire in clay ovens, skillfully, so that all seeds are equally 
toasted and not burned. Roasted seeds, removed from the ovens, are separated from their 
dry paper-thin shells by rubbing in the palm of the hands or by placing them in sacks and 
beating them with clubs. Then the kernels are macerated with mortar and pestle. The coarse 
powder produced is mixed with a little water and kneaded into a paste which is shaped into 
cylindrical sticks or loaves ca. 2.5 cm in diameter and 12 to 30 cm long, weighing about 
225 g each (about 1/2 lb). These “ cakes” are dried and smoked for about 60 days in an 
open-fire drying house, where they require a dark chocolate-brown color and a metallic 
hardness. Crude guaraña is sold on the market in this form, which will keep for many 
years.
Yields and economics — A mature guaraña shrub or vine averages 1.3 to 5.0 kg/year 
seed, occasionally yielding 9 kg; still, yields run only 77 to 175 kg dried seed per hectare.
In past decades, Brazil produced about 80 MT of guaraña paste annually, and exported about 
50 MT. Herbal interests may have stimulated trade since then. About 6,(X)0 ha are now 
cultivated, much of it in the Brazilian county of Maues, which produces ca. 80% of the 
world’s supply as of 1980.^^’^^®
Energy — Lacking biomass data for this species, I will suggest that the pods, as residue, 
might equal or exceed in quantity the biomass of the harvested seeds. The pulp and aril 
probably represent less biomass, also a waste product. Prunings might be used for fuel wood.
Biotic factors — The most severe fungus known to attack guaraña is C olletotrichum 
guaranicola Alb., which attacks the foliage and inflorescence. “ Black speckle” , caused 
also by C olletotrichum sp., can be controlled by such compounds as benomyl, captafol, 
macozeb, and methyl thiophanate. Fusarium decem ceH arare Brick, (so-called “ trunk gall” ), 
causing a proliferation of buds resulting in large masses of nonproductive tissue, can kill 
the plant. A red root rot is caused by G anoderm a ph ilip p i (Bres. & P. Henn.) Bres., causing 
yellowing of the foliage, gradual decline, often followed by death. Pollination is by insects, 
primarily bees and wasps; ants are also numerous.
234 Handbook of Nuts
PHYTELEPHAS MACROCARP A Ruiz and Pav. (ARECACEAE) — Ivory Nut Palm, Tagua
Uses — In Ecuador, they have “ commercialized” the hard, compact, heavy, brilliant 
seeds, so highly valued for their thousand uses, and industrial applications, especially in 
the button industry. The cabbage is quite edible, usually cooked, and the young fruits make 
a beverage said to be just as good as coconut water; older fruits become thicker and more 
mucilaginous or gelatinous, at which time it may be spooned out as a custard. Finally, they 
harden as the “ vegetable ivory.” More recently, it has been used in polishing compounds 
for the metals finishing industry. The roots are boiled to make a beverage. Refuse from the 
button “ tumerys” can be made into cattle food and it is less legitimately used as a coffee 
substitute, probably after scorching. According to Gohl,^^® ivory nut meal can be used for 
all classes of livestock without any particular restrictions. Durable leaves used for thatch, 
the stems are split and used for flooring. Empty spathes have been used as very durable 
broom heads.
Folk Medicine — A liquid prepared by boiling the roots is considered diuretic in Ecuador.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds contain (ZMB) 5.3 g protein, 1.6 g fat, 91.6 g total 
carbohydrate, 9.3 g fiber, and 1.5 g ash.^^® Seeds may contain 40% Mannan A and 25%
235
Mannan B. Mannan A yields on hydrolysis 97.6% mannose, 1.8% galactose, and 0.8% 
glucose. Mannan B yields 98.3% mannose, 1.1% galactose, and 0.8% glucose. Nuts are 
said to contain the alkaloid phytelephantin. Personal correspondence reveals that it is the 
raw material for the preparation of the sugar D-mannose. D-mannan has shown some antitumor 
activity.
Description — Acaulescent or short-stemmed diocecious palms to 20 m tall, 70 cm DBH. 
Leaves pinnate, to 4 m long, 15 to 30 in the rosette, leaflets in a single plane, to 70 cm 
long. Male flowers in elongate cluster to 2 m long. Female flowers in heads to 50 cm long 
with perianth, the tepals to 30 cm long. Ovary 4- to 6-locular; style with 4 to 9 long lobes.
Germplasm — Reported from the Tropical American Center of Diversity, tagua, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate rocky soil, shade, and temporary waterlogging.
Distribution — Panama to Brazil, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Although a species of mature 
forest, it is often left to stand in cleared pastures and banana plantations.
Ecology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Moist to Rain through Tropical Moist 
to Rain Forest Life Zones, tagua is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 110 
dm, annual temperature of 22 to 28°C, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. Sometimes gregarious; said 
to “ prefer” naturally drained or porous soils, but flourishes on some rocky terrain and in 
clay alluvial terraces. Ranges from sea level to 1800 m above sea level.
Cultivation — Tagua is rarely cultivated. There have been a few plantations started in 
Ecuador, mountaineers merely scattering the seeds and weeding them, perhaps thinning them 
occasionally. Seeds begin to germinate in 3 to 4 months. Young plants may need protection 
from the sun.
Harvesting — A tagua may mature in 10 years, faster than commonly believed,^ starting 
flowering only at 14 to 15 years (BurkilF^ says they start fruiting at 6 years), such that the 
fruit appears to arise from the ground. Then the females produce fruits “ uninterruptably” 
every subsequent year, a palm lasting for centuries in the mountains. Fruiting occurs through
out the year. When collectors are in too big a hurry, they may destructively fell the tree, 
which kills it, unable to coppice. The unripe fruits thus obtained, are artificially matured 
under organic matter, becoming the “ blond” tagua, as opposed to the “ dark” or “ black” 
tagua. Leaves to be used for thatching are first fermented for 8 to 15 days.
Yields and economics — Well-developed palms produce 15 to 16 mazorcas (clusters), 
each of which weighs 8 to 15 (to 19) kg. Twelve inflorescences will yield 100 pounds of 
seeds with their shells, or ca. 60 pounds of shelled seed. Seeds may weigh up to 240 g. 
Burkill figures that each tree produces 45 to 100 kg fruits per yr for 50 to 100 years. Back 
in 1948, Acosta-Solis^ noted that a good price was about $0.70/l(X) lb. In 1928, Esmeraldas 
Ecuador exported more than 1000 tons of seeds, 1929 being the highest year ever, with 
nearly 2200 tons exported, dwindling down to 500 tons by 1941, and almost nothing after 
that. In New York, in 1941, the Esmeraldas tagua was worth only ca. $2.00/100 lb, a mere 
$0.10/kg.2
Energy — Phytelephas microcarpa is said to produce a valuable oil.^^*
Biotic factors — In Ecuador, a coleopteous larva attacks the stem, destroying the pith, 
and often killing the tree; superficially this resembles the larva of Rhynchophorus palmarum. 
Dryocoetes sp. (Coleóptera) may attack the fruit.^
236 Handbook of Nuts
PINUS EDULIS Engelm. (PINACEAE) — Piñón, Pine Nut, Nut Pine, Silver Pine 
Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. edu lis (Engelm.) Voss and C aryopitys edu lis Small.
Uses — The State Tree of New Mexico, this species furnishes the piñón nuts or Indian 
nuts of commerce. Piñón nuts are evident in the firepots of the Gatecliff Shelter, Nevada, 
carbon-dated at 6000 years. Nuts (seeds) considered main article of subsistence by Indians 
of California, Nevada, and Utah, eaten raw or, more frequently, roasted. Nuts have a rather 
disagreeable flavor but are highly nutritious, rich in protein. Seeds are smaller but tastier 
than those of the single-leaf piñón. In spring, buds at ends of limbs, inner bark, and core 
of cone (which is something like cabbage stalk when green) are eaten. Wood is mainly used 
for fuel and fenceposts; infrequently the tree-form is used for lumber of fair quality. The 
piñón wood was also used in Indian construction. The pitch was used as a glue for water
proofing jugs, as a black dye for blankets, and to repair pottery. Navajo smeared piñón 
pitch on a corpse prior to burial. Hopi dabbed it on their foreheads to protect them against 
sorcery. Navajo used it for incense.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the pitch is used in folk remedies for tumors 
of the fingers and external cancers. Reported to be antiseptic and suppurative, the plant is 
used as a folk remedy for boils, bugbites, laryngitis, myalgia, pneumonia, sores, sore throat, 
swellings, syphilis, and wounds. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally by Indians: 
crushed nuts for treatment of bums or scalds; smoke from burning branches for coughs, 
colds, and rheumatism; and pitch for sores and wounds. Fumes of burning pitch were inhaled 
by Indians for headcold, cough, and earache.^'
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the “nut” is reported to contain 714 calories, 3.0 g H2O, 14.3 
g protein, 60.9 g fat, 18.1 g total carbohydrate, 1.1 g fiber, and 2.7 g ash.®^
Description — Straggling tree, forming a broad, pyramid-shaped crown in young trees 
and later becoming round-topped, to 15 m tall, usually smaller; diameter to nearly 1 m; 
tmnk often crooked and twisted; bark irregularly furrowed and broken into small scales. 
Leaves mostly 2 to a fascicle, sometimes with varying proportions of 1- or 3-needled 
fascicles, 2 to 4 (5) cm long, sharp-pointed, margins entire, sheaths of the fascicles deciduous, 
the odor of the crushed foliage fragrant. Staminate cones about 6 mm long, yellow, soon 
fading. Ovulate cones subterminal or lateral, 2 to 5 cm long, nearly as wide, ovoid, usually 
brown at maturity, short-stalked, the scales becoming thickened, 2 to 6 mm long, 4-sided, 
knobbed at the apex, the dorsal umbo inconspicuous; seeds large, 10 to 16 mm long, brown, 
wingless, thick-shelled; cotyledons 6 to 10.^®
Germplasm — Reported from the North American Center of Diversity, piñón, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate severe climatic conditions, including low relative humidity, 
very high evaporation, intense sunlight, low rainfall, hot summers, slope, weeds, and alkaline
237
soil.^^ Piñón, or pine nuts, refer to the seeds of several pine species which grow along the 
western area of North America from British Columbia southward into Mexico. P inus cem - 
broides Zucc., or Mexican nut-pine, occurs in mountains of central and northern Mexico 
and extends northward into New Mexico and southeastern Arizona; it is a tree to 20 m tall 
with needles in fascicles of 3, bright green, 2.5 to 5 cm long, and seeds more or less 
cylindrical to obscurely triangular and somewhat compressed at apex, about 1.5 to 2 cm 
long. Pinus m onophylla Torr., or single-leaf piñón, occurs from Utah and Nevada, south 
to Baja California and Arizona; it is a tree up to 7 m tall with the needles occurring singly, 
or rarely in pairs, rather pale glaucous green, about 3.5 cm long, and seeds 1.3 to 1.5 cm 
long and oblong. Hybrids between P. edulis and P. m onopylla are produced naturally, 
especially in Utah; such trees have both 1 or 2 needles per fascicle, and other anatomical 
features of the leaves are intermediate between the two species. Artificial hybrids have also 
been produced with similar characteristics. P. edulis var. albo-variegata Hort. has white 
leaves mixed with the green leaves.
D istrib u tion — Dry rocky places in the Colorado Plateau region of southwest Wyoming, 
Utah, western Colorado, extreme western tip of Oklahoma, western Texas, New Mexico, 
adjacent Chihuahua, Mexico, and eastern Arizona.^®
E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Thom to Wet through Subtropical Moist 
Forest Life Zones, piñón, or cvs thereof, is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 3 
to 21 dm (mean of 3 cases = 15), annual temperature of 15 to 21 °C (mean of 3 cases = 
18), and pH of 5.0 to 8.5 (mean of 3 cases = 5.1).*^ To 1500 to 2750 m elevation. Thrives 
on high tablelands at elevations from 1,600 to 3,000 m altitude, on shallow, rocky soil, 
where annual rainfall of 30 to 45 cm and climate is arid. Sometimes forms pure groves but 
more often grows along with oak, juniper, or yellow pine.^^^ Hardy to Zone 5.^"^^
C u ltivation — Trees or shmbby plants cultivated by Indians as far north as British 
Columbia. Propagated from seeds scattered over ground. Not apparently cultivated in any 
orderly fashion. Elsewhere grown as an ornamental. Trees are slow-growing, and often form 
a compact shmb.^^*
H arvestin g — Cone matures in August or September of second season and sheds seed 
shortly thereafter. Seeds are gathered in quantities in favorable seasons. Indians usually 
collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or beat the nuts loose from their cones 
with poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect the nuts for recreation and then 
sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing limbs, or tear green cones loose with 
garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering their productivity. Nuts are 
dried and sorted much like other nuts. They have unusual keeping qualities and may be 
stored for as much as 3 years without becoming rancid.
Y ields and econ om ics — No data available, as most nuts are collected from wild plants 
which vary widely in their size and productivity. Trees do not bear regularly nor equally 
fruitfully. Piñón is considered a staple food for some Indian groups, both for themselves 
and as an article for selling at markets, especially in New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico. 
Prices range to as much as $2.85 per pound in retail groceries.
E nergy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of 
pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines 
to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they 
seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends.
B iotic factors — A gricu ltu re H an dbook 165"^ lists the following as affecting this species: 
Arceuthobium cam pylopodum Engelm. f. divaricatum (western dwarf mistletoe), A rm illaria 
m ellea (root rot), C oleosporium crow ellii (needle rust), C. jo n esii (needle rust), C ronartium 
occidentale (piñón blister rust), D iplo d ia pin ea (seedling blight), E lytroderm a deform ans 
(needle cast, witches’-broom). P om es p in i (butt and heartwood rot), and H ypoderm a sac- 
catum. (needle cast)."^ Wild animals also collect the nuts.
238 Handbook of Nuts
PINUS QUADRIFOLIA Pari, ex Sudw. (PINACEAE) — Parry’s Pine-Nut, Piñón 
Syn.: P in u s cem broides var. p a rra ya n a (Engelm.) Voss and P in u s p a rra ya n a Engelm.
Uses — Nuts (seeds), which are rich in proteins, are used as an important food supply 
by Mexicans and Indians, in Lower California especially. Seeds are eaten raw or in con
fections under name of pignolia. Taste is that of piney-flavored peanuts, except that the 
meat is softer. Dense foliage makes the tree desirable as an ornamental tree in cultivation. 
Trees also used in environmental forestry, as watershed, and as habitat or food for wildlife.^ 
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the ointment derived from the pitch is said 
to be a folk remedy for external cancers. Duke and Wain^‘ report Parry’s pine-nut to be a 
folk remedy for cancer.
Chemistry — No data available.
Description — Evergreen trees to 12.3 m tall, with thick, spreading branches forming a 
pyramid, eventually becoming round-topped and irregular. Needles stout, in fascicles of 4, 
not over 3.5 cm long, pale glaucous green, incurved, irregularly deciduous, mostly falling 
the third year. Cones subglobose, chestnut-brown, lustrous, 3.5 to 5 cm broad, broadly 
ovate, compact until mature; scales thick, pyramidal, conspicuously keeled, umbo with 
minute prickle. Seeds few, large, dark red-brown, mottled, about 1.3 cm long; shell thin 
and brittle. Fruit matures in August or September of second season. Hybridizes with P. 
monophylla, single-leaf piñón, from border of U.S. into Baja California, Mexico.Fruit 
green before ripening; yellowish or reddish-brown when ripe. Flowers June; cone ripens in 
September; seeds dispersed September to October.^
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle America Center of Diversity, Parry’s pine- 
nut, or CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, heat, poor soil, and slope.
Distribution — Native at low elevations of southern California and northern Baja Cali
fornia, Mexico. Not hardy north ward. Most abundant of piñón pines. There are very 
dense and extensive stands in the Sierra Juarez and the Sierra San Pedro Mártir, which 
produce tremendous quantities of piñón nuts.^^^
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest Life 
Zones, Parry’s pine-nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 10.3 to 21.4 dm (mean 
of 2 cases = 15.9), annual temperature of 21.2°C, and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases 
= 5.2).*^ Thrives on arid mesas and low mountain slopes on well-drained soils. Tolerates 
high temperatures and low rainfall; very drought-resistant.^^®
Cultivation — Trees not known to be in cultivation for the nuts. Sometimes trees are 
cultivated as ornamentals. Propagated from seed, mainly distributed naturally.First cul
tivated in 1885. Germination hastened and improved by cold stratification of stored seeds 
for up to 30 days at 0° to 5°C in a moist medium.^
Harvesting — Natives usually collect nuts from the ground after cones have opened, or 
they beat nuts loose from cones with long poles. Present-day nut-collectors, who often collect 
the nuts for recreation and then sell them to local groceries, break off cone-bearing branches, 
or tear green cones loose with garden rakes, causing serious damage to trees, thus lowering 
their productivity. Nuts have good keeping qualities and unshelled piñón nuts can be stored 
for 3 years without becoming rancid. Piñón nuts mature in the second season during August 
and September.There is a 1- to 5-year interval between large seed crops. Seeds are dried 
for 2 to 8 days. Seeds may be collected by shaking the tree and collecting seeds on a cloth 
spread on the ground.^
Yields and economics — In California, between 820 and 1,200 (average 960) seeds per 
pound were collected from three samples.^ Exact yield data are difficult to obtain, as fruiting 
is uneven, and nearly all piñón nuts are harvested from wild plants, which may be scattered. 
Nuts form a very important item of the diet for some Mexicans and Indians, especially in 
Baja California, and are sold in markets from San Diego southward, for as much as $2.85 
per Ib.^^®
239
Energy — Historically, the wood, the cones, the needles, and the pitches and resins of 
pines have been used as energy sources. Scandinavians have even adapted automobile engines 
to run on turpentine-like compounds. Although the seeds may run more than 50% oil, they 
seem better adapted to edible than to energy ends.
Biotic factors — This piñón nut tree is attacked by a fungus, Hypoderma sp. and may 
be parasitized by the mistletoe, Arceiithobium campylopodum.^^^
240 Handbook of Nuts
PISTACIA VERA L. (PISTACIACEAE) — Pistachio
Uses — Pistachio is cultivated for the nut, rich in oil, eaten roasted, salted, or used to 
flavor confections and ice cream. Arabs call the nut “ Fustuk” . The outer husk of the fruit, 
used in India for dyeing and tanning, is imported from Iran. The fruit is the source of a 
non-drying oil. In Iran, Bokhara Galls of Gul-i-pista, are used for tanning.The nuts are 
much liked by squirrels and some birds, including bluejays and red-headed woodpeckers. 
The wood is excellent for carving and cabinet work.*^^ In Iran, fruit husks are made into 
marmalade; they are also used as fertilizer.
Folk medicine — According to Hartwell,the nuts are said to be a folk remedy for 
scirrhus of the liver. Reported to be anodyne and decoagulant, pistachio is a folk remedy 
for abdominal ailments, abscess, amenorrhea, bruises, chest ailments, circulation problems, 
dysentery, dysmenorrhea, gynecopathy, pruritus, sclerosis of the liver, sores, and trauma. 
Algerians used the powdered root in oil for children’s cough. Iranians infused the fruits’ 
outer husk for dysentery. Lebanese used the leaves as compresses, believing the nuts en
hanced fertility and virility.Arabs consider the nuts to be digestive, aphrodisiac, and tonic. 
They are used medicinally in East India.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 624 to 627 calories, 19.7 
to 20.4 g protein, 56.4 to 56.7 g fat, 20.1 to 20.6 g total carbohydrate, 2.0 g fiber, 2.9 to 
3.3 g ash, 138 mg Ca, 528 mg P, 7.7 mg Fe, 1026 mg K, 146 jjig beta-carotene equivalent, 
0.71 mg thiamine, 1.48 mg niacin, and 0.0 mg ascorbic acid.®^ Galls produced on leaves 
contain 45% tannin. Tannin contains gallotanic acid, gallic acid, and an oleo-resin, to which 
the odor is due.^^® Low in sugar (ca. 8%), high in protein (ca. 20%) and oil (>50%). The 
oil is nearly 90% unsaturated fatty acid (70% oleic and 20% linoleic fatty acid).^^^ The
241
edible portion of the nuts contains 9.0 ppm Al, 0.02 As, 0.002 Au, 11 B, 0.1 Ba, 16 Br, 
1066 Ca, 0.04 Cd, 408 Cl, 0.2 Co, 0.6 Cr, 0.1 Cs, 33 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 3.8 F, 46 Fe, 0.1 Hg, 
51 I, 8639 K, 0.02 La, 0.01 Lu, 949 Mg, 3.4 Mn, 538 Na, 1.1 Ni, 0.8 Pb, 10 Rb, 960 S, 
0.05 Sb, 0.004 Sc, 0.1 Se, 0.03 Sm, 0.4 Sn, 10 Sr, 0.4 Th, 3.1 Ti, 0.01 V, 0.1 W, 0.1 
Yb, and 30 ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in 
land plants are 50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 
Mn, 3 Ni, 20 Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in copper, 
fluorine, iodine, and potassium, and they were equal or higher in europium and thorium 
than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al. Moyer^^^ reports pistachios to contain, 
per 100 g edible portion, 594 calories, 19.3 g protein, 53.7 g fat, 19.0 g carbohydrates, 
5.3% water, 131 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 7.3 mg Fe, 972 mg K, and 158 mg Mn. An analysis 
of pistachio kernels in the Wealth of India gave the following values per 100 g: 5.6% 
moisture, 19.8% protein, 53.5% fat, 16.2% carbohydrates, 2.1% fiber, 2.8% mineral matter, 
0.14% Ca, 0.43% P, 13.7 mg Fe, 240 I.U. carotene (as vitamin A), 0.67 mg thiamine, 
0.03 mg riboflavin, 1.4 mg nicotinic acid, no vitamin C, and 626 calories. The fatty acid 
composition of the oil is 0.6% myristic, 8.2% palmitic, 1.6% stearic, 69.6% oleic, and 
19.8% linoleic acids. Galls contain 50% tannins. Both young and mature leaves contain 
shikimic acid.^®
D escrip tion — Slow-growing, long-lived (700 to 15(X) years), small, dioecious bushy 
tree, to 10 m tall, developing a large trunk with age; branches pendant. Leaves odd-pinnate, 
the 3 to 11 leaflets ovate, slightly tapering at the base. Flowers dioecious, without petals, 
brownish-green, small, in axillary racemes or panicles; pedicels bracted at base; staminate 
flowers with 5-cleft calyx and 5 very short stamens with large anthers; pistillate flowers 
with 3 to 4 cleft calyx, 1-celled sessile ovary and short 3-cleft style. Fruit a dry, ovoid to 
oblong, pedicelled drupe, up to 2.5 cm long, reddish and wrinkled, enclosing 2 yellow- 
green oily cotyledons (kernel). Flowers early summer; fruits August to September.
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asia Center of Diversity, pistachio, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, frost, and heat.®^ Many varieties of pistachio have 
been developed, because the crop has been grown for several thousand years, most are 
named after the area in which they were cultivated. Iranian: light-yellow kernel, larger size 
but lacks oily nut flavor; Sicilian, Syrian, and Turkish: almost green kernel throughout, with 
good flavor; Afghan and Italian: deep-green kernels prefered for ice cream and pastry. In 
Syria, district cvs are ‘Alemi’, ‘Achoury’, ‘Aijimi’, ‘Aintab’, ‘Ashoori’, ‘El Bataury’, 
‘Mirhavy’. In Sicily: ‘Trabonella’, and ‘Bronte’. In California, 13 cvs have been tested: 
‘Ibrahmim’, ‘Owhadi’, ‘Safeed’, ‘Shasti’, ‘Wahedi’ (largest nuts of any cv). In Turkey: 
‘Uzun’ (nuts 34 to 36 mm long) and ‘Kirmizi’ (red-hulled, thin-shelled, free-splitting, green- 
kemeled, containing 20.3% protein and 65.47% oil).^^® Joley^^^ reports on cvs being tested 
at Chico, California. Male cv ‘Peters’, nearest to a universal pollinator, coincides well with 
‘Red Aleppo’ and ‘Trabonella’ (early blossoming) and with ‘Kerman’ (late blossoming). 
Cultivar ‘Chico’ provides a supplement to ‘Peters’. The first nut-bearing cvs tested at Chico 
were ‘Bronte’, ‘Buenzle’, ‘Minassian’, ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Sfax’, and ‘Trabonella’. The most 
promising in quality and greeness of kernels are ‘Bronte’, ‘Red Aleppo’, and ‘Trabonella’. 
‘Kerman’ is liked by importers and processors for its size, crispness, and snap when bitten 
into and chewed. A sister seedling of ‘Kerman’, ‘Lassen’, also produces good quality large
sized nuts.^^^ (2n = 30.)
D istrib u tion — Native to Near East and Western Asia from Syria to Caucasus, and 
Afghanistan, forming pure stands at altitudes up to 1(XK) m; pistachio has been introduced 
and is now cultivated in many subtropical areas of the world, such as China, India, the 
Mediterranean, and U.S. (Arizona, California, and Florida).
E cology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry through Subtropical Thom to Dry Forest 
Life Zones, pistachio is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.7 to 11.2 dm (mean
242 Handbook of Nuts
of 7 cases = 6.2 dm), annual temperature of 14.3°C to 26.2°C (mean of 7 = 18.8°C), and 
pH of 7.1 to 7.8 (mean of 4 cases = 7.6).^^ Hardy to Zone Pistachio requires cold 
winters (to - 18°C) and long hot dry summers (to 38°C) to mature. Philippe^^^ assumes it 
requires 600 to 1500 hours below TC to meet its chilling requirements. In Iran, it grows 
at 1200 m elevation on desert plateau. In Turkey and California it grows in the same areas 
as olives and almonds, but flowers later in the spring than almonds, and is less susceptible 
to fruit injury. Requires from 30 to 45 cm annual rainfall, any less may need irrigation, but 
requires less than most other culitvated fruit and nut trees. Soils should be deep, friable, 
and well-drained but moisture-retaining; the root is deep-penetrating.^^® It can, however, 
survive in poor, stony, calcareous highly alkaline or slightly acid, or even saline soils.
C u ltivation — Trees are difficult to transplant; green seed (nuts) are planted in their 
permanent place. Other species of Pistacia are used as stock upon which to bud pistachio. 
Care should be taken to select areas for the pistachio orchard which are protected from wind, 
as in a valley, with less exposure to cold, and with soil relatively free of sand but possessing 
the ability to retain moisture. After planting, soil should be cultivated periodically for 5 to 
7 years, by which time the trees are 2 to 3 m tall. Branches of selected cvs are then bud- 
grafted (2 buds per tree to insure at least one taking) on new trees. Male varieties shedding 
pollen during the first half of female blooming period should be selected. In California, 
male varieties ‘Peters’ and ‘Chico 23’ correspond well to female ‘Red Aleppo’, ‘Trabonella’, 
and ‘Bronte’. One male tree should be planted to 7 or 8 females. Plantings should be about 
9 m apart under irrigation, farther apart without irrigation. Pistachio responds favorably to 
applications of nitrogen. After grafting, 4 to 6 years are required before trees begin to bear. 
The trees do not bear fully until they are 20 to 25 years old, and continue to bear for 40 to 
60 years or more. Pistachio trees are delicate, and production of nuts is influenced by excess 
of rain, drought, excessive heat or cold, and high winds.
H arvestin g — Harvest period is August to September in most areas. It is best to harvest 
the whole tree when most of the crop is ripe. Nuts can be knocked from trees. Clusters of 
nuts are removed, allowed to dry 3 days on the ground, and beaten or stamped on to separate 
the nuts from the clusters. They are then put in a tank of water to soak for 12 hr, and then 
stamped on or beaten to remove the outer green husk. Finally, they are washed and dried 
in the sun.'^^’^^®
Y ield s and econ om ics — Adult trees yield an average of 11.25 kg annually. Three kg 
unshelled nuts yield 1 kg shelled.^^® Joley’^^ reports on the average yield of four pistachio 
CVS per tree per year since start of production: ‘Kerman’ 22.45 kg dry weight, 15 years in 
production; ‘Bronte’ 11.25 kg dry weight, 14 years in production; ‘Trabonella’ 6.35 kg dry 
weight, 12 years in production; and ‘Red Aleppo’ 4.50 kg dry weight, 12 years in production. 
For 8- to 15-year old trees in Jordan, Philippe^^^ estimates yields at 2 to 8 kg in shell per 
tree, 200 to 800 kg/ha, for 16- to 30-year-old trees, 8 to 30 kg per tree, 800 to 2,400 kg/ha. 
In 1976, the yield of American pistachios was 150,000 lbs; in 1979, more than 17 million 
lbs. Yields of 50 to 150 lbs per tree are reported in California.Duke®^ reports 7 kg fruit 
per plant. Nuts are marketed mostly unshelled and salted. Soaked in a brine solution, they 
are quickly dried in the sun or in artificial driers to prevent development of surface mold. 
Before marketing the shell is cracked for consumer convenience. “ Red” pistachios are 
roasted, salted, and shell is colored with a vegetable dye; “ White” pistachios are roasted 
and shell coated with a mixture of salt and cornstarch; “ Naturals” have only salt added 
after roasting.^^® In 1979, the revolution in Iran caused the world’s main pistachio supply 
to disappear, which in turn caused prices to rise from $1.25/lb in 1978 to $2.05/lb in 1980. 
In 1982, the American crop of 43 million pounds of pistachios was valued at more than $60 
million. Indications are that the U.S. crop will be 70 to 80 million pounds by the 1990s, 
eventually topping 120 million pounds.
E n ergy — The wood has a specific gravity of 0.9179 to 0.92(X),^^'* and is said to make
243
an excellent fireplace wood.*^^ Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins 
and Ebeling’"^^ reported a spread of 19.26 to 18.06 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered 
rice straw to 23.28 MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the shells contained 82.03% 
volatiles, 1.13% ash, 16.85% fixed carbon, 48.79% C, 5.91% H, 43.41% O, 0.56% N, 
0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue.
B iotic facto rs — Pollination is by wind or air drift. Many insects are serious crop- 
destroying pests and should be controlled; an aphid (Anapleura lentisci) is one such pest. 
Numerous fungi, causing serious damage, attack pistachio: A lternaría tenuissim a, A stero- 
m ella pistaciaru m , C ladosporiu m herbarum , C ylindrosporium garbow skii, C. p ista cia e, 
C ytospora teretinthi, F am es rim osus, Fusarium roseum , F. solani, M onilia p ista cia , O zon- 
ium auriconium , P apu lospora sp., P hellinus rim osus, P hleospora p ista cia e, P hyllactin ia 
suffulta, P h yllosticta lentisci, P. terebinthi, Phym atotrichum om nivorum , P hytophthora p a r 
asitica, P ileola ria terebinthi, P leurotus ostreatus, R hizoctonia bataticola, R osellina n eca
trix, Septogloeum p ista cia e, S eptoria p ista cia e, S. pistaciaru m , S. pistacin a, Stem phylium 
botryosum , T etracoccosporium sp., and U rom yces terebinthi. The P hytophthora causes 
footrot via damage to cambium; S eptoria spp. cause defoliation and CuS spray should be 
used; P hom opsis and Fusarium attack the female flowers; a virus causing rosettes is serious 
in Asia; mistletoe attacks the trees; and the following nematodes have been isolated from 
pistachio: H eterodera m arioni, M eloidogyne sp., and X iphinem a index.The roots are 
very susceptible to root-knot nematodes.Verticillium wilt is the primary threat, according 
to Vietmeyer.^^^ Rice et al.^^^ report epicarp lesion symptoms being reproduced on apparently 
L eptoglossu s 
healthy pistachio fruit clusters exposed to field-collected adult leaf-footed bugs, 
clypealis. Two species of leaf-footed bugs, L eptoglossu s clypealis and L. o ccid en ta lis, and 
at least four species of stink-bugs in the genera Thyanta, C hlorochroa, and A crosternum 
produced similar external and internal damage to pistachio fruits. Other fruit symptoms, not 
associated with insects, were panicle and shoot blight, endocarp necrosis, and stylar-end 
lesion. Several species of smaller plant bugs in the family Miridae, including L ygus hesperus 
and C alocoris norvegicus, caused epicarp lesion symptoms.
244 Handbook of Nuts
PITTOSPORUM RESINIFERUM Hemsl. (PITTOSPORACEAE) — Petroleum Nut (Eng
lish), “ Hanga” (Philippine)
U ses — Called petroleum nuts because of the fancied resemblance of the odor of the 
fruit’s oil to that of petroleum, the fruits, even green ones, bum brilliantly when ignited. 
Hence, they are used like torch nuts or candlenuts for illumination in the bush. Dihydroterpene 
(CioHig) is used in perfumes and medicines. Heptane (CyH^^) is a component of gasoline, 
and has been suggested as a possible component of paint and varnish.
F olk m ed icin e — The fmit is used as a panacea by Philippine traditionalists — especially, 
however, for abdominal pain. The oleoresin is used to treat muscular pains and skin dis
eases. The nut decoction is used for colds. Cmshed nuts are mixed with coconut oil as 
a relief for myalgia. AltshuP® quotes from a 1947 Sulit herbarium specimen, “ Petroleum 
gas extracted from the fruit is medicinal for stomach-ache and cicitrizant.’’ Hurov^"^^ says 
the fruit is used to treat rheumatism, muscle pains, and wounds.
C h em istry — The volatile oil of the fmit is reported to contain “ dihydroterpene and 
heptane, which is a cardiac glycosideThe Horticultural and Special Crops Laboratory 
at Peoria analyzed an accession of fmit, and identified, from its “ squeezings” , constituents 
passing through a gas chromatographic column, heptane (about 45% of the elutents) nonane, 
alpha-pinene or beta-ocimene, beta-pinene, myrcene, and unidentified materials. The es
sential oil (8 to 10% of fmit weight) contains myrcene (40%) and alpha-pinene (38%) in
245
± equal quantities (oil of P. undulatum contains mostly limonene). The two components 
n-heptane (5%) and n-nonane (7%) are minor components.
D escrip tion — Aromatic tree to 30 m tall, but probably smaller in its elfin forest habitat 
(perhaps even epiphytic); fruiting when only 6 to 12 m tall. Leaves aromatic, coriaceous, 
entire (possibly evergreen), thickest above the middle, pinnately nerved, with a short acumen 
at the tip. Flowers fragrant, white, clustered on the stems. Fruits average 25 mm in diameter 
(12 to 43). Each fruit has 5 to 72 seeds (average 31), the seeds ranging from 1 to 4 mm, 
averaging 3 mm. The seeds are about as close to hexahedral and prismatic as any I have 
seen, being quite angular, black to blackish-gold, often still surrounded by a gummy or 
resinous endocarp.
G erm p lasm — The FORI Director in the Philippines is actively collecting superior 
germplasm in the high mountains of Bontoc and Benguet where they abound, especially in 
elfin forests.
D istrib u tion — In the Philippines, petroleum nut is locally known in Benguet as apisang, 
abkol, abkel, and langis; in the Mountain Province, dael and dingo, and in Abra, sagaga. 
It abounds in Mt. Pulis, Ifugao, and is reported from the head-waters of the Agno and Chico 
River Basins. Also in the Bicol Provinces, Palawan, Mindoro, Nueva Ecija, and Laguna 
Provinces. It is being cultivated at FORFs Conifer Research Center, Baguio City.*^’^^^
E cology — Petroleum nut is reported to range from 600 to 2,400 m elevation, usually 
in elfin or Benguet Pine Forest. Average of 7 climatic data sites where the Pittosporum 
grows was close to 1,000 m, the range from ca. 550 to 2,000 m. Whether or not it can 
stand frost, dry heat, and drought is questionable. Frequently, species of elfin forests have 
very narrow ecological amplitudes and do not thrive in other vegetation types. Results of 
transplants and trials are unavailable to me now. Reportedly, seed were introduced once, 
at least to Hawaii. Thanks to Professors Ludivina S. de Padua, S. C. Hales, and Juan V. 
Pancho of the Philippines, we now have a fairly good idea of the ecosystematic amplitudes 
of the Pittosporum, an energy plant that has captured the imagination of many. Professor 
de Padua checked off all the climatic data points (from our climatic data base) at which 
Pittosporum resiniferum was growing, prior to its widespread introduction for potential 
energy studies elsewhere in the Philippines. Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist through 
Subtropical Forest Life Zones, the petroleum nut grows where the annual precipitation ranges 
from 15 to more than 50 dm (mean of 36 cases = 27 dm), annual temperature from 18 to 
28°C (mean of 17 cases = 26°C). Of 17 cases where both temperature and rainfall data 
were available to us, 13 would suggest Tropical Moist Forest Life Zone, three would suggest 
Tropical Dry, and one would suggest Subtropical Rain Forest Life Zones.
C ultivation — Seeds and cutting can be used to propagate the tree. Seeds may lose their 
vitality rather rapidly. According to Juan V. Pancho (personal communication, 1982), “ from 
my experience, the seed lost its viability after one month storage.”
H arvestin g — Currently, seeds are harvested from the wild.
Y ields and econ om ics — A single fruit yields 0.1 to 3.3 m€, averaging about 1.3 m€
oil. In general, the bigger the fruit, the larger the seed, and the greater the oil content.
It is reported^^ that a single tree from Mount Mariveles, Bataan, yielded 15 kg green fruits, 
which yielded 800 cm^ of oil. The residue, ground up and distilled with steam, yielded 73 
cm^ more. Another report gave 68 g per kg fresh nuts, suggesting about 1 kg oil per tree 
yielding 15 kg.‘^ Currently, seeds are being sold at $2.00 per gram in 5-gram lots (ca. 40 
seeds per g) by the FORI Seed Officer, Forest Research Institute College, Laguna, Phil
ippines.
E n ergy — The plant was discovered as a hydrocarbon source just after 1900. Based on 
the previous paragraph, it seems it would take 1,000 trees per ha to get one MT oil per 
hectare from the fruits. Perhaps the resin in the leaves, twigs, etc. would equal or exceed 
this; figures are not yet available. The oil derived from the fruits is quite sticky and rapidly
246 Handbook of Nuts
turns resinous when laid thin. In an open dish, it bums strongly, although with a sooty 
flame.C. A. Arroyo‘S notes that for home use as fuel, “ the husk of African oil palm nuts 
could be much better than the petroleum nut that emits sooty smoke and strong smell.” 
President Marcos was said to encourage each Philippine farmer to plant five trees in the 
hopes that they could obtain 300 € of oil therefrom, per year. I saw nothing about this at 
the Philippine exhibit at the World’s Fair in June 1982. However, if yields of 60 € of oil 
per tree are possible, the tree should certainly be examined! In the January 1981 issue of 
Canopy International, Generalao^®® lists petroleum nut at the top of a long list of potential 
oil seeds including Pongamia pinnata, Sterculia foetida, Terminalia catappa, Sindora supa, 
Calophyllum inophyllum, Canarium luzonicum, Aleurites moluccana, Aleurites trisperma, 
Mallotus philippensis, Barringtonia asiatica, Sindora inermis, Pithecellobium dulce, Ta- 
marindus indica, Chisocheton cumingianus, Jatropha curcas, and Euphorbia philippensis 
to help the Philippines solve their energy problem (importing 85%). Presidential Decree 
1068 declares the imperative acceleration of research on energy alternatives. Editorial notes 
in Canopy International suggest that the flammable element in petroleum nut is volatile, 
evaporating quickly like acetone. Some chemists believe admixing another element will 
stabilize the compound. One Hurov seed cataloghas very optimistic notes about the plant: 
“ The Gasoline Tree produces masses of apricot-sized orange fruits which when cut and 
touched with a match leap into flame and bum steadily. The fmits contain 46% of gasoline 
type components (heptane, dihydroterpene, etc.), which are found in extensive networks of 
large resin canals. If planted, the estimated yield would be about 45 tons of fmit or 2500 
gallons of ‘gasoline’ per acre per 
B iotic factors — No data available.
247
PLATONIA ESCULENTA (Arr. Cam.) Rickett & Stafl. (CLUSIACEAE) — Bacury, Bacuri, 
Pakuri, Parcouril, Piauhy, Wild Mammee (Guyana)
S yn .: Anstoclesia esculenta (A rr. C a m .) Stuntz; Platonia insignis M art.
Uses — Seeds are the source of Bacury Kernel Oil, a nondrying oil used in the manufacture 
of candles and soaps. Fruits are used for pastry and preserves, and are highly esteemed in 
the Amazon region for the delicious pulp from the large fruit, used in sweets and ice cream. 
Extracts of the fruit are toxic to black carpet beetles, but not to the larvae of Aedes and 
Anopheles. A yellow gum resin secreted by the bark is used in veterinary medicine. Wood, 
brownish-yellow, turning black upon exposure to air, is durable, resistant to insect attacks; 
resilient, rather fine-grained, easy to work, taking on a lustrous finish; used for flooring, 
planks, fancy wood-work, and construction of buildings. Presently, wood is used for making 
rum barrels, and cases or crates for shipping bananas; it is also excellent for cabinet work 
and carpentry. Bark is white, exfoliating, fibrous, used for cordage, and yielding a black 
viscous resin used for caulking boats.
F olk m ed icin e — No data available.
C h em istry — This is one of the few outstanding exceptions to the generally evenly 
distributed glyceride structure of solid seed fats. In 1945, it was reported to have the unusually 
high melting point of 51 to 52°C and contain 24% fully saturated glycerides, although its 
component acids were approximately 56% saturated (palmitic and stearic) with 39% oleic 
and 4% linoleic acid. Component acids reported are myristic 1.0, palmitic 55.1, stearic 6.4, 
arachidic 0.3, hexadecenoic 3.2, oleic 31.7, and linoleic 2.3%, and the component glycer
ides: fully saturated 20 (tripalmitin 15), oleodipalmitin 38, oleopalmitostearin 17, palmi- 
todiolein 19, stearodiolein 6%. Apart from the fully saturated glyceride content, the rest of
248 Handbook of Nuts
the fat is constituted on the usual lines, and bacury fat thus resembles laurel kernel fat in 
that it is only the fully saturated glycerides which are abnormal. It is possible, but of course 
not in any way proven, that such departures from the normal are caused by certain acids 
(in this instance, palmitic) being produced in the seed at some stage of its development in 
much greater proportions than the average content of the acid in the total seed fat at maturity; 
if so, the departure from normality would be more apparent than real. Elsewhere, Hilditch 
and Williams report among the saturated fatty acids 1.2% C14, 57.2% C,^, 6.0% Cjg, and 
0.2% C20 or above. Among the glycerides, 19% were trisaturated, 55% were disaturated, 
26% monosaturated.*^^
D escrip tion — Large trees with yellowish sap; trunk straight, cylindrical, 50 to 55 cm 
in diameter (up to 1.3 m), free of branches 20 to 25 m up, with indistinct, low, thick 
butresses; cortex dark-gray, with deep vertical cracks 1 to 3 cm apart, or with large scales 
5 to 25 mm thick; crown broad, flattened, with thick straight slightly slanting branches; 
twigs straight and stout; entire plant glabrous except the inflorscence. Leaves remote at ends 
of branches and in single pairs at ends of short lateral branchlets; petioles 1 to 2 cm long, 
margined; blade elliptic, obovate or oblong to oblong-lanceolate, apex and base rounded, 
acute or slightly acuminate, up to 15 cm long, coriaceous, glossy above, midrib flat or 
impressed above, prominent to strongly prominent beneath; primary veins prominent on both 
sides, connected by a submarginal vein. Inflorescence 1- to 3-flowered, terminating the leaf
bearing branchlets; peduncle absent; pedicels 1 to 3 cm long, their bases surrounded by a 
series of deltoid bracts 3 to 4 mm long, leaving transverse scars; flowers minutely pulverulent; 
sepals ovate to broad semi-orbicular, 6 to 8 mm long; petals elliptic, 3.5 to 4 cm long, pink 
outside, white inside; bud reddish. Fruit globose, 5 to 7.5 cm long, green, turning yellow; 
mesocarp edible, often containing only 1 seed, rarely more, of pleasant flavor. Flowers 
September to November; fruits March to May.^^*
G erm p lasm — Native to the South American Center of Diversity, bacury tolerates sand 
and some waterlogging. Mors and Rizzini^^^ state “ it would be an ideal object of study for 
plant breeders, who could increase the pulpy part at the expense of the very large seeds” . 
Oilseed specialists might breed in the other direction.
D istrib u tion — Native to Brazil (Para, Maranhao, Ceara, Goyaz, Amazon) and Guyana.
E cology — Estimated to range from Subtropical Dry to Wet through Tropical Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, perhaps tolerating annual temperatures of 18 to 25°C, annual precipitation 
of 5 to 40 dm, and pH of 4.5 to 8.0. On sandy, dry plains and in marshy regions, growing 
scattered in tropical environment.^^®
C u ltivation — Trees grow naturally from seeds in the forests, and the tree is not known 
to be cultivated.
H arvestin g — Trees are cut from the forest for timber. Fruits and seeds are collected by 
natives and sold at trading centers. Most of the products are used locally by the natives.
Y ield s and econ om ics — No yield data available. Seeds and fruits are sold at local 
markets in Brazil, French Guyana, and Surinam. Also lumber, dye wood, and fiber are sold 
in some markets.
E n ergy — Prunings and falling leaves might provide 5 to 10 MT dry matter per ha per 
yr, which could be diverted to energy production, for direct combustion or conversion into 
alcohol or methane. With no yield data on the nuts, I cannot speculate as to how much 
renewable oil, resin, and fuel wood this produces.
B iotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported for this tree.
249
PRUNUS DULCIS (MILL.) D.A. WEBB (ROSACEAE) — Almond
Uses — Almonds are cultivated for the nuts, used in candies, baked products, and 
confectioneries, and for the oils obtained from the kernels. Oil is used as a flavoring agent 
in baked goods, perfumery and medicines. Benzaldehyde may be used for almond flavoring, 
being cheaper ($1.54/kg) than almond oil ($5.28 to $6.60/kg).^^^ Much valued in the orient 
because it furnishes a very pleasant oil. In Tuscany, almond branches are used as divining 
rods to locate hidden treasure. Modem English Jews reportedly still carry branches of 
flowering almonds into the synagogue on spring festival days. There is the legendary story 
of Charlemagne’s troops’ spears (almond) sprouting in the ground overnight and shading 
the tents the next day. As essential oils go, there is only bitter almond oil. Sweet almond 
oil is used for cosmetic creams and lotions, although in a crisis, it might conceivably be 
used as an energy source. The gum exuded from the tree has been used as a substitute for 
tragacanth.®^
F olk M ed icin e — According to Hartwell,the seed and/or its oil are used in folk 
remedies for cancer (especially bladder, breast, mouth, spleen, and uterus), carcinomata, 
condylomata, corns, indurations and tumors. Reported to be alterative, astringent, carmi
native, cyanogenetic, demulcent, discutient, diuretic, emollient, laxative, lithotriptic, ner
vine, sedative, stimulant and tonic, almond is a folk remedy for asthma, cold, corns, cough, 
dyspnea, emptions, gingivitis, heartburn, itch, lungs, prurigo, skin, sores, spasms, sto
matitis, and ulcers. The kernels are valued in diet, for peptic ulcers. It is no surprise that 
the seeds and/or oil (containing amygdalin or benzaldehyde) are widely acclaimed as folk 
cancer remedies, for all sorts of cancers and tumors, calluses, condylomata, and corns. 
Lebanese extract the oil for skin trouble, including white patches on skin; used throughout 
the Middle East for an emollient; also for itch. Raw oil from the bitter variety is used for 
acne. Almond and honey was given for cough. Thin almond paste was added to wheat 
porridge to pass gravel or stone. It is believed by the Lebanese to restore virility. Iranians 
make an ointment from bitter almonds for furuncles. Bitter almonds, when eaten in small 
quantity, sometimes produce nettle-rash. When taken in large quantity, they may cause
250 Handbook of Nuts
poisoning. Ayurvedics consider the fruit, the seed and its oil aphrodisiac, using the oil for 
biliousness and headache, the seed as a laxative. Unani use the seed for ascites, bronchitis, 
colic, cough, delirium, earache, gleet, hepatitis, headache, hydrophobia, inflammation, 
renitis, skin ailments, sore throat, and weak eyes.^'^^
C h em istry — Per 100 g, the seed is reported to contain 547 to 605 calories, 4.7 to 4.8 
g H2O, 16.8 to 21.0 g protein, 54.1 to 54.9 g fat, 17.3 to 21.5 g total carbohydrate, 2.6 
to 3.0 g fiber, 2.0 to 3.0 g ash, 230 to 282 mg Ca, 475 to 504 mg P, 4.4 to 5.2 mg Fe, 4 
to 14 mg Na, 432 to 773 mg K, 0 to 5 |xg beta-carotene equivalent, 0.24 to 0.25 mg 
thiamine, 0.15 to 0.92 mg riboflavin, 2.5 to 6.0 mg niacin, and traces of ascorbic acid. 
According to WOI, the seeds contain 5.8 mg/100 g Na, 856 K, 247 Ca, 257 Mg, 4.23 Fe, 
0.14 Cu, 442 P, 145 S and 1.7 Cl. About 82% of the P is in phytic acid. Seeds contain 
0.45 ppm folic acid, 150 mg/kg alpha-tocopherol and 5 mg/kg gamma-tocopherol. The chief 
protein is a globulin, amandin, which contains 11.9% arginine, 1.6% histidine,, 0.7% lysine, 
2.5% phenylalanine, 4.5% leucine, 0.2% valine, 1.4% tryptophane, 0.7% methionine, and 
0.8% cystine. The approximate fatty acid composition of the oil is 1% myristic, 5% palmitic, 
77% oleic, and 17% linoleic.Sweet almond oil from Kashmir showed 0.2% myristic, 8.9% 
palmitic, 4.0% stearic, 62.5% oleic, and 24.4% linoleic. The essential oil is 81 to 93% 
benzaldehyde, close kin to laetrile. The hulls (fleshy pericarp) contain: 7.5% moisture, 
25.6% total sugars, 7.2% reducing sugars, 4.4% tannin, 2.6 to 4.7% protein, 1.6% starch, 
2.4% pectin, 1.1 to 1.2% ether extract, 12.6% crude fiber, and 4.6 to 6.3% ash.^® The gum 
which exudes from the trunk hydrolyses into 4 parts L-arabinose, 2 parts D-xylose, 3 parts 
D-galactose, and 1 part D-glucuronic acid. The edible portion of the nuts contain 3.2 ppm 
Al, 0.02 As, 0.001 Au, 18 B, 2.6 Ba, 20 Br, 2720 Ca, 0.02 Cd, 28 Cl, 0.2 Co, 1.7 Cr, 
0.1 Cs, 14 Cu, 0.1 Eu, 1.3 F, 54 Fe, 0.04 Hf, 0.1 Hg, 0.1 I, 6346 K, 0.03 La, 0.01 Lu, 
2297 Mg, 14 Mn, 0.3 Mo, 20 Na, 1.6 Ni, 0.4 Pb, 13 Rb, 3420 S, 0.1 Sb, 0.003 Sc, 0.02 
Se, 960 Si, 0.1 Sm, 0.7 Sn, 16 Sr, 0.03 Ta, 0.2 Th, 3.5 Ti, 0.02 V, 0.1 W, 0.1 Yb, 32 
ppm Zn dry weight. The normal concentration of some of these elements in land plants are 
50 ppm B, 14 Ba, 15 Br, 2000 Cl, 0.5 Co, 0.2 Cs, 14 Cu, 3.200 Mg, 630 Mn, 3 Ni, 20 
Rb, 3,400 S, 26 Sr, and 0.2 ppm Se dry weight. They were higher in calcium and chromium 
than any of the 12 nut species studied by Furr et al.*®^
D escrip tion — Tree to 10 m tall, the alternate leaves lanceolate to oblong lanceolate, 
minutely serrate. Flowers solitary, white to pink, actinomorphic, 20 to 50 mm broad, 
appearing with or before the foliage. Fruit an oblong drupe 30 to 60 mm long, pubescent, 
the tough flesh splitting at maturity to expose the pitted stone; endocarp thin or thick; seed 
flattened, longovoid, the seed coat brown.
G erm p lasm — Reported from the Central Asian and Near Eastern Centers of Diversity, 
almond or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate drought, frost, high pH, heat, mycobacteria, 
nematodes, slope, and wilt.^^ ‘Cavaliera’ is very early, ‘Nonpareil’ early, ‘Ferragnes’ me
dium, ‘Marcona’ late, and ‘Texas’ very late. (2n = 16.)
D istrib u tion — Widely distributed in cultivation now, the sweet almond is said to have 
wild types in Greece, North Africa, and West Asia. Almond was cultivated in China in the 
10th Century BC, in Greece in the 5th Century BC.
E cology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Thom to 
Moist Forest Life Zones, almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 2.0 to 14.7 
dm (mean of 11 cases = 7.5) annual temperature of 10.5 to 19.5°C (mean of 11 cases = 
14.8) and pH of 5.3 to 8.3 (mean of 7 cases = 7.3). Almond does well in the hot, dry 
interior valleys of California, where the nuts mature satisfactorily. The leaves and nuts are 
less subject to attack by disease-causing fungi in the hot, dry climate than under cooler and 
more humid conditions. It has a low winter chilling requirement. Because of this low chilling 
requirement (or short rest period), and the relatively low amount of heat required to bring 
the trees into bloom, the almond is generally the earliest deciduous fruit or nut tree to flower,
251
hence extremely subject to frost injury where moderately late spring frosts prevail. Almonds 
need ample rainfall or irrigation water for maximum production of well-filled almond nuts. 
Trees have been planted in certain areas where supplies of water are inadequate for other 
fruit or nut crops; however, yields of nuts were low. In general, conditions favoring peach 
production will also favor almonds. The almond tree has been successfully grown on a wide 
range of soils. It is a deep-rooted tree and draws heavily on the soil, which should be deep, 
fertile, and well drained. Sandy loams are best. Since sandy soils are often deficient in plant 
food elements, careful attention must be paid to proper fertilization of the trees. Almond 
trees have high N and P requirements. Sandy soils are easy to cultivate, and cover crops 
are comparatively easy to grow on them provided they are properly fertilized.
C u ltivation — In India, trees are raised from seedlings, the seeds usually having a chilling 
requirement. Seeds are sown in nurseries, the seedlings transplanted after about one year. 
For special types, as in the U.S., scions are budded or grafted on to bitter or sweet almond, 
apricot, myrobalan, peach, or plum seedlings. Trees are planted 6 to 8 m apart and irrigated, 
in spite of their drought tolerance. Application of nitrogenous and/or organic fertilizers is 
said to improve yield. Trees should be pruned to a modified leader system. All types are 
self-sterile, so cvs or seedlings should be mixed.
H arvestin g — Fruits occur mainly on shoot spurs, which remain productive up to five 
years. Bearing trees may be pruned of surplus branches to about 20% of the old-bearing 
wood. Tree exhibiting decline may be severely cut back at the top. In India, the trees bear 
from July to September. Fruits are harvested when the flesh splits open exposing the stone. 
The flesh is then removed from the stones manually or by machine.
Y ield s and econ om ics — In 1971, commercial almond production in the U. S. was centered 
in California, which produced more than 99% of the domestic marketed nuts. California’s 
production of in-shell nuts during the 1960s nearly tripled. It reached about 140,000 in-shell 
tons in 1970. Only sweet almonds are grown commercially. Imports, largely from Spain 
and Italy, vary widely from year to year, ranging from about 280 to 1,700 tons on the in
shell basis for the past 7 years. The U.S. imported 67,252 kg of bitter almond oil worth 
$271,600 in 1981, 354 kg from Canada worth $1,300, 48,470 kg from France worth 
$221,300, 998 kg from Haiti worth $2,600, 17,400 kg from Spain worth $46,000, and 30 
kg from Switzerland worth $400. On August 2, 1982,^^^ posted prices were ca. $7.70/kg 
of natural bitter almond, and $2.64/kg of sweet almond. Dealers in bitter almond oil include:
Berge Chemical Products, Inc. Florasynth, Inc.
5 Lawrence Street 410 E. 62nd Street 
Bloomfield, NJ 07003 New York, NY 10021
Hagelin & Co., Inc. International Sourcing, Inc. 
241 Cedar Knolls Road 555 Route 17 S. 
Cedar Knolls, NJ 07927 Ridgewood, NJ 07450
Dealers in sweet almond oil include:
Berje Chemical Products, Inc. Lipo Chemicals, Inc. 
5 Lawrence Street 207 Nineteenth Avenue 
Bloomfield, NJ 07003 Paterson, NJ 07504
Mutchler Chemical Co., Inc. PPF Norda Inc.
99 Kinderkamack Road 140 Rt. 10
Westwood, NJ 07675 East Hanover, NJ 07936
252 Handbook of Nuts
Energy — According to The W ealth o f I n d i a , average California yields are ca. 400 
kg/ha, but they attain over 1,200 kg/ha. However, for Baluchistan, WOI reports 2,375 kg/ha, 
basing this on an optimistic yield of 7.3 kg for each of 325 trees per ha. Yields of 2 to 3 
kg per tree seem more realistic; Duke,®^ however, reports seed yields of 3000 kg/ha. With 
an oil yield of 50 to 55%, it is easy to project oil yields of 1500 kg/ha. With recommended 
pruning to 20% of the old-bearing wood, several MT firewood should be available from the 
pruning. Analyzing 62 kinds of biomass for heating value, Jenkins and Ebeling*'^^ reported 
a spread of 20.01 to 18.93 MJ/kg, compared to 13.76 for weathered rice straw to 23.28 
MJ/kg for prune pits. On a percent DM basis, the orchard prunings of almond contained 
76.83% volatiles, 1.63% ash, 21.54% fixed carbon, 51.30% C, 5.29% H, 40.90% O, 0.66% 
N, 0.01% S, 0.04% Cl, and undetermined residue. The hulls, showing a spread of 17.13 
to 18.22 MJ/kg, contained 71.33% volatiles, 5.78% ash, 22.89% fixed carbon, 45.79% C, 
5.36% H, 40.60% O, 0.96% N, 0.01% S, 0.08% Cl, and undetermined residue. The shells, 
with a spread of 18.17 to 19.38 MJ/kg, contained 73.45% volatiles, 4.81% ash, 21.74% 
fixed carbon, 44.98% C, 5.97% H, 42.27% O, 1.16% N, 0.02% S, and undetermined 
residue.
Biotic factors — Prominent diseases in India include “ shot hole” caused by C laster- 
osporium carpophilum (Lev.) Aderh., “ white spongy rot” due to F om es lividus Kl, “ brown 
patchy leaf rot’ ’ due to P h yllosticta pru nicola (Spiz) Sacc., ‘ ‘brown rot’ ’ due to Sphaerotheca 
pannosa (Walk.) Lev. and a mosaic disease due to virus; all plague the almond. The 
chrysomelid M im astra cyanura Hope and the almond weevil M ylloceru s laetivirens Marshall 
feed on the leaves. The San Jose scale Q uadraspidiotus pern iciosu s Comstock is a minor 
problem. The almond moth E phestia cautella Wlk. infests shelled almonds and dried apricot, 
currant, date, fig, peach, and plum.
253
QUERCUS SURER L. (FAGACEAE) Cork Oak
Syn.: Quercus occidentalis Gay
Uses — Bark provides the cork of commerce, used for bungs and stoppers for bottles 
and other containers, life preservers, mats, ring buoys, floats, shoe inner-sole liners, artificial 
limbs, sealing liners for bottle caps, novelties, switch-boxes, household appliances and 
friction rolls, gaskets of various types for automobiles, electric motors, polishing wheels, 
cork-board, and for insulation, acoustical, and machinery isolation purposes. It is also used 
in the manufacture of linoleum. The hard wax extracted from the cork waste is used for 
making shoe pastes.Acorns provide forage for hogs, and the orchards are profitably 
grazed as well by sheep and goats.Acorns may be eaten, especially when roasted, in 
cases of necessity.Acorns of all oaks can be converted into “ edible nuts” , but in the 
bitter species much work is involved, compared to the “ sweet oaks” like Quercus prinos.
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Age, growing conditions, and grades of the bark determine the chemical 
composition of cork. A good specimen conforms to the following values: 3 to 7% moisture, 
20 to 38% fatty acids, 10 to 18% other acids, 2.0 to 6.5% tannins, 1.0 to 6.5% glycerin, 
12.6 to 18.0% lignin, 1.8 to 5.0% cellulose, 4.5 to 15.0% ceroids (waxes, stearins, etc.), 
0.1 to 4.0% ash, 8 to 21% other substances. Suberin, the characteristic constituent of cork, 
is composed mainly of high-molecular polymerides of hydroxy fatty acids, the major com
ponent being phellonic acid (22-hydroxy docosanoic). Other fatty acids present are phloionic 
(9,10-dihydroxy octadecanediotic), phloionolic (9,10,18-trihydroxy octadecanoic) and its 
stereoisomer (m.p. 133°), cis- and trans-9-octadecenoic, 18-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic, and 
several unidentified acids. Crude cork wax contains cerin (chief constituent), friedelin, 
steroids, acids, etc.^® Suberin is a mixture containing several acids, including phloionic acid 
(C18H34O6), acid XX (C18H32O4), phloionolic acid (C18H36O5), acid XVIII (C18H34O3), acid 
V (C18H34O4), phellonic acid (C22H44O3), and phellogenic acid (C22H42O4). The cork wax 
is a mixture of esters and triterpenes (cerin C30H50O2; friedelin C30H50O; betulinic acid, 
betulin, and suberindiol C28H46O2), also tannin, phlobaphen, cellulose, ligin, cyclitol, and 
vanillin. Thus, synthetic vanilla could be a by-product of the cork industry. The bark 
contains much silica.
254 Handbook of Nuts
Toxicity — Exposure to the bark is reported to produce a respiratory disorder, suberosis, 
which starts with rhinitis, cough, and dyspnea, and then proceeds to chronic bronchitic 
changes or extrinsic allergic alveolitis.
Description — Large, subtropical, evergreen tree, to 20 m tall, the trunk circumference 
to 10 m, with thick, corky bark; twigs tomentose. Leaves 3 to 7 cm long, ovate-oblong, 
sinuate-dentate, dark-green above, gray-tomentose beneath; midrib sinuous; petiole 8 to 15 
mm long. Male flowers in aments, female flowers in small clusters on short twigs. Fruit 
ripening in the first year in spring-flowering trees, but some trees flower in autumn and 
ripen their fruits late in the following summer; involucral scales long and patent, the lower 
usually shorter and more appressed.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Mediterranean Center of Diversity, cork oak, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, poor soil, and sand.®^ Highly variable, 
with only one type differing sufficiently to be regarded as a subspecies, i.e., Q. occidentalism 
differing principally in its slower maturing acorns, known from the Iberian Peninsula, 
southeastern France, and Corsica. Individual clones have been selected and cultivated in 
many areas, including the (2n = 24.) Among the American oak species, acorns
of chestnut oak and white oak are most likely to serve as nuts.
Distribution — Native and forming extensive forests (in the past) from northwestern 
Yugoslavia, west to Spain and Portugal, the islands of the western Mediterranean and north 
Africa (Morocco and Algeria). Introduced and cultivated for cork in eastern India, Japan 
(southern islands), and in southern California. Trees also planted from New Jersey to Florida 
and westward to California for experimental purposes in the late 1940s.^^®
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry Forest Life Zones, 
cork oak is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 13.5 dm (mean of 10 cases 
= 8.2), annual temperature of 9.7 to 26.5°C (mean of 10 cases = 16.3), and pH of 4.9 
to 8.2 (mean of 9 cases = 6.9).®^ Hardy to Zone 7.^"^^ Subtropical climate is essential for 
good bark formation. Trees have withstood temperatures of - 18°C in South Carolina. In 
general, a mean annual temperature of not less than 5°C with range of not lower than 2°C 
and maximum mean annual temperature of 21°C is best for growth. About 57% of cork is 
grown in the 18 to 21 °C region. Trees are quite drought-resistant and do not require irrigation 
after the first few years. Will grow well with 2.5 to 10 dm annual rainfall; optimum is 5 to 
10 dm/year. Grows best in neutral or slightly acid, sandy, well-drained, soils. Trees grow 
from sea-level up to 1,300 m. Though granitic, clay, or slate soils are suggested,Srnith^’® 
says, “ the poorer the soil, the better the cork” .
Cultivation — Best method of planting is by direct seeding. Ripe acorns are planted in 
groups of 4 or 5 (about 625 groups per ha), each group in a shallow furrow covered to a 
depth of 1.3 cm. The stand is later thinned so that one plant remains at each site. Seeds 
may be germinated in seed-beds and transplanted later, but the seedlings should not be 
disturbed after the taproot has become established. Viability of seeds is short, but can be 
lengthened by wet cold storage at 0.5 to 1.5°C.^^® Requiring no stratification, the seeds 
show 73 to 100% germination after 20 to 30 days at 2TC day and night temperatures.^ 
Trees may also be grafted on both evergreen or deciduous native oaks. Techniques for clonal 
cuttings have been worked out.^‘® Older saplings should be thinned to avoid shading. At 
age 50, trees should be thinned to ca. 500 per ha; at 75 years to about half that number; at 
120 years, there should be about 1(X) per ha. With such reduction, overcrowding is avoided 
and cork production per ha is relatively stabilized.
Harvesting — Cork of commercial value is not produced by trees less than 30 years old. 
Since transplanting of saplings and small trees should not be attempted, and direct seeding 
is practiced, it is impossible to bring trees into production in less than 30 years. First stripping 
of bark may occur when the tree is about 20 years old. This virgin bark or mascalage is 
rough and coarse and of little commercial value. Its removal stimulates the growth of cork
255
so that during the succeeding 2 or 3 years, much of the cork is produced. In Algeria, this 
virgin or male bark is put back in place around the tree and held there by wires for 2 years 
or so, thus protecting the new bark that is forming. This growth gradually decreases in rate 
until after about 9 years scarcely any further thickening of the bark is perceptible, and at 
the end of that period, the second stripping takes place. The second and all subsequent 
strippings produce bark of commercial value. At around 120 years, decline sets in. Replanting 
should follow. Harvest is rotated, with only a certain number of trees stripped each year. 
Each tree is stripped, usually at 9-year intervals, but intervals may vary from 6 to 12 years, 
depending on the conditions of growth. If pruning is necessary, trees should not be stripped 
until 3 years after pruning. In North Africa, bark is stripped in winter; in other areas, in 
spring, when the sap is rising to make bark removal easier. Cork stripping requires consid
erable skill. Bark must be removed without injuring the inner-most layer, which must remain 
to continue growth.Acorns may be borne at age 12, with good crops every 2 to 4 years.
Yields and economics — Mature trees yield good quantities of cork for 150 to 200 years 
in the Mediterranean region. Trees yield about 1.3 kg of cork per stripping, in California. 
In the Mediterranean, each tree yields from 20 to 240(to 300) kg at each stripping, depending 
on age and size of tree.^^^ Trees are stripped at intervals of 9 to 12 years. About 12 € of 
acorn will yield a kg of pork.^’® In Portugal, a cork oak forest is said to produce 34 kg/ha 
pork compared to 
68 for a Q uercus ilex forest. “ Lard from acom-fed hogs is said not to 
harden; hence they are sometimes finished on com for hardening the fat.’’^^® Portugal is the 
largest producer of cork, supplying 46.2% of the world’s tonnage from 33.8% of the total 
hectarage. There are about 69,000 ha of Portuguese cork oak forests, mainly in the south- 
central portion of the country.Smith^‘® reports 400,000 ha in Portugal producing annually 
240 kg/ha. Between 1931 and 1948, cork was varying widely in price, from $30 to $600/ton. 
Bigger and better trees can yield a ton in one stripping, following another ton 12 years 
earlier. English owners of cork estates in Portugal estimate that acorns alone produce 1/2 
to 2/3 of Portuguese pork. The USDA once said “ one gallon of acorns is equal to ten good 
ears of com.” Pigs may graze the grass and acorns while sheep and goats may graze the 
bushes and shrubs.^*®
Energy — Felled trees and bigger pmnings make excellent charcoal. With low energy 
input on tough terrain, this seems to be an energy-efficient land-holding scenario yielding 
cork, firewood, pork, and land stability.
Biotic factors — The following fungi have been reported on the cork oak: A rm illariella 
m ellea, A scoch yta irpina, A spergillus terreus, A . w entii, A uricularia m esenterica, C halara 
quercina, C litocybe olearia, C occom yces dentatus, C oriolus pergam enus, C. versicolor, 
C yphella Candida, C ytospora m icrospora, D aedalea biennis, D iatrypella quercina, E ndothis 
gyrosa, G anoderm a applanatum , H irneola auricula ju d a e, H ypoxy Ion m editerraneum , Irpex 
deform is, Ithyphallus im perialis, /. im pudicis, L enzites quercina, L eptoporus adustus, L. 
dichrous, L eucoporus brum alis, M erulium trem ellosus, M ucor ram annianus, M ycoleptodon 
ochraceum , P anus conchatus, P eniphora corticalis, P hellinus igniarius, P . torulosus, Pho- 
liota cylin dricea, P. spectabilis, Phom a quercella, P hysalospora elegans, P hytophthora 
cinnam om i, P leurotu s lignatilis, P. ostreatus, P olyporu s giganteus, P o ria vaporaria. P ro 
p o lis fa g in ea , R adulum quercinum , Schizophyllum com m une, Sebacina crozalsii, S eptoria 
ocellata, S. qu ercicola, Sphaerotheca lanestris, Stereum fuscum , S. gausapatum , S. spad- 
iceum, Tom entella fu sca , T. rubiginosa, Tom entellina bom bycina, T ram etes cam pestris, T. 
cinnabarina, T. serialis var. resupinata, Ungulina fom en taria, U. ochroleuca, U redo qu er
cus, V olvaria bom bycina, Vuillem inia com edens, X anthochrous cuticularis, X . ribis. The 
following nematodes have been isolated from this oak: C aconem a radicicola and H eterodera
256 Handbook of Nuts
RICINODENDRON HEUDELOTII Pierre (EUPHORBIACEAE) Manketti Nut, Sanga
Nut, Essang Nut, Ojuk Nut
Syn.: Ricinodendron africanum Muell. Arg.
Uses — Source of essang oil, seeds contain 35 to 55% oil, which has been recommended 
in the drying oil industries. The nuts are consumed as food after boiling. Dried kernels are 
ground and cooked with food, e,g., in the Cameroons. The kernels only account for ca. 
30% of the fruit, the hard shell is difficult to remove. Wild animals, including elephants, 
are fond of the fallen fruits, leading hunters to lie in wait beneath the trees. Ashes of the 
wood are used for salt and in the preparation of soap and indigo. Williams^"^ describes the 
use of this species as living telegraph poles. Stakes 6 to 10 m long are cut and placed in 
holes. During the rainy season, the stake quickly strikes root. Wires are placed on the poles 
6 or more meters above the ground as soon as they are firm. Branches tend to sprout only 
at the summit, rarely interfering with the wires. The wood, quite light, has been suggested 
as a substitute for balsa. Easily carved, it is used for utensils, masks, musical instruments, 
boxes, coffins, etc. The hard seeds are used, like marbles, in games, rattles, etc. The very 
light sawdust is suitable for life jackets and pith helmets.
Folk medicine — Nigerians use the root-bark, with pepper and salt, for constipation. On
257
the Ivory Coast, the decoction is drunk for dysentery. Pounded and warmed bark is applied 
locally for elephantiasis. The bark infusion is used in Liberia to relieve labor pains and 
prevent miscarriage, in the belief that it prevents sterility. The pulped bark prevents abortion. 
The bark decoction is used for gonorrhea; the leaf decoction as a beverage or bath in calming 
fever."^^’^"^^
Chemistry — The seed fatty acids of R. africanum include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with 
ca. 25% linoleic-, 10% oleic-, and 10% saturated acids.The seed, seed shell, and latex, 
containing a resin, are used for diarrhea and gonorrhea.^^^
Description — Fast-growing, deciduous tree to 33 m or more high and up to 2.5 m girth; 
buttresses very short, branches whorled. Leaves alternate, hairy when young, with stellate 
hairs, digitately lobed, the 3 to 5 leaflets up to 25 x 15 cm, sessile, obovate-elliptic, 
acuminate, narrowed to base, with 10 to 16 pairs of lateral nerves, petioles up to 20 cm 
long, stipules persistent and leaf-like; flowers paniculate (December to April in Africa), the 
inflorescence yellow-tomentose, white, falling readily. Fruits 3-celled, ca. 2.5 cm in di
ameter. Seeds ovoid, rich in oil.
Germplasm — From the Africa Center of Diversity, the essang nut seems to tolerate 
savanna, second growth, slopes, and weeds.
Distribution — Widespread in tropical Africa. Fast-growing native of the secondary 
forests of the Belgian Congo and possibly also of Nigeria.Irvinedescribes it as common 
in fringing, deciduous, and secondary forests, from Guinea to Angola and the Belgian Congo 
to Sudan, Uganda, and East Africa.
Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges 
from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist 
Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23 
to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.^^ According to Williams,it requires a wet, humid climate.
Cultivation — Coppicing and rooting readily, this tree is often planted as cuttings for 
vine stakes, living fences, and telephone poles.
Harvesting — Said to bear fmit in its 7th to 10th year.^^
Yields and economics — Irvine describes the nut yields as prolific.
Energy — The wood does not make good firewood, but “ it is much used for fuel” . 
Seeds yield 45 to 47% oil which could be used for energy, but because of the high husk/kemel 
ratio, the fmits yield only ca. 14% oil.
Biotic factors — According to a forester quoted by Menninger,^^ elephants eat the fmits 
greedily, and “ seed will not germinate until it has spent a week in the elephant” , but even 
the elephant’s digestive system barely affects the fmit and the enclosed kernel. “ The natives 
of Rhodesia, therefore, follow the elephant, recover the hard-shelled nuts where they have 
been dropped, clean and dry them, then crack the extremely hard shell, and find the contents 
perfectly delicious. This story is a bit grizzly, but it is part of the nut story. The fungus 
Fomes lignosus is reported to attack this species.
258 Handbook of Nuts
RICINODENDRONRAUTANENII Schinz (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Mogongo Nut, Manketti
Uses — A much-prized species with edible fruits that are a staple food of Africans and 
Bushmen, who eat them raw (fresh or fried), cooked, or fermented into a beer. The thin, 
fleshy portion, under the tough skin, may be eaten raw or cooked into a sweet porridge. 
The kernel has a sweet, milky, nutty flavor; eaten raw, pounded and fried, or mixed with 
lean meat. The seeds can be roasted whole, cracked, and the kernels pounded into a coarse 
meal, which is eaten dry, with meat, with other roots, or mixed with baobab pulp. It is the 
main food (constituting half of the vegetable diet) of the Bushmen in the Dobe area. One 
to three hundred nuts are consumed every day for all but a few months of the year. Also a 
staple food of elephants. The timber is yellowish, light, and soft, and is used for carving 
bowls, cups, ashtrays, and ornamental figures of animals and birds. Also used for floats, 
dart and drawing boards, packing-cases, boxes, toys, insulating material, and coffins. Trees 
are often hollow and collect life-saving water. It is believed, in South West Africa and 
Botswana, that this species controls the weather, so that it is never struck by lightning. 
During one study of the !Kung Bushmen, mongongo nuts contributed 56.7 g protein per 
day per bushman, compared to 34.5 g from meat, and only 1.9 from other vegetable foods. 
To the !Kung, the mongongo nut is “ basically the staff of life“ .*^"^ The light timber is used 
for furniture, coffins, and an inferior paper.
Folk medicine — The fruits are astringent.
Chemistry — The average daily per capita consumption of 300 nuts weighs ca. 212.6 g 
but contains the caloric equivalent of 1,134 g cooked rice and the protein equivalent of 
396.9 g lean beef. Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ say the fruits contain 7.9% protein and 
no true starch. Fruits yield 30 to 40% oil, kernels 57 to 63%. Skins of the kernel yield 37% 
oil. The oil cake has only 0.32 mg vitamin B^ and 0.7 mg calcium pantothenase per 100 
g. The percentages of amino acid in the seed protein are calculated at 2.6% histidine, 4.1% 
cystine, 7.9% isoleucine, 6.2% leucine, 5.1% lysine, 2.0% methionine, 4.6% phenylalanine, 
7.9% threonine, 1.2% tryptophane, and 7.1% valine.The seed fatty acids of the related 
R. africanum (“ essang oil” ) include ca. 50% eleostearic acid with ca. 25% linoleic-, 10% 
oleic-, and 10% saturated acids. The aromatic fruit contains a gum-resin and 31% saccharose.
Toxicity — The seed coat is nontoxic to rats when constituting 10% of diet, but it is an 
unsuitable food because of its toughness and indigestibility.
Description — Spreading, deciduous, dioecious tree to 10(to 24) m tall, the trunk to 1 
m in diameter; the bark greenish or goldish; twigs and branches, stubby with glabrescent 
robust young twigs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, digitately compound, with 3 to 7 leaflets; 
petioles pubescent, to 15 cm long; leaflets broadly lanceolate to ovate, apically blunt or 
rounded, basally rounded or truncately inequilateral, marginally glandular denticulate, rarely 
lobulate, 5 to 13 cm long, 2.5 to 9 cm broad; dark-green above, pale below, with stellate 
hairs on both surfaces, the midribs and veins rufose; petiolules biglandular. Male flowers 
in slender loose panicles, whitish, the female panicles shorter and few-flowered. Fruits plum
shaped, to 4 cm long, hairy when young, the stone exceedingly hard, containing one or two 
light-colored kernels.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, mogongo nut, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate sands and savannas.
Distribution — Northern southwest Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, 
and often tropical Africa; grows in groves or forests together on wooded hills and dunes, 
and always on Kalahari sand. Makes almost pure forest in parts.
Ecology — With no ecological data available to me, I speculate that this species ranges 
from Subtropical Thom Woodland to Moist through Tropical Thom Woodland to Moist 
Forest Life Zones, tolerating annual precipitation of 3 to 25 dm, annual temperature of 23 
to 29°C, and pH of 6 to 8.®^ Tending to flower in spring before rain.
259
Cultivation — Not normally cultivated.
Harvesting — According to Harlan,'^'* women and children are primarily involved in 
gathering plant materials among the !Kung Bushmen. But adults gather the mongongo nuts. 
Over a 3-week study period, the Bushmen averaged 2V2 days a week (average 6 hr work 
per day) devoted to subsistence activities. Compared to hunting, gathering is a low-risk, 
high-return enterprise. Fruits ripen ca. February in southern Africa.
Yields and economics — Before the war of 1914-1918, Germans granted a concession 
to exploit the forests near Tsumeb in Southwest Africa, which were estimated to yield 50,000 
tons of nuts per year.^"*^
Energy — If there are forests with 50,000 tons^"^^ of edible nuts therein, the kernels 
yielding 60% oil, one could theoretically obtain 30,(XX) tons of oil, and 20,0(X) tons defatted 
edible nuts therefrom.
Biotic factors — Fruits greatly relished by elephants.
260 Handbook of Nuts
SANTALUM ACUMINATUM A. DC. (SANTALACEAE) — Quandong Nut, Native Peach
Uses — It’s easier for me to remember the popular name Quandong than Eucarya, 
Fusanus, or Santalum, the three generic names among which the quandong has been ca
tegorized. Both the fruit or (“ peach” ) and nut (or “ quandong” ) are edible. The red flesh 
is cooked in chutneys, jams, and pies. The nut is said to be quite tasty, slightly roasted, 
and was a favored food of the aborigines. Pierced with a stick as a candle-nut, the seeds 
will bum away with a clear light. Nuts are also made into bracelets, necklaces, and other 
ornaments. The hard, durable close-grained timber is used for cabinet making and wood 
engraving.
Folk medicine — The seed oil is used medicinally.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fmit is reported to contain 345 kJ, 76.7 g H2O, 1.7 g 
protein, 0.2 g fat, 19.3 g carbohydrate, 2.1 g ash, 42 mg Ca, 40 mg Mg, 0.2 mg Zn, 0.2 
mg Cu, 51 mg Na, and 659 mg Data in Menninger, no doubt reflecting dry nuts, report 
60% oil and 25% protein. The fmits are rich in vitamin C. Fatty acids in the seed contain 
oleic, linoleic, and stearic acids, also santalbinic acid.^®^ Some estimates put the “ santalbic”
261
content at 40 to 43%. Others say the seed fat is mostly oleic acid except for 3 to 4% palmitic 
acid.*^® Wood contains 5% essential oil containing nerolidol.
Description — A tall shrub or a tree to 10 m. Leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute, or 
sometimes when young with a short hooked point, mostly 5 to 7.5 cm long, tapering into 
a petiole 4 to 6 mm long, coriaceous, with the lateral veins often prominent when old. 
Flowers rather numerous, in a terminal pyramidal panicle scarcely longer than the leaves. 
Perianth spreading to ca. 5 mm diameter, the lobes somewhat concave even when open. 
Free margin of the disk very prominent, broadly rounded between the stamens which curve 
over the notches. Anthers very short. Style exceedingly short and conical or scarcely any, 
with deeply 2- or 3-lobed stigma. Fruit globular, 10 to 20 mm in diameter, with a succulent 
epicarp, and bony pitted endocarp, the perianth-lobes persisting on the top until the fruit is 
nearly or quite ripe.^^
Germplasm — Reported from the Australian Center of Diversity, Quandong, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate arid conditions and drought.
Distribution — Endemic to Australia, especially northern Australia, and the southwest, 
extending into the desert areas.
Ecology — No data available.
Cultivation — Rosengarten comments on an experimental plantation in Quom, Australia. 
Kikuya grass was planted to serve as root host.
Harvesting — Some plantation trees have fruited in the third year.
Yields and economics — Rosengarten sums it up, “ Despite its captivating tang, the 
quandong seems destined to remain a minor Australian nut.“ ^^"^
Energy — Serving as candle-nuts, quandongs are so abundant in part of Australia that 
they might serve as oil-seeds in the future.
Biotic factors — No data available.
262 Handbook of Nuts
SAPlUMSEBIFERUMiL.) Roxb. (EUPHORBIACEAE) — Chinese Tallow Tree, Vegetable 
Tallow, White Wax Berry
S yn .: Carumbium sebiferum K u rz, Croton sebiferus L ., Excoecaria sebifera M u ell.,
Stillingia sebifera M ich x ., Triadica sebifera (L .) Sm all
Uses — Chinese Tallow Tree is cultivated for its seeds as a source of vegetable tallow, 
a drying oil and protein food, and as an ornamental. Fruits yield two types of fats: outer 
covering of seeds contain a solid fat with low iodine value, known as Chinese Vegetable 
Tallow; kernels produce a drying oil with high iodine value, called Stillingia Oil. Tallow 
is used for manufacturing candles, a layer of wax being placed over the tallow body to 
prevent too-rapid burning; has excellent burning quality, and gives an inodorous, clear, 
bright flame; also used for making soap, cloth dressing, and fuel. Pure tallow fat is known 
in commerce as Pi-yu. Oil is used in making varnishes and native paints because of its 
quick-drying properties, in machine oils and as a crude lamp oil. Pure oil expressed from 
the inner part of the seeds is known in commerce as Ting-yu. Oil-cakes made from crushed 
seeds with tallow and oil together is known as Mou-yu. Residual cake, after oil is expressed, 
is used as manure, particularly for tobacco fields. Wood is white and close-grained, suitable 
for carving and used for making blocks in Chinese printing; also used for furniture making 
and incense. Chinese prepare a black dye by boiling leaves in alum water. Tree grows 
rapidly, develops an attractive crown, and, as leaves turn red in fall, it is cultivated as a 
shade or lawn tree about houses. It is used as a soil binder along roads and canals. Chinese 
place an insect on the tree to feed; it lays eggs in the seed, making some of the “jumping 
beans,” because of movements of larvae inside.
263
Folk medicine — In Chinese medicine, oil is used as purgative and emetic, not as a 
usual vegetable oil for humans. Overdose of native medicine probably would cause violent 
sickness and perhaps death. Additionally, Chinese use the plant as an alexeteric, suppurative, 
and vulnerary, especially for edema and skin ailments. Decoction of the root bark is used 
for dyspepsia, considered tonic. Resin from root bark considered purgative. The latex is an 
acrid and powerful vesicant.
Chemistry — The fatty acid composition of the oil is caprylic, 1.50; capric, 1.00; myristic, 
0.97; palmitic, 2.80; stearic, 1.00; oleic, 9.40; linoleic, 53.40; and linolenic, 30.00%. A 
Hong Kong sample contained 26.8% oil, with: capric, traces; palmitic, 7; stearic, 3; 2,4- 
decadienoic, 5; oleic, 7; linoleic, 24; and linolenic, 54%. Stillingia oil is considered superior 
to linseed oil in its drying and polymerizing properties, probably due to the presence of 2,4- 
decadienoic acid. Seed meal, left after the extraction of oil, possesses a high content of 
protein, and is a valuable feed and fertilizer. It can be processed into a refined flour, 
containing 75% protein, fit for human consumption. The amino acid composition of the 
protein is as follows: arginine, 16.6; aspartic acid, 11.7; cistine, 1.3; glycine, 4.9; glutamic 
acid, 17.3; histidine, 2.9; leucine, 7.4; lycine, 2.6; methionine, 1.6; tyrosine, 3.7; and 
valine, 7.8%. The Vitamin B content of the flour compares favorably with that of wheat- 
flour. The flour, supplemented with lysine and methionine, is reported to be superior to 
wheat-flour. Ethanol extraction of powdered root bark yielded 0.1% phloracetophenone 2,4- 
dimethylether, and methanol extraction gave xanthoxylin (C10H12O4). The bark also contains 
moretenone, moretenol and a new triterpene, 3-epimoretenol (m.p., 223 to 24°). Leaves 
contain gallic and ellagic acids, isoquercitrin, and tannin (5.5%).^^**^^’^^^
Description — Small to large deciduous tree, 10 to 13 m tall (in 30 years), often with 
a gnarled trunk, bark gray to whitish-gray with vertical cracks; stem exudes a milky poisonous 
juice. Leaves alternate, broad rhombic to ovate, 3.5 to 8.5 cm long, 4 to 9 cm wide, cordate- 
acuminate at apex, usually round at base, turning orange to scarlet in autumn, falling early 
in the cold season; petioles 1.5 to 7 cm long, with 2 conspicuous glands at apex and on 
each side of scale-like bracts. Flowers monoecious, greenish-yellow, in terminal spikes, 5 
to 10 cm long. Fruit a capsule, subglobose, 0.95 to 1.7 cm in diameter, 3-valved, with 
three seeds coated with a white wax. Seeds half-ovate, 0.6 to 1.0 cm long, 0.43 to 0.6 cm 
wide, 0.5 to 0.77 cm thick, with an acrid penetrating taste. Flowers April to June; fruit 
ripens September to October.
Germplasm — Of the many cvs grown, more than 100 are found in Taiwan. Two main 
types are ‘Eagle-Claw’ and ‘Grape’, varying according to form of fruit-spikes, fruit-sprigs, 
fruit-stalks, and maturing period. Native to the China-Japan Center of Diversity, tallow tree 
is reported to tolerate some frost, grazing, slopes, waterlogging, and weeds. (2n = 36,40.)®^*^^^
Distribution — Native to many provinces of central China, especially north of the Yangtze 
Valley, and Japan. Chinese tallow tree is also cultivated there and on Hainan Island, Hong 
Kong, Taiwan,and Korea. It has been introduced into Sri Lanka (where naturalized), 
Indochina, Bengal, India, Sudan, Martinique, southern U.S. (S. California, S. Arizona, and 
Texas to Florida, north to South Carolina), southern France and Algeria.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest 
Life Zones, tallow tree is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.6 to 15.2 dm (to 37) 
(mean of 6 cases = 11.3), annual temperature of 14.7 to 24.3°C (mean of 6 cases = 18.1), 
and pH of 5.5 to 7.8 (mean of 5 cases = 6.7).®^ Adapted for growing on canal banks, on 
steep mountain slopes, granite hills, or sandy beaches, it grows in weakly alkaline soils, 
saline or strongly acid soils. Said to thrive in alluvial forests, on low alluvial plains, and 
on rich leaf-molds, growing best in well-drained clayey-peat soils. Favorable climatic con
ditions are mean air temperatures of 12.5 to 30.1°C, and an annual precipitation from 13 
to 37 dm. It is generally a subtropical to warm temperate plant, hardy and able to withstand 
a few degrees of frost; unripened twigs are susceptible to frost injury. It grows at elevations 
100 to 800 m."'"’278
264 Handbook of Nuts
Cultivation — Propagated by seed, cuttings, layering or top-grafting on seedling stock. 
Seed usually sown in late autumn or early spring. Seedlings in the first year may grow 0.3 
to 0.9 m in height and should be transplanted. When seedlings are about 1 m tall (in the 
spring of the third year), they should be planted out in permanent areas. Tree grows rapidly, 
5 to 8.5 m tall with DBH of 13 to 17 cm in 10 years, and 10 to 13 m tall with DBH 30 to 
40 cm in 20 to 30 years. When cultivated, trees are grown in plantations or transplanted to 
borders of fields or canals, so as not to interfere with the cultivation of the soil. Chinese 
also make cuttings by breaking small branches and twigs, care being taken not to tear or 
wound the bark. These are layered and rooted.
Harvesting — Fruits and seeds, about the size of a pea, are harvested by hand in November 
and December when leaves have fallen. Plants require from 3 to 8 years to bear, but then 
continue to bear for years, averaging 70 to 100 years. Trees attain full size in 10 to 12 
years. Seed can be threshed from the tree and collected by hand (once estimated at less than 
$.03/kg). Mechanical methods may be readily adapted to the harvest. When fruit is harvested 
by hand in midwinter, they are cut off with their twigs with a sharp, crescent-shaped knife 
attached to the end of a long pole, which is held in the hand and pushed upward against 
the twigs. The capsules are pounded gently in a mortar to loosen the seeds from the shells, 
from which they are separated by sifting.
Yields and economics — In plantations trees should be planted one rod apart each way, 
giving 400 trees per hectare, and if trimmed to a convenient size for hand harvesting, would 
yield 14 MT seed per ha, containing 2.6 MT oil, 2.8 MT tallow, 1.5 MT protein concentrate, 
1.1 MT fibrous coat, and 4.5 MT shell. Oil, tallow, and protein meal would bring about 
$750 per hectare. This yield could increase with age. Scheld et al.^^^ report yields of 4,000 
to 10,000 kg/ha (in excess of 11,000 kg/ha in VODF Seminar IP^^), and cite estimates of 
25 barrels of oil per year as a sustained energy yield. Tallow is separated by placing the 
seed in hot water, thereby melting the tallow which floats on the surface, or by melting 
tallow with steam and collecting it when it drips off. Solvent extraction of the tallow from 
the seed is also used; tallow still adhering to the seed is removed by an alkali treatment. 
The fairly thick hard shell prevents extraction of the oil inside, so that the seed is crushed 
and Stillingia Oil is obtained by pressing or solvent extraction. According to one report, 
seed contains about 20% oil, 24% tallow, 11% extracted meat, 8% fibrous coat, and 37% 
shell. Yields of Stillingia Oil as high as 53% of the kernel have been reported in some 
varieties. Seed yields vary with the variety and age-gradations of the trees — a tree averaging 
at 5 years of age 0.453 kg, at 10 years, 3.379 kg, and at 20 years, 11.989 kg, with yields 
gradually decreasing after that. White meal, obtained by the extraction of the kernel, has a 
pleasant nut-like flavor, and contains 76% protein. Flour and protein of Chinese tallow nut 
contain vitamin B (thiamine). In China and other Oriental countries, as in other regions of 
the world, large quantities of tallow and oil are extracted annually from this tree. Tallow 
mills are erected where the tree is extensively grown. In addition to its economic value 
(from $750/ha for the oil, tallow, and protein), the tree is extensively propagated for or
namental purposes alone in Houston, Texas.
Energy — Coppicing well, the tree grows rapidly, the mean annual girth increment 2.6 
to 5.2 cm. The wood, weighing only 513 kg/m^ is used for fuel. With some tolerance to 
salt, the tallow trees should be investigated as energy crops for saline situations. Scheld^^^ 
reports standing dry wood mass on 4-year plantations at >40 MT/ha, or more than 10 
MT/ha/yr. Princen,^^^ assuming an annual oil yield of 25 barrels per hectare, estimates that 
only 24 million hectares of oilseeds (like Sapium) would be required to produce a replacement 
for the ca. 8% of our petroleum usage which goes into chemical production. That means 
300 million ha could replace all our petroleum usage (ca. 35% of Brazil, 108% of Argentina, 
32% of the U.S.). Specific gravity of the wood ranges from 0.37 to 0.48 (mean 0.44) in 
samples from 18- to 24-year-old trees. Energy values range from 7,226 to 7,835 Btu/lb
265
(mean 7,586). Rapidity of coppicing, taproot production, drought and salt tolerance, and 
rapid growth rate are attributes leading Scheld and Cowles to regard the tree as a promising 
biomass candidate (in the warm coastal region of the U.S.) which can be established over 
large acreages by conventional agricultural planting methods and which can provide woody 
biomass for direct burning or conversion to charcoal, ethanol, or methanol.
B iotic F actors — Flowers are favored by honey-bees, and fruits are readily eaten by 
birds, including domestic fowl. It has been considered a desirable plant for bird-food. The 
tree is remarkably free of insect pests. The root-knot nematode, M eloidogyne ja va n ica , has 
been reported.Fungi known to attack this tree include: C ercospora stillin giae, C litocybe 
tabescens, D endrophthoe fa lca ta , P hyllactina corylea, P hyllosticta stillin giae, and Phy- 
m atotrichum om nivorum . ^^^ ^78
266 Handbook of Nuts
SCHLEICHERA OLEOSA (Lour.) Merr. (SAPINDACEAE) — Lac Tree, Kusum Tree,
Malay Lac-Tree, Honey-Tree, Ceylon Oak
S yn .: Schleichera trijuga W illd ., Pistacia oleosa L our.
U ses — Seeds of the Lac tree are source of Macassar Oil, used in ointments, for candles, 
for illumination, as a lubricant for machinery, and in Madura for Batik work. Seeds yield 
about 40% of an edible oil or fat, sometimes used for culinary purposes and as a hair oil. 
Seeds also are eaten raw or roasted. Unripe fruits are pickled, and fruit may be eaten when 
other food supplies are scarce. The ripe fruits, often eaten during the summer, have whitish 
pulp and pleasant, acidic taste. Young leaves are eaten with rice. Young shoots are eaten; 
they are also lopped for fodder. Combined with wheat-straw and rape-cake, they make good 
roughage. Wood is close-grained, very hard, heavy, resistant to moisture, whitish with 
heartwood light reddish-brown, taking a fine finish, and used for making mortars, pestles, 
axles and hubs, felloes, and stocks of cart wheels, agricultural implements, such as yokes, 
plows, and teeth of harrows, shafts, violin bows,, screw rollers in sugar mills, in cotton 
and oil presses, tool handles for hammers, axes, and picks. Treated lumber is used for 
construction, cabinet work, beams, rafters, purlilns, trusses, posts, sleepers, and for wagon 
building. In addition, it is used for road paving, block flooring in mills and warehouses, 
pit-props, side-props in shafts and galleries in mines. Bark is employed in tanning; flowers 
yield a dye. Trees serve as host for lac insects.
F olk m ed icin e — Reported to be anodyne, cyanogenetic, larvicide, and refrigerant, lac 
tree is a folk remedy for acne, backache, bums, fever, inflammation, itch, malaria, neuralgia, 
pleurisy, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin problems, and sores.The bark is reported to cure 
leprosy, skin diseases, inflammation, and ulcers. The unripe fmit is heating to the body, 
heavy to digest, causes biliousness, astringent to the bowels. The ripe fmit is digestible, 
astringent to the bowels, heating, appetite stimulant. The seeds are tonic, increase appetite, 
cure biliousness. The oil is considered a tonic, stomachic, anthelmintic, purgative, cure for 
skin diseases and ulcers. The astringent bark is used as a cure for the itch when mbbed on
267
with oil. Oil of the seeds is used as a stimulating agent for the scalp, both cleansing it and 
promoting the growth of hair. The oil is also used as a purgative and as prophylactic against 
cholera; used externally in massage for rheumatism, for the cure of headaches; for skin 
disease. Powdered seeds are applied to ulcers of animals and for removing maggots. Bark 
is applied to swollen glands and ripening boils.Bark is also used for pain in the back and 
loins, inflammation, and ulcers.^®
Chemistry — Seeds are reported to contain 0.3% HCN; the oil is reported to contain 
1.6% palmitic-, 10.0% stearic-, 19.7% arachidic-, 0.9% palmitoleic-, 52.2% oleic-, 8.5% 
gadoleic-, and 4.0% C22-acid. The oil-cake is reported to contain 5.57% moisture, 22.31% 
protein, 48.53% fat, 14.43% soluble carbohydrates, 5.39% fiber, 3.40% soluble mineral 
matter, 0.37% sand, 3.08% phosphoric acid (P2O5), and 1.3% potash (K2O). Green leaves 
are reported to contain (ZMB) 10.37% crude protein, 1.93% ether extract, 32.34% crude 
fiber, 49.21% N-free extract, 2.42% Ca, 0.71% P, 5.09% gallo-tannic acid. The bark is 
reported to contain 9.4% tannin.^® Another source reports cotyledons to contain 65 to 70% 
oil, with the glycerides composed of lauric-, palmitic-, arachic- (25%), oleic- (ca. 70%), 
butyric-, and lignoceric-acid, and traces of benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid, and the bark 
to contain 7% tannins.'®^
Toxicity — Presumably due to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, the seed and seed oil 
induce symptoms similar to irritant poisons (giddiness, dilation of pupils, and syncope, 
sometimes death).
Description — Trees 15 to 40 m tall, mostly gnarly and crooked, slow-growing; stems 
furrowed; branches thin, finely short-hairy to subglabrous, leafing and flowering in early 
spring. Leaves alternate, without stipules, 20 to 40 cm long, paripinnate; leaf-rachis sparingly 
finely hairy, 5 to 14.5 cm long; leaflets 4 to 8, opposite, obovate-lanceolate, 2.5 to 25 cm 
long, 1.6 to 11 cm broad, the lowest pair the smallest, obtuse or shortly acuminate, entire, 
coriaceous, glabrescent; young leaves purple; petiolules very sparingly finely hairy to gla
brous, 1 to 3 mm thick. Inflorescence 1.5 to 13 cm long, on pedicels 2.5 mm long, finely 
short-hairy, the racemes glabrous, apiculate, smooth or spinose; calyx glabrous or nearly 
so, about 1.5 mm in diameter, the segments erect, triangular, acute; disk glabrous, ovary 
thinly pilose, style persistent, after anthesis indurate. Fruit broadly ellipsoid, glabrous with 
thin, hard pericarp, indéhiscent, 1.6 to 2.5 cm long, 1-seeded; seed with a large chalaza; 
aril pulpy, subacid, edible. Flowers spring; fruits fall; January to December in Java.^^*
Germplasm — Reported from the Hindustani Center of Diversity.®^ Lac tree is reported 
to tolerate shade, frost, and drought. Seedlings should be protected in early stages as they 
are frost-tender.
Distribution — Native and distributed all over Southeast Asia, from the sub-Himalayan 
region to Nepal, and central and south India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Burma, Timor, and Java. 
Cultivated in many areas, e.g., near Calcutta and in Java. Introduced in southern California.
Ecology — Ranging from Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life Zones, lac tree is reported 
to tolerate annual precipitation of 9 to 15 (to 30) dm and annual temperature of 24 to 25°C.®^ 
Lac trees occur in tropical moist to wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and in moist 
deciduous teak forests in India, as well as in dry deciduous forests. Trees are not particular 
about soil structure or content. It grows best below 1,000 m altitude, in nature growing up 
to 600 m in teak forests. Optimum temperature should be above 24°C, with precipitation 
varying from 9 to 10 dm to 30 dm or more per annum.Lac tree is common on well- 
drained boulder deposits, frequently in large numbers along ravines or on the edges of 
terraces in the sub-Himalayan tract and the outer hills. Conunon on sides of ravines on 
sandstone or on boulder beds in Siwalik range. Scattered near banks of streams in mixed 
forests in central India. Prefers slightly acidic soils; thrives best on light well-drained, gravelly 
or loamy soils; occurs on sandy and laterite soils.
Cultivation — Trees propagated by seed and root suckers, either naturally in the forest
268 Handbook of Nuts
or under cultivation. Seeds viable only for a short period, but can be stored for 1 year in 
gunny sacks or 2 years in sealed tins. Seeds are started in seed-beds, and young trees planted 
out when 0.5 to 1 m tall. Once established, no special care is required. No special fertilizers 
or soil pH are needed. Wild trees and those grown for boundaries may also be used for lac- 
trees. When cultivated, trees are planted about 275/ha. Stump-planting seems to give better 
results in moist climates. Stumps, with ca. 4 cm shoot and 23 cm root, are prepared from 
seedlings which have attained 7 to 13 mm diameter. Trees should be protected from grazing 
and weeded regularly for the first few years. Trees will tolerate only light pruning; apical 
pruning is better than surface pruning.
Harvesting — Seeds are harvested in the autumn. Collectors climb trees and cut off fruit
bearing branches. Fruits are depulped by keeping them in a heap for 2 to 4 days and rubbing 
the decaying pericarp off with the hands. Seeds are then washed, dried, and stored. Kusum 
bears a good crop of lac every second or third year.^°’^^®
Yields and economics — Average annual production of stick-lac varies from 1 to 1.5 
kg per tree, to as much as 9 to 18 kg from well-cultivated trees.The quantity of lac 
produced per tree varies with the size of the crown and the vigor of the shoots. Average 
seed yields of about 28 to 37 kg in one season are reported, which translates to 7 to 13 kg 
of easily expressed oil.^° India, Sri Lanka, and Java are the principle producers of the lac, 
and the U.S. is the main consumer. Lac from trees from India and Sri Lanka command the 
highest price.
Energy — The very heavy wood, specific gravity approximately 0.91 to 1.08, makes 
good fuel and excellent charcoal. Sapwood has a calorific value of 4,950 calories (8,910 
Btu); heartwood, 4,928 calories (8,872 Btu). Kernels (60 to 65% of the fresh fruit; 15.3% 
of dried fruit) contain 59 to 72% oil, although yields are only 32 to 35% oil by boiling 
decorticated seeds, 25 to 27% with ox-driven presses. With 275 trees per hectare, there 
could be 1,925 to 3,575 kg oil per ha. The oil is used for candles and for illumination; the 
oil-cake is also used as fuel.^°
Biotic factors — Monkeys and birds eat the seeds, thus interfering in their collection for 
use for oil. The fungus M eliola capensis is known to attack trees, and D endrophthoe fa lca ta 
sometimes parasitizes it.^’^^® Browne^^ lists the following as affecting lac tree: Fungi — 
C orticium salm onicolor, R osellinia bunodes. Coleóptera — H olotrichia serrata, M yllocertus 
cardoni, X yleboru s fo rn icatu s, X ylosandrus m origerus. Hemiptera — L accifer lacea. Lep- 
idoptera — A scotis setenaria, C atach rysops strabo. C usíala raptaría, D asychira grotei, 
E ctropis bhurm itra, H elioth is arm ígera, H yposidra successaria, H . talaca, R apala iarbus, 
T halassodes fa lsa ria . In addition. The W ealth o f India^^ reports R osellina bunodes (stem 
blight), P olyporu s w eberianus (yellow-cork-rot), D aedalea fla vid a (white spongy rot), H ex- 
agonia apiaria (white spongy rot), Irpex fla vu s (white fibrous rot). Serinetha augus attacks 
the seed. L accifer lacea, the lac insect, is considered the most important insect attacking 
the tree.^®
269
SCLEROCARYA CAFFRA Sond. (ANACARDIACEAE) — Manila Nut, Caffir Marvola Nut
Uses — Tree is important for shade and shelter as well as food to a variety of animals. 
Fruits (or kernels, or both) edible, yet said to serve as an insecticide. Kernels of stones have 
a delicious nut-like flavor, and are eaten raw, or dried and ground and added to soups or 
stews. Fruits, the size of plums, have a pleasant flavor and are a source of food for parrots 
and mammals. With a turpentine aroma, the fruit is juicy, tart, and thirst-quenching. Fruit 
juice, boiled down, yields jelly or syrup used as sweetening agent. Fruit is also used by 
natives to make a fermented beverage which is intoxicating. Elephants and monkeys ap
parently become drunk from eating fermenting fruits. Seeds, extracted with difficulty, are 
oily, nutrituous and high in vitamin C. Kernels contain about 60% oil, extracted by boiling 
and used to preserve and soften skin shirts by Zulu women. Oil is used to treat meat which 
is to be kept for up to a year. Oil is also used for cooking and as a base for cosmetic red 
ochre. Pedi use the ground up kernels for making a porridge, the embryo as a condiment, 
and the leaf as a relish. Bark is used to make a bitter brandy tincture, and is the source of 
a red dye. Gum from the bark is mixed with soot and used for ink. Wood, pinkish white, 
often with a greenish tinge, changing to a brown-red on exposure, is fairly soft, fairly 
durable, saws well, and takes nails, and is used for making fruitboxes, canoes, furniture, 
panelling, utensils, troughs, stamping blocks, structures, spoons, bowls, dishes, and drums. 
Leaves are browsed by many animals; elephants eat the bark and roots.
270 Handbook of Nuts
Folk medicine — Reported to be astringent, marula is a folk remedy for diarrhea, 
dysentery, malaria, and proctitis. The bark decoction is used for diarrhea, dysentery, and 
malaria, and to clean out wounds. The leaf juice is applied to gonorrhea. Europeans in South 
Africa take the bark decoction both for the cure and prevention of malaria (but experiments 
have not confirmed antimalarial activity). Zulu use the bark decoction to prevent gangrenous 
rectitis. Fruits are believed to serve both as an aphrodisiac and contraceptive for females. 
(African cattle, having partaken of too much fruit, have been observed to become both 
aggressive and infertile.)®^ Europeans and Africans use the bark as a prophylactic and to 
treat malaria, the steam for eye disorders. Because of their abundant fruits, the trees are 
widespread fertility charms in Africa. The bark is thought to control the sex of unborn 
children; bark of the male tree is administered if a son is desired, and of a female tree if a 
daughter is desired.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit (ZMB) is reported to contain 361 calories, 6.0 g protein, 
1.2 g fat, 90.4 g total carbohydrate, 6.0 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 72.3 mg Ca, 229 mg P, 1.2 mg 
Fe, 0.36 mg thiamine, 0.60 mg riboflavin, 2.41 mg niacin, and 819 mg ascorbic acid. The 
seed (ZMB) is reported to contain, per 100 g, 629 calories, 25.6 g protein, 59.8 g fat, 9.6 
g total carbohydrate, 2.8 g fiber, 5.0 g ash, 149 mg Ca, 1299 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg 
thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.73 mg niacin.®^ Per 100 g, the fruit (APB) is reported 
to contain 30 calories, 91.7 g H2O, 0.5 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 7.5 g total carbohydrate, 0.5 
g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 6 mg Ca, 19 mg P, 0.1 mg Fe, 0.03 mg thiamine, 0.05 mg riboflavin, 
0.2 mg niacin, and 68 mg ascorbic acid. The seed (APB) is reported to contain 604 calories, 
3.9 g H2O, 24.6 g protein, 57.5 g fat, 9.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.7 g fiber, 4.8 g ash, 143 
mg Ca, 1248 mg P, 0.4 mg Fe, 0.04 mg thiamine, 0.12 mg riboflavin, and 0.7 mg niacin. 
Bark contains 3.5 to 10% tannin, leaves 20% tannin, a trace of alkaloids, and 10% gum. 
Fruits contain citric and malic acid, sugar, and 54 mg vitamin C per 100 g. Seed oil (53 to 
60%) contains ca. 55 to 70% oleic acid. The pattern of the amino acids (particularly rich 
in arginine, aspartic acid, and glutamic acid) in the mean differ only slightly from that in 
human milk and eggs.®^ The juice contains 2 mg vitamin C per gram {South Africa Digest, 
March 5, 1982).
Toxicity — One source lists it as a narcotic hallucinogen(?). In 1972, a flurry of newspaper 
articles heralded the propensity of pachyderms to get pickled on the fruit. Elephants, baboons, 
monkeys, warthogs, and humans may overindulge in Kruger Park (South Africa).®^
Description — Small to large much-branched dioecious, deciduous tree, up to 20 m tall, 
with rounded crown with a spread of 10 m; trunk 30 to 90 cm in diameter; bark pale, nearly 
smooth, peeling in disk-shaped flakes,which leave circular depressions. Leaves alternate, 
crowded toward apex of stem, up to 30 cm long, compound with 3 to 8 pairs of opposite 
leaflets; leaflets long-petiolulate, ovate or elliptic, blue-green; serrate on margin in juvenile 
plants but smooth in older plants, glabrous, 3.7 to 5 cm long 2.5 to 3.3 cm wide, base 
acute, cuspidate. Rowers unisexual, male and female on different trees; male flowers in 
terminal reddish spikes or racemes, with 12 to 15 stamens, inserted around a fleshy, de
pressed, entire disk; sepals 4, dark-crimson; petals 4, pinkish; female flowers long-peduncled, 
borne singly or 2 or 3 together at ends of young shoots (rarely flowers are fully bisexual); 
usually only female trees bear fruits, but frequently terminal flowers of male inflorescences 
may develop fruits; ovary subglobose, 2- to 3-locular. Fruit a fleshy, obovoid, 2- to 3-celled, 
yellow drupe, each cell containing a seed, and each cell with an “ eye” to permit the embryo 
to grow out of the shell. Seed or stone about 2.5 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, weighing 3 to 4 
g. Rowers August; fruits December to March in South Africa.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Africa Center of Diversity, marula, or cvs thereof, is 
reported to tolerate drought, heat, insects, and sand.®^
Distribution — Native to South Africa, particularly to Natal and Transvaal, but wide
spread in hotter drier regions, Bechuanaland and tropical Africa, north to Sudan and Ethiopia, 
established at Miami, Rorida.^^®
271
E cology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, 
marula is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 6.7 to 43.0 dm (mean of 3 cases = 
21.6 dm), annual temperature of 20.6 to 27.4°C (mean of 3 cases = 24. TC), and pH of 
6.1.*^ One of the more common trees in the savannas of the Transvaal. It does not tolerate 
frost. Thrives especially in hot dry regions, and is rarely found in higher rainfall areas. 
Occurs mainly in woodlands from the coast up to about 700 m altitude, on sandy soils or 
occasionally on sandy loams. Reported as growing in savanna grasslands where annual 
elevation and rainfall are as follows: Mozambique — 200 to 900 m, 630 to 1000 mm; South 
Africa-Mozambique — 300 to 1000 m, 250 to 500 mm; South Zimbabwe — 450 to 1000 
m, 380 to 640 mm; Angola — 80 to 1000 m; 600 to 710 mm; South Africa — 600 to 1500 
m, 380 to 640 mm. In Malagasy, it occurs in areas with 1,000 to 1,500 mm precipitation.^^®
C u ltivation — Common in the wild, marulas have grown very slowly under experimental 
conditions, but grow quickly in natural conditions. Seeds germinate readily; the hard stones 
should be sown intact. Trees may be propagated by truncheons, 10 to 12.5 cm thick, which 
root freely if laid in during early spring. Trees grow fairly rapidly and are drought-resistant 
when once established.^^® A project to breed marula was scheduled to begin in 1982 by the 
Department of Horticulture at the University of Pretoria (South A frica D igest, March 12, 
1982).
H arvestin g — Trees are said to bear fruit more copiously than related species. Fruits are 
collected from the ground or by climbing the trees. Natives regard these as the greatest 
delicacy and store them carefully. A gift of marula kernels is valued as a mark of highest 
friendship among natives.
Y ield s an d eco n o m ics — Trees are very plentiful in the forests where they grow spon
taneously, and fruits are collected as needed. One tree yields up to 2 tons of fruit (South 
A frica D ig est, March 5, 1982); 30 g of fruit produces 1 € of marula beer (South A frica 
D igest, March 12, 1982). From a single tree, 91,000 fruits have been reported.Kernels 
consist of nearly 88% hard shell, 12% kernel, the kernel yielding ca. 50% oil. Within the 
fruit, the shell contains the small oily kemeUhat bums with a steady flame.^^® Because of 
its local economic importance, trees are usually preserved by Bantu and others, even on 
cultivated land. In Transvaal also, the trees are protected.
E n ergy — With two tons of fmit possible per tree, one might possibly obtain more than
6,000 € of beer, distilling down to possibly 300 € ethanol per tree, or 3,000 liters assuming 
100 trees per hectare. The hard nut endocarp could be converted to charcoal, the kernel 
yielding 50% oil. Sap of the tree could also be converted to ethanol. Prunings and by
products could be used in pyrolysis.
B iotic factors — Fungi known to attack marula are C ercospora caffra and G loeosporium 
sclerocaryae. Trees are host of a small beetle (P olydada) of which the highly poisonous 
grubs are used by Bushmen as an ingredient for arrow poisons. Mopane Caterpillars also 
grow on the tree, and are eaten after roasting by Bantu and Bushmen.^^® Water, which mns 
off the tmnk and crown into holes — usually where a branch has broken off — is used by 
mosquitoes for breeding. Larvae of G onim brasia helina sometimes breed on marula. But
terflies and the green lunar moth breed on the foliage. Wood is very liable to blue discoloration 
through fungi and beetle attacks.
272 Handbook of Nuts
SIMMONDSIA CHINENSIS (Link) C. Schneid. (BUXACEAE) — Jojoba
Uses — Simmondsia is unique among plants in that its seeds contain an oil which is a 
liquid wax. Oil of Simmondsia is obtained by expression or solvent extraction. It is light- 
yellow, unsaturated, of unusual stability, remarkably pure, and need not be refined for use 
as a transformer oil or as a lubricant for high-speed machinery or machines operating at 
high temperatures. The oil does not become rancid and is not damaged by repeated heating 
to temperatures over 295°C or by heating to 370°C for 4 days; the color is dispelled by 
heating for a short time at 285°C, does not change in viscosity appreciably at high temper
atures, and requires little refining to obtain maximum purity. Since Simmondsia oil resembles 
sperm whale oil both in composition and properties, it should serve as a replacement for 
the applications of that oil. The reports that a new oil from the fish known as orange
roughy is “ attempting to make inroads on the jojoba and sperm whale markets” . Jojoba oil
273
can be easily hydrogenated into a hard white wax, with a melting point of about 73 to 74°C, 
and is second in hardness only to camauba wax. The oil is a potential source of both saturated 
and unsaturated long-chain fatty acids and alcohols. It is also suitable for sulfurization to 
produce lubricating oil and a rubber-like material (factice) suitable for use in printing ink 
and linoleum. The residual meal from expression or extraction contains 30 to 35% protein 
and is acceptable as a livestock food. Seeds were said to be palatable and were eaten raw 
or parched by Indians. Recent studies suggest they are toxic. They may also be boiled to 
make a well-flavored drink similar to coffee, hence the name coffeeberry. It is an important 
browse plant in California and Arizona, the foliage and young twigs being relished by cattle, 
goafs, and deer, hence such names as goatnut.^^
Folk medicine — Indians of Baja California highly prized the fruit for food and the oil 
as a medicine for cancer and kidney disorders. Indians in Mexico use the oil as a hair 
restorer. According to H a rtw e ll,th e oil was used in folk remedies for cancer. Reported 
to be emetic, jojoba is a folk remedy for cancer, colds, dysuria, eyes, head, obesity, 
parturition, poison ivy, sores, sore throat, warts, and wounds. Seri Indians applied jojoba 
to head sores and aching eyes. They drank jojoba-ade for colds and to facilitate parturition.®^’*^^
Chemistry — I was amazed to see, in searching through my massive files on jojoba, 
that I had no conventional proximate analysis. It was not even included in two of my most 
treasured resources, Hager’s Handbook and The Wealth of India. Pe r haps this is due 
to the relative novelty of interest and the unique situation that the seed contains liquid wax 
rather than oil, sort of unusual for the conventional analyses.Verbiscar and Banigan^^^ 
approximated a proximate analysis, some of which follows: per 100 g, the seed is reported 
to contain 4.3 to 4.6 g H2O, 14.9 to 15.1 g protein, 50.2 to 53.8 g fat, 24.6 to 29.1 g total 
carbohydrate, 3.5 to 4.2 g fiber, and 1.4 to 1.6 g ash. The amino acid composition of 
deoiled jojoba seed meal is 1.05 to 1.11% lysine, 0.49% histidine, 1.6 to 1.8% arginine, 
2.2 to 3.1% aspartic acid, 1.1 to 1.2% threonine, 1.0 to 1.1% serine, 2.4 to 2.8% glutamic 
acid, 1.0 to 1.1% proline, 1.4 to 1.5% glycine, 0.8 to 1.0% alanine, 1.1 to 1.2% valine, 
0.2% methionine, 0.8 to 0.9% isoleucine, 1.5 to 1.6% leucine, 1.0% tyrosine, 0.9 to 1.1% 
phenyalanine, 0.5 to 0.8% cystine and cysteine, and 0.5 to 0.6% tryptophane. Detailed 
analyses of the wax esters, free alcohols, and free acids, are reported in NAS.^^^ Per 100 
g jojoba meal, there is 1.4 g lysine, 0.6 g histidine, 1.9 g arginine, 2.6 aspartic acid, 1.3 
threonine, 1.3 serine, 3.2 glutamic acid, 1.5 proline, 2.4 glycine, 1.1 alanine, 0.6 cystine, 
1.5 valine, 0.1 methionine, 0.9 isoleucine, 1.8 leucine, 1.1 tyrosine, and 1.2 g phenylalanine. 
The two major flavonoid constituents of the leaves are isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside (narcissin) 
and isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside.^^
Toxicity — Simmondsin, a demonstrated appetite-depressant toxicant is contained in 
seeds, 2.25 to 2.34%; seed hulls, 0.19%; core wood, 0.45; leaves, 0.19 to 0.23%; twigs, 
0.63 to 0.75%; and inflorescence, 0.22%. Three related cyanomethylenecyclohexyl glu- 
cosides have also been isolated from the seed meal. The acute oral LD50 for crude jojoba 
oil to male albino rats is higher than 21.5 m€/kg body weight. Strains of Lactobacillus 
acidophilus can ameliorate this toxicity.
Description — Leafy, xerophytic, long-lived (100 to 200 years), evergreen dioecious 
shrub, ca.0.5 to 1 m tall in the wild, but occasionally to 6 m tall; leaves thick, leathery, 
bluish-green, oblong, opposite, 2.5 to 3.5 cm long, entire; flowers apetalous, the female 
ones usually solitary in the axils, the male ones clustered with 10 to 12 stamens per flower; 
female flowers with 5 greenish sepals, soft and hairy; the flowers on different plants, male 
and female plants about equal in nature; fruits ovoid, usually dehiscent, with 1 to 3 peanut
sized, brown seeds each, the endosperm scanty or absent; seeds about 750 to 5,150/kg, 
about 50% oil.^^®
Germplasm — Reported from the Middle American Center of Diversity, jojoba, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate alkali, drought, heat, high pH, and slope.Yermanos^"^®
274 Handbook of Nuts
describes a monoecious strain which may lead to self-pollinating cvs. (n = 52, 56, ca.lOO.)
Distribution — Native to areas of northern Mexico, Lower California, on the Islands off 
the coast of California, New Mexico, and Arizona. It inhabits the mountains bordering the 
Saltón Sea basin in the Colorado Desert in California, and the southern portion of San Diego 
County. In Arizona, it is found in the mountains around Tucson, near Phoenix, and north 
of Yuma. In nature, it grows between 600 and 1500 m elevation in the desert, down to sea 
level near the coast, between latitudes 25° and 31° N. There is a major effort underway in 
the U.S., Mexico, and Israel to domesticate jojoba; e.g., there are reports that is has been 
planted in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Egypt, Haiti, Israel, Paraguay, Rhodesia, 
the Sahel, and South Africa. The Israeli examples are bearing fruit. We are anxious to hear 
more success stories. There seems to be no major difficulty in growing the plant in frost- 
free, arid, subtropical, and tropical zones, but not many success stories have materialized.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Desert (with little or no frost) to Thom 
through Tropical Desert Forest Life Zones, jojoba is reported to tolerate annual precipitation 
of 2 to 11 dm, annual temperature of 16 to 26°C, and pH of 7.3 to 8.2.®^ Jojoba is usually 
restricted to well-drained, coarse, well-aerated desert soils that are neutral to alkaline, with 
an abundance of phosphoms. It grows best where the annual rainfall exceeds 30 cm, but 
does exist where less then 12.5 cm occurs. Where rainfall is ca.75 mm, the jojoba grows 
to ca.l m tall; where rainfall is 250 to 400 mm, it may attain 5 m. It tolerates full sun and 
temperatures ranging from 0 to 47°C. Mature shmbs tolerate temperatures as low as - 10°C, 
but seedlings are sensitive to light frosts just below freezing.
Cultivation — Jojoba seeds retain nearly 99% germinability after 6 months, and 38% 
after 11 years stored in an open shed. Germination is good in alkaline sands at temperatures 
of 27 to 38°C. Seedlings are frost sensitive. Field seeding can be done with a modified 
cotton planter. Seedlings need two or three irrigations during the first summer and must be 
protected from animals. Weeding is recommended after each irrigation. Adventitious roots 
may form on 50 to 80% of the cuttings treated with growth-promoting substances. Plants 
could start producing seeds in 5 years, but full production would not be attained for 8 to 
10 years. Using a 2 x 4 m spacing in planting would permit the planting of about 500 
female and 50 male pollinating plants per hectare. Apomictic plants are known, lessening 
the need for male nonfruiting plants in the orchard. Suggested methods for planting include: 
Close spacing, ca. 15 cm apart, resulting in hedge-rows, with the seeds planted in flat borders 
or in a slightly depressed ditch so as to keep them moist until they germinate (ca.lO to 14 
days). Male plants should be thinned out to about a 5-1 ratio, finally allowing about 2,500 
plants per hectare, with possible annual yields of 2.5 MT/ha seed. Propagation by cuttings 
from selected shrubs could increase seed and/or oil yields. Generally, flowering nodes and 
leaf nodes alternate, but some plants flower at nearly all nodes; some plants produce more 
than one flower per node. Transplanted seedlings survive readily, if the roots are pruned. 
Hence, cuttings could be made in a nursery for later transplanting in the field. The more 
efficient spacing for this method of planting is in rows 4 m apart, and the bushes in the 
rows 2 m apart. Male bushes should be interspersed throughout the grove (about 1,500 
female and 250 male plants per hectare), possibly yielding ca. 2.75 MT/ha seed. When 
softwood cuttings were treated with IBA, 4 mg/g of talc, they rooted 100% in 38 days.^^*
Harvesting — In the wild, the only method for harvesting has been hand-collecting from 
under the plants, since mature seeds fall from the bush. Under cultivation, hedge-row, or 
orchard-like plantations, without undergrowth, seeds could be raked from under the bushes 
and then picked up by suction. Pruning the lower branches might be advantageous if this 
method be used. A device could be designed to pick the seeds from the bush prior to the 
time of falling. Cost of harvesting would depend on the method.
Yields and economics — Buchanan and Duke^^^ accept a figure near 2,250 kg/ha for 
yields of jojoba. Individual plants may yield 5 kg (dry weight) seeds and more, of which
275
50% (43 to 56%) by weight is a colorless, odorless liquid wax commonly called “jojoba 
oil” 230 Yermanos^"*^ suggested that a 5-year-old orchard should yield about 825 kg of nuts 
per hectare, increasing to 4,125 kg/ha in the 12th year, suggesting a renewable “ oil” yield 
of ca.2 MT/year. Such yields may be optimistic, even for well-managed plantations. Esti
mates of the amount of wild nuts available each year range from 100 million to 1 billion 
pounds, the plants growing over 100 million acres in California, Mexico, and Arizona. 
Usually plants in cultivation yield oil in 6 to 7 years; the Israelis report their best specimens 
yield 2 or more kg of seed in the 4th year; wild plants yield about 1 kg of nuts per year, 
and cultivars should yield twice that amount or more. The seeds contain up to 50% “ oil” . 
In 1958, long before the whale oil became endangered, the value of Simmondsia “ oil” as 
a hard wax was estimated at $.55/kg. Because of the present demand for the wax and oil, 
jojoba is being considered as a noncompetitive crop, that could replace wheat and cotton in 
Texas and southern California, with as much as the yield from 70,000 hectares being absorbed 
by industry. The Chemical Marketing Reporter^^' stated that jojoba prices doubled in 6 
months to $200/gal. The cost of establishing a plantation can vary from $3,000/ha on land 
with irrigation available to $5,600/ha on rough desert terrain .O n ce established, mainte
nance costs are low — only ca. $200/year. One hectare can yield 1,125 to 2,250 kg oil per 
year. (Recent prices have approached $50/kg, suggesting to the uninitiated yields of 
$100,000/ha, right up there with the hyperoptimistic ginseng yields. In either case, a wait 
of at least 5 years for the first return might seem interminable. Prices have gone down 
considerably since this was sarcastically written.)
Energy — With 641 plants per hectare, the aerial phytomass (over 6% of total phytomass) 
was 1,573 kg/ha and annual productivity only 327 kg/ha.Daugherty et al.^^ were optimistic, 
but not so optimistic as Yérmanos about jojoba oil yields. They projected ca.500 kg/ha oil 
for jojoba, ca.nearly 100 for cottonseed, ca.200 for flaxseed, ca.250 for soybean, and nearly 
300 for safflower (based on 10-year averages for the conventional oilseeds, speculation for 
jojoba).
Biotic factors — One fungus {Sturnella sim m ondsiae Bonar) occurs on the leaves, calyxes, 
and peduncles, but little damages the plant in this country. P hytophthora p a ra sitica and 
Pythium aphaniderm atum may cause root rot in jojoba plantations. Cuttings are sensitive to 
A lternaría tenuis, seedlings to Sclerotium bataticola and Fusarium oxysporum , A scale 
insect that inhabits the leaves also is not detrimental. There is a harmful pest, probably a 
microlepidopoterous insect, that destroys a large part of the wild crop by consuming the 
very young ovules. One spraying at the proper time might eliminate this damage. The scale 
Situlaspis yu ccae and the unique mealybug P uto sim m ondsia have been reported.
276 Handbook of Nuts
TELFAIRIA OCCIDENTALIS Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Fluted Pumpkin, Oyster 
Nut
Uses — Young shoots and leaves are used as a pot-herb. Leaves are much sought after 
by sheep and goats. Seeds are eaten and are said to have a pleasant almond-like flavor, but 
the bitter seed-coat must be discarded. Seeds are boiled and eaten or put in soups, or used 
as the source of a nondrying oil for native cookery and soap-making. Seeds are also used 
for polishing native earthenware pots. Dry shell of the fruit is sometimes used for utensils. 
Dried seeds are powdered and used to thicken soups. Dried fiber from macerated stems is 
used like loofa for paper.^^’^^^^^®
Folk medicine — No data available.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 579 calories, 21.9 g 
protein, 48.0 g fat, 25.1 g total carbohydrate, 2.3 g fiber, 5.6 g ash, 89.6 mg Ca, and 610 
mg P. Per 100 g, the leaf (ZMB) is reported to contain 346 calories, 21.2 to 21.3 g protein, 
12.9 to 13.2 g fat, 51.5 to 52.0 g total carbohydrates, 12.5 to 12.8 g fiber, and 13.9 to
14.0 g ash.^^ BurkilP^ reports that the oil contains 37% oleic acid, 21% palmitic acid, 21% 
stearic acid, 15% linoleic acid. Seeds contain a trace of alkaloid, while none has been 
detected in the roots.On a wet weight basis, the pulped leaves contain 11 mg beta-carotene, 
juice 9, fiber 1, supernatant 1, and wet LPC 8 mg beta-carotene per 100 g. Under stored 
conditions, the LPC lost 82% beta-carotene and 58% xanthophyll over 12 months.Ca.70% 
of the total N and 63% of the protein N was extracted; the potential protein extractability 
is ca.90%. The oil, by weight, contains 16% palmitic-, 3% stearic-, 23% oleic-, 23% linoleic- 
and 19% alpha-eleostearic-acids. Seeds of T. occidentalis contain fairly large amounts of 
alpha-eleostearic and no linolenic glycerides, while the seed fat of T. pedata derives from 
the usual mixture of saturated, oleic, linoleic, and linoleic acids.
Description — Perennial, dioecious liana, up to 33 m long; stems herbaceous, ribbed, 
glabrous or pubescent, becoming thickened when old. Leaves petiolate, 3- to 5-foliolate; 
median leaflet elliptic, acuminate, acute, tapered into the petiolule, entire or shallowly 
sinuate-toothed, glabrous or sparsely hairy or punctate, 3-veined from near base with 2 well- 
developed ascending lateral veins, 6 to 17 cm long, 3 to 10 cm broad; lateral leaflets similar, 
with petiolules 0.2 to 2 cm long, petiole 1.9 to 8 cm long, pubescent; probracts 5 to 8 mm 
long. Male flowers in racemes 10 to 30 cm long, the bracts 2.5 to 8 mm long, 1.5 to 3 mm 
broad, pedicels 8 to 35 mm long, receptacle-tube campanulate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm long, densely 
glandular-hairy inside above; lobes triangular, glandular-dentate, 2 to 4 mm long; petals 
about 2.5 cm long, 1.2 cm broad, white with dark-purple marks at base inside, or creamy 
white with red-purple spot (eye); stamens 3, anthers coherent in center of flower; female 
flowers stalked. Fruit pale glaucous green or whitish with waxy bloom when ripe, flesh 
yellowish, ellipsoid, tapering at both ends, rather sharply 10-ribbed, up to 60 (to 90) cm 
long. Seeds numerous, very broadly and asymmetrically ovate, 3.2 to 3.6 cm long, 3.3 to 
3.7 cm broad, and 1.0 to 1.2 cm thick; testa smooth with endocarpic fibrous sheath poorly 
developed or a b s e n t.F lo w e rs and fruits year-round.
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, the fluted pumpkin, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, poor soil, and shade.Very similar to 
the following species, which is the commercial source of true oyster nut oil.^^ The true 
oyster nut has purplish-pink flowers, whereas the fluted pumpkin has white flowers with a 
purplish eye. (2n = 24.)
Distribution — Native to tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola, the Congo Area; 
Fernando Po, U ganda.Introduced to tropical America.
Ecology — Ranging from Warm Temperate Moist through Tropical Dry to Wet Forest 
Life Zones, the fluted pumpkin is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 22.8 
dm (mean of 2 cases = 18.2), annual temperature of 24.4 to 26.2°C (mean of 2 cases =
277
25.3°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.0 (mean of 2 cases = 5.0).®^ Thrives best in closed-forest 
country,ca. 1,200 m above sea level.Apparently best adapted to a hot, humid climate 
(e.g., TMF), common in littoral hedges, and lowland rain-forests up to about 1,200 m.^^® 
Its occurrence at the edges of forests may be the consequence of previous cultivation. It 
thrives in plantings in Talamanca, Costa Rica.
Cultivation — Cultivated in some places, especially S. Nigeria and by some tribes in 
Ghana. Grown on stakes or trained up trees.Propagated by seeds either planted near trees 
upon which to climb, or more often allowed to sprawl over the ground, as is done in Nigeria. 
Once established, plants are perennial for several years. Grows well in any good garden 
soil where there is plenty of heat and moisture.
Harvesting — Leaves and shoots are picked continuously as the plant grows.Fruits 
are collected whenever ripe and needed. No special season, as plants flower and fruit 
yearround, and the fruits are gradually ripened throughout the year.^^®
Yields and economics — Often cultivated for the seeds by natives in West Tropical 
Africa, East Tropical Africa, and Southeast Asia; and probably elsewhere in the hot, humid 
tropics. Mainly used for the seeds as a vegetable and for oil, and the stem for the fibers for 
making paper.
Energy — This plant climbed up trees in Talamanca like kudzu does in tropical America, 
and fruited copiously. Its relatively high seed-oil content suggests that this is as promising 
an energy species as China’s Hodgsonia. No doubt the foliage could provide LPC (leaf 
protein concentrate) and the seeds oil, with the residues being used as by-products for energy 
production.
Biotic factors — No serious pests or diseases have been reported.
278 Handbook of Nuts
TELFAIRIA PEDATA (Sm. ex Sims) Hook.f. (CUCURBITACEAE) — Oyster nut, Zanzibar 
Oilvine, Telfairia nuts, Jikungo
Uses — Oyster nut is cultivated for its edible seeds^^"^ and oil yield (about 62%). The 
fruits are used in soups, and the nuts are used in confectionery and chocolates, either alone 
or as a partial substitute for Brazil nuts or almonds, and are quite palatable fresh or roasted, 
as well as pickled. The seeds are the source of Castanha Oil, used in manufacture of soaps, 
cosmetics, salad dressings, paints, and candles. One quote from an unpublished W. E. Bailey 
typescript, “ Possibly the oil can be converted into explosives, just as the Germans have 
done with Romanian soy beans. The oil is almost indistinguishable from olive oil. The nuts 
may be pounded, cooked in water, and eaten as a cereal (porridge). The kernel has a high 
vitamin content, and residue from the kernel after the oil has been extracted can be used 
for livestock feed.^^® However, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk^^^ describe the seed-cake as 
“ useless for stock feeding on account of its bitterness” .
Folk medicine — Medicinally, oyster nuts have laxative properties, and women in Usa- 
mabar eat the nut immediately after childbirth to cause early contraction of the pelvis, 
increase the flow of milk, and insure an early return of their strength so they can return to 
normal duties in a day or two.^^* East Africans use the seed oil for stomach ailments and 
rheumatism, the leaf as a bitter tonic. Chagga use the seed as a puerperal tonic and lactagogue. 
The plant reportedly has taenifuge properties, especially the seed.
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 31.1 g protein, 66.2 g 
fat, 2.7 g ash, 10.5 mg Ca, 596 mg P, and 4.3 mg Fe.*^ Per 100 g, the kernel (51 to 60% 
of seed) is reported to contain 4.4 g H2O, 29.7 g protein, 63.3 g fat, 2.6 g ash, 10 mg Ca,
279
570 mg P, and 4.1 mg Fe.^® An unpublished London Fruit Exchange report on file in the 
Germplasm Introduction and Evaluation Laboratory, gives 6.56% moisture, 19.63% protein, 
36.02% fat, 28.45% N-free extract, 7.3% fiber, and 2.04% ash. The oil is yellowish with 
a brownish fluorescence, practically odorless, with a low acid value, and possesses a pleasant, 
slightly sweet taste. Somewhat viscous, it is liquid at room temperature, deposits stearine 
on standing, saponifies readily, and contains stearic, palmitic, and telfairic acids, as well 
as about 27% protein (as compared to 40% in soy beans). The shell, especially the bast, 
contains abundant tannin and a bitter crystalline substance. Seed husks contain three antitumor 
compounds, Cucurbitacin B, D, and E, as well as tannin.
Toxicity — Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk attribute headaches to eating the fruits.
Description — Perennial dioecious, herbaceous vine, to 30 m long; the stem herbaceous, 
ribbed, glabrous. Leaves alternate, digitate, 5- to 7-foliolate, the leaflets lanceolate, elliptic 
or narrowly ovate or obovate, penninerved, obscurely sinuate-toothed, to 13 x 6 cm. Male 
flowers pinkish purple, in racemes on long stems, opening in sequence, female flower single 
on shorter stem. Fruit a green gourd-like ellipsoid pepo, 32 to 45 cm long, 16 to 25 cm in 
diameter, bluntly 10-ribbed, weighing up to 30 kg, filled with a dense fleshy pulp in which 
seeds are embedded (difficult to separate seed from pulp). Seeds 60 to 200, to 35 mm in 
diameter, kidney-bean shaped, rich in oil, tasting like almond; kernel protected by two shells, 
the outer tough, fibrous, the inner hard and brittle; outer shell removed by peeling or burning, 
the inner one splits with a blow, sometimes a machine known as a belt sander is used to 
open the nuts.^^^-^^'^
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, oyster nut, or cvs thereof, 
is reported to tolerate drought, high pH, laterite, poor soil, and shade.
Distribution — Native to East Tropical Africa, especially in Mauritius, Zanzibar, Tan
zania, Pemba, and Mozambique. Cultivated throughout the area; especially in Kenya, Masai 
District, Ngong, and formerly in the Mascarene Islands.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Dry Forest and 
wetter Life Zones, oyster nut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 5.2 to 15.3 dm 
(mean of 4 cases = 11.1), annual temperature of 8.4 to 24.2°C (mean of 4 cases = 17.4°C), 
and pH of 5.5 to 7.0 (mean of 3 cases = 6.3).®^ Oyster nut grows at the edges of forests, 
enveloping the trees with its branches, while its trunk frequently attains a diameter of 45 
cm. In Africa, it ranges from 0 to 11(X) m altitude in lowland rain forest and riverine forest.
It grows well in a sheltered position with an eastern exposure, but without strong winds or 
cold temperatures. It requires medium loams with good drainage, is deep-rooted and drought 
resistant. It grows well up to 2000 m elevation in Kenya and Tanzania.^^^
Cultivation — Oyster nut is propagated by seeds, which should be planted within 3 
months, as the oil dries out of the kernel, causing deterioration of the germ. Seeds, after 
being soaked in water for 5 days, are planted in a nursery. They germinate in about 21 days. 
When the seedlings are about 5 cm tall (2 to 3 months old), they are transplanted to the 
base of trees which they will climb over and often kill — a fast grower, exceeding 20 m 
in 15 months, if not pruned. The nursery offers protection to the seeds and small plants 
which are eaten by insects and wild animals; also, the plants are easier to water in dry 
seasons. Female plants are readily rooted from cuttings. If seed is sown directly in the field, 
880 seeds per hectare, at 2 m apart, in double rows, spaced 4 m apart, is recommended. 
Seed should be planted at half their eventual spacing, since there is no way of distinguishing 
between the male and female plants until flowering takes place; 10 to 15 male vines needed 
per hectare. Sometimes trellises are used, these 2 m high, erected 4 to 5 m apart, and 
connected for the double rows of plants which are trained in opposite directions. This method 
is expensive, mainly due to the cost of the trellises, and is suitable only to mountainous 
regions where the posts would not be attacked by white ants. Green manures, compost, or 
barnyard manure should be used freely from the time of planting. Also bone and fish manures
280 Handbook of Nuts
are used, these promoting good growth and fruiting. Lime is used to help control nematodes. 
Vines should be kept weed free for the first year or so after planting on trellises. After that, 
the plants will take care of themselves.^^^
Harvesting — The crop begins to bear in 2 years, and continues for 20 to 25 years. 
However, the plants will die out the third year in a poor soil. About 4 months are required 
from flower to mature fruit. Plants produce 1 to 2 crops yearly, and may bear almost mature 
fruits while they are flowering. The fruits are picked by hand as they are needed.Nuts 
are soaked in water for about 8 hr in 3 changes of water to remove bitterness.
Yields and economics — Assuming 160 vines per ha, a conservative 10 fruits per vine, 
each fruit with 140 nuts, each weighing ca.l2 g, the hectare could yield 2685 kg per seed. 
Average yields of the nuts are 1000 to 2000 kg/ha. The oil content of the seed is about 62% 
of its weight, or approximately 35% of the entire weight of the whole nut. This would 
suggest an oil yield up to 700 kg/ha. Dr. T. W. Whitaker (personal communication, June 
1982) suggests that this should be a promising species, but not so exciting as the Asian 
H odgsonia of the cucurbit family. USDA germplasm teams to China should negotiate for 
some of this subtropical species.
Energy — From the descriptions, the oyster nut would appear to have aerial biomass 
attributes similar to or higher than our American weed, kudzu, often over 10 MT DM/ha. 
One vine reached 12 m tall and 5 cm in diameter in 15 months.
Biotic factors — The major fungi attacking oyster nut are A rm illaria m ellea, C olleto
trichum sp., D id y m ella ly copers i d , and O idiopsis taurica. Virgin forests should be thor
oughly burned before planting to prevent disease. The main nematode, H eterodera m arioni, 
is controlled by the natives using a lime dressing, as the seeding stage is most often attacked. 
In Kenya, the major pests are ground squirrels and porcupines, which dig up recently planted 
seed, and bucks and grasshoppers, which eat the sprouting seed. Mealy bugs, taken from 
coffee trees and put on oyster nut vines, died.^^^
281
TERMINALIA CATAPPA L. (COMBRETACEAE) — Indian Almond, Myrobalan, Badam, 
Almendro, Bengal almond, Kotamba, Tropical Almond
Uses — Indian almond is widely planted in the tropics and subtropics for ornamental, 
shade, timber purposes, and for the edible nuts. It is cultivated mainly for the edible kernels, 
used as substitute for almonds (e.g., in Chinese “ chicken and almonds” in Trinidad). Kernels 
contain 50 to 55% colorless oil of excellent flavor, like almond oil in flavor, odor, and 
specific gravity, highly esteemed in the Orient. Seeds may be eaten raw. Leaves are the 
food of Tasar Silkworms, and are used as wrapping paper for small shop articles. Roots, 
bark, and fruits are used in tanning. Fruits are a source of a black dye used in some parts 
of eastern India to color teeth black. Wood chips in water give a yellow dye. Trees contain 
a gum, which is the source of a black dye, a source of ink, and a cosmetic. Oil is used as 
a substitute for groundnut- (Arachis), cottonseed- (Gossypium), and silk-cottonseed- (Bom- 
bax) oils. Flowers yield a nectar.
Folk medicine — Reported to be anodyne, astringent, cardiotonic, collyrium, diuretic, 
emetic, lactagogue, pectoral, purgative, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, and vermifuge, 
Indian almond is a folk remedy for arthritis, bugbites, colic, condylomata, cough, diarrhea, 
dysentery, ear ailments, eruptions, fever, gastritis, glossitis, headache, hemoptysis, insom
nia, leprosy, lumbago, neuroses, pyorrhea, rheumatism, scabies, skin ailments, sore throat.
282 Handbook of Nuts
stomach-ache, stomatitis, swellings, thrush, ulcers, wounds, and yaws.^*’^"^^ Ayurvedics 
consider the fruits antibilious, antibronchitic, aphrodisiac, and astringent. In southern India, 
the juice of the young leaves is put in an ointment for leprosy, scabies, and other skin 
diseases; also used for colic and headache. Indochinese use the leaves with Dacrydium chips 
and nutgrass rhizomes for dysentery; the fruit, with beeswax, for foul ulcers and hemato- 
chezia. Indonesians apply the leaves to swollen rheumatic joints, using the kernel for a 
laxative and lactagogue. Philippines use the leaf juice, cooked with the kernel oil, for leprosy; 
and rubbed onto the breast for pain and numbness; or applied to rheumatic joints. Red leaves 
are believed vermifuge. In the Solomon Islands, leaves, bark, and fruit are used for yaws.^"^^ 
Nigerians apply the leaves, macerated in palm oil, for tonsilitis. Cubans take the leaf or 
fruit decoction for hemoptysis, adding crushed leaves to the bath for skin rash. Haitians take 
the bark decoction for bilious fevers. Costa Ricans used the bark decoction for crushed 
nipples and uterorrhagia. Brazilians take the bark decoction for asthma, diarrhea, dysentery, 
and fever. Colombians take the seed emulsion as pectoral.The root bark is given for 
diarrhea and dysentery in French Guiana, the stem bark for bilious fevers. Mexicans make 
a powder from the stems for condylomata.*^^
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the seeds are reported to contain 574 to 607 calories, 2.7 to
6.0 g H2O, 19.1 to 25.4 g protein, 52 to 56 g fat, 14.9 to 17.2 g total carbohydrate, 1.8 
to 14.6 g fiber, 2.4 to 4.0 g ash, 32 to 497 mg Ca, 789 to 957 mg P, 2.4 to 9.2 mg Fe, 
70 mg Na, 784 mg K, 0.32 to 0.71 mg thiamine, 0.08 to 0.28 mg riboflavin, 0.6 to 0.7 
mg niacin, and 0 mg ascorbic acid. According to Leung, Butrum, and C h a n g , 94% of 
the as-purchased nut is refuse, the husk only containing 35 calories, 0.4% moisture, 1.2 g 
protein, 3.2 g fat, 1.0 g total carbohydrate, 0.1 g fiber, 0.2 g ash, 2 mg Ca, 47 mg P, 0.6 
mg Fe, 4 mg Na, 47 mg K, 0.02 mg thiamine, traces of riboflavin, and niacin, and no 
ascorbic acid. Amino acid values are given as 14.7 arginine, — cystine, 1.7 histidine, 3.4 
isoleucine, 7.4 leucine, 2.3 lysine, 7.2 aspartic acid, 24.3 glutamic acid, 4.0 alanine, 6.3 
glycine, 4.2 proline, 4.1 serine, 0.9 methionine, 4.2 phenylalanine, 2.9 threonine, — 
tryptophane, 3.2 tyrosine, and 4.8 valine.Unfortunately, the refuse figures do not add 
up to 100. Air-dried kernels contain 3.51% moisture, 52.02% fat, 25.4% protein, 14.6% 
fiber, 5.98% sugars (as glucose). The seed oil contains 1.62% myristic-, 55.49% palmitic, 
6.34% stearic-, 23.26% oleic-, and 7.55% linoleic-acids. The oil-cake (7.88% N) contains 
8% albumin, 15% globulin, negligible prolamine, and 7.5% gluten. The shell contains 
ca. 25% pentosans, and hence, is a good source for making furfural. The leaves and fruits 
contain corilagin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, and brevifolin carboxylic acid, whereas the bark 
and wood contain ellagic acid, gallic acid, ( + )catechin, (-)epicatechin, and ( + )leuco- 
cyanidin.^^
Description — Handsome, spreading, pagodiform, deciduous tree, medium- to large
sized, 13 to 27 m tall, 1 to 1.5 m diameter, with horizontal whorls of branches about 1 to 
2 m apart; bark smooth, brownish-gray; leaves opposite, simple, leathery, green, turning 
red before falling, shining, shedding leaves twice a year (February and September), 12 to 
30 cm long, 7.5 to 15 cm wide, obovate, tip rounded or somewhat acute, base narrowed, 
slightly auriculate, petioles about 2.5 cm long; flowers small, greenish-white, arranged 
crowded in short spikes 15 to 20 cm long, arising in axils of leaves, malodorous; stamens 
10 to 12, in staminal flowers towards the apex; fruits yellow-green or reddish, hard, an 
angular drupe, size of a plum, slightly compressed on 2 sides, broadly oval in outline, 
elliptical and 2-winged in transverse section, 3.5 to 7 cm long, with thin fleshy pericarp, 
edible, but with a hard corky interior; seeds slender, pointed, oblong elliptical, 3 to 4 cm 
long, 3 to 5 mm thick. Germination phanerocotylar, the cotyledons convolute. Flowers June 
to August, fruits June to November, bearing two crops of fruit annually before dropping 
leaves.
Germplasm — Reported from the Indochina-Indonesia Center of Diversity, Indian al
283
mond, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate full sunlight, high pH, laterite, lime, low pH, 
mine-spoil, poor soil, salt spray, sand, shade, slope, waterlogging, and wind.^^*^^^’^^^
Distribution — Indigenous to Andaman Islands and islands of Malay Peninsula, now 
widely cultivated in the tropics of the Old and New Worlds. Extensively planted in tropical 
India and Sri Lanka, in West Africa from Senegal to Cameroons, Madagascar, Malaysia, 
and East Indies. Now pantropical.^^^
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Dry to Moist through Tropical Very Dry to Wet 
Forest Life Zones, Indian almond is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.8 to 42.9 
dm (mean of 92 cases = 17.7), annual temperature of 20.4 to 29.9 (mean of 66 cases = 
25.2), and pH of 4.5 to 8.78 (mean of 13 cases = 6.1).®^ Though it grows well in sand or 
shingle, it also thrives in marl and permeable siliceous limestone. It volunteers only in loose 
sand, muck, or marl.^^^ Tolerant of sand and salt, it has been used to stabilize beaches. 
Indian almond thrives in coastal forests in most tropical areas, from sea level to 1,000 m 
altitude, preferring coastal soils or light loamy soils. It has been recommended for tropical 
land soils. According to 
M orton,it grows equally well in medium shade or full sun, and 
is highly wind resistant.
Cultivation — Propagated exclusively from seeds, which remain viable for at least one 
year. In India, whole fruits, exhibiting 25% germination, are planted. Seeds germinate in 
2 to 4 weeks. The tree is extensively planted for the red foliage, as few other trees in the 
tropics develop colored foliage. The tree competes well with weeds.
Harvesting — Rotations of 10 to 15 years are average. Fruits are harvested as they ripen. 
They have a very hard shell, which is easier to crack after the nuts are dry, often cracked 
between stones. In India, there are two crops a year, spring (April to May) and fall (October 
to November). There is more-or less constant fruiting in the Caribbean. Perhaps the crop 
would be desirable to harvest if mechanical means of cracking and cleaning the nuts were 
devised. Kernels yield nearly 55% oil by extraction and 35% by expression.
Yields and economics — Trees may attain 6 m height in 3 years. A lO-year-old plantation 
is expected to yield 2.25 to 3.6 MT/ha/year.^^^ Grown as a shade tree for cardamon, Indian 
almond contributed annually 9,300 kg/ha leaf m ulch.In Jamaica, nuts run $0.02 to $0.10 
each, normally selling for $0.05 each in 1976.^^^
Energy — The wood (sp. gr. 0.59) is often employed as fuel. Erroneously equating 
Term inalia catappa a synonym of B ucida bu ceras, Cannell^^ suggests that the annual litterfall 
is only 1.7 MT/ha in the Guanica Forest of Puerto Rico, the current annual increment only 
2 MT for a forest with 2,160 trees >5 cm DBH, averaging 7.8 m, basal area of 10.7 m%a 
and standing aerial biomass of 39.1 MT/ha, 36.9 in wood, bark, and branches, 1.7 in fruits 
and foliage.
Biotic factors — Browne^^ lists the following fungi as affecting this species: C ercospora 
catappae, D ip lo d ia catappae, F om es durissim us, F. fa stu o sa s, M yxorm ia term inaliae, P hel- 
linus gilvas, P h yllosticta catappae, P olyrhizon term inaliae, S clerotiam rolfsii, and Spha- 
celom a term inaliae. Also listed are D endrophthoe fa lca ta (Angiospermae); A m blyrhinus 
p o rico llis. A po d era s tranquebaricus, A racceru s fa scic a la tu s, O ncideres cingulata (Coleóp
tera); C occu s hesperidum , S aissetia coffeae, S. nigra (Hemiptera); A crocercops erioplaca, 
A . ordin atella, A . supplex, A . term inaliae, A n th eraeapaph ia, D asych ira m endosa, E u proctis 
scintillans, L ym antria am pia, M etanastria hyrtaca, P a ra sa lepida, S clepa celtis, T rabala 
vishnoa, Trypanophora semihyalina (Lepidoptera); and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, R. karna 
(Thysanoptera). In India, parakeets steal much of the crop. According to Reed^^® the flowers 
yield a nectar for honey, which is difficult to collect by bees. In addition, he lists the fungi 
C ercospora catappae, G nom ia sp., H arknessia term inaliae, P h om opsis term inaliae, P oly- 
p o ru s calcutensis, and S clerotiam rolfsii. It is also attacked by the nematode, R otylenchas 
reniformis.^^'^^^ For Puerto Rico, Stevenson^®® lists F usiococcum m icrosperm um , R hyti- 
dhysterium rafalam , and T ram etes corragata.
284 Handbook of Nuts
TRAP A NATANS L. and other species (TRAPACEAE) — Water-Chestnut, Jesuit Nut, Water 
Caltrops
Uses — Water-chestnuts are used as a nut, fresh or roasted, made into a flour, served as 
a cooked vegetable, or made into a confection, candied much as true chestnuts in Europe. 
According to Rosengarten,^®^ they have been consumed in central Europe since neolithic 
time. Fresh or boiled nuts are good in salads, having a floury texture and an agreeable nutty 
flavor. Nuts are often made into rosaries. Roast seed are sometimes used as a coffee substitute. 
Since water-chestnuts resemble water hyacinths, it has been suggested that they might be 
used to supplant the water hyacinth, an economic approach to biological control.
Folk medicine — Reported to be alterative, astringent, refrigerant, and tonic, various 
species of Trapa are used in folk remedies for anasarca, bronchitis, cancer, cough, diarrhea, 
dropsy, fever, flux, rinderpest, and sunstroke.^’ In Japan, the fruits are used in folk remedies 
for esophageal, gastric, gastrointestinal, lung, stomach, and uterine cancers. Ayurvedics 
use fruits of T. bispinosa (figured) for biliousness, blood disorders, erysipelas, fractures, 
fatigue, inflammations, leprosy, strangury, and urinary disorders. Yunani, who consider the 
fruit aperitif, aphrodisiac, and febrifuge, use the fruit for bad teeth, biliousness, bronchitis, 
fever, lumbago pain, sore throat, and thirst. Cambodians use the infusion of the rind of the 
fruit for asthenia due to malaria or some other type of fever.
285
Chemistry — Per 100 g, the fruit of T. bispinosa is reported to contain 348 calories, 
12.2 g protein, 1.2 g fat, 82.7 g total carbohydrate, 2.4 g fiber, 3.9 g ash, 160 mg Ca, 339 
mg P, 3.6 mg Fe, 62.5 mg Na, 1345 mg K, 0.0 ¡ig beta-carotene equivalent, 0.39 mg 
thiamine, 0.18 mg riboflavin, 5.95 mg niacin, and 20.8 mg ascorbic acid. The seed of 7. 
bispinosa, per 100 g, is reported to contain 15.7 g protein, 1.0 g fat, 79.7 g total carbohydrate,
2.0 g fiber, 3.7 g ash, 66.7 mg Ca, 500 mg P, 2.7 mg Fe, 163 mg Na, 2166 mg K, 0.17 
mg thiamine, 0.23 mg riboflavin, 2.00 mg niacin, and 30.0 mg ascorbic acid. Per 100 g, 
the fruit of 7. natans is reported to contain 11.9 g protein and 1.0 g f a t . The W ealth o f 
India^^ reports that the kernels contain: moisture, 70.0; protein, 4.7; fat, 0.3; fiber, 0.6; 
other carbohydrates, 23.3; and mineral matter, 1.1%; calcium 20; phosphorus, 150; and 
iron, 0.8 mg/100 g. Other minerals reported are copper, 1.27; manganese, 5.7; magnesium, 
38; sodium, 49; and potassium, 650 mg/100 g. Iodine (50.6 |x/l(X) g) is also present. The 
vitamin contents are thiamine, 0.05; riboflavin, 0.07; nicotinic acid, 0.6; and vitamin C, 9 
mg/100 g; vitamin A, 20 IU/100 g. Kernels contain 15.8 mg/100 g oxalates (dry wt). Beta- 
amylase and much phosphorylase have been reported in the kernels. The nutritive value of 
flour, prepared from dried kernels, is as follows: moisture, 10.6; protein, 8.0; fat, 0.6; and 
minerals, 2.6%, calcium, 69; phosphorus, 343; iron, 2.8; and thiamine, 0.44 mg/100 g. 
The starch, isolated from the flour, consists of 15% amylose, 85% amylopectin.^® According 
to Hager’s Handbook, the nut (7. natans) contains 37% water, 8 to 10% crude protein, 
0.7% fat, 1.3% crude fiber, 49% N-free extract (52% starch, 3.2% dextrose). The fruit husk 
contains 10% tannin.
Description — Hardy aquatic annual or perennial herbs, rooted in the mud, with un
branched stems 0.5 to 2 m long. Plants usually floating with submerged sessile leaves, the 
lowest opposite, the others alternate, pinnatifid, often functioning as roots; floating leaves 
in a large rosette, often beautifully variegated, rhombic to nearly orbicular, glabrous above, 
pubescent at least along the veins beneath, about 7.5 cm in diameter, petioles to 17 cm 
long, pubescent, often with a fusiform swelling. Flowers solitary, tetramerous, in axils of 
floating leaves, borne centrally on short stalks above the surface of the water, small incon
spicuous, 1 to 2 cm across, white; sepals narrowly triangular, keeled accrescent and indurated 
in fruit, persistent and forming 2, 3, or 4 horns; petals white, about 8 mm long, caducous. 
Nut solitary, indéhiscent, 2 to 3.5 cm long, 2 to 5.5 cm wide; roots abundant, much- 
branched. Flowers June to July; fruits autumn.
Germplasm — Reported from the China-Japan Center of Diversity, water-chestnut, or 
CVS thereof, is reported to tolerate weeds and waterlogging.®^ Although many species and 
varieties have been described, I am inclined to accept the opinion of The W ealth o f India, 
“ the more prevalent view seems to be that T rapa is a monotypic genus represented by 7. 
natans Linn, a polymorphic species’’. Great variation is found in size of fruit and in number 
and development of the horns. Some variations seem to be due to edaphic factors, as 
abnormally high calcium or low potassium and nitrogen concentrations of the water in which 
they grow.^^® The related 7. bicornis, the Chinese Ling, is locally important as a food crop. 
7. bispinosa is widely cultivated in India and Kashmir, as the “ Singhara Nut’’. (2n = 36, 
40, 48).®^*^'^*^®^
Distribution — Native to central and eastern Europe and Asia, water-chestnuts have been 
used for food since Neolithic times. They were introduced in 19th century America. The 
plants spread and became established in the eastern U.S., often choking waterways or 
crowding out other plants.^^®
Ecology — Ranging from Cool Temperate Moist to Wet through Subtropical Moist Forest 
Life Zones, water-chestnut is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 4.3 to 13.2 dm 
(mean of 5 cases = 8.1), annual temperature of 8.3 to 21.0°C (mean of 5 cases = 11.4°C), 
and pH of 5.9 to 7.2 (mean of 3 cases = 6.7).®^ Hardy to Zone 5; average annual minimum 
temperature of -23.3 to -20.6°C ( - 10 to -5^).^"^^ T rapa natans is more hardy than the
286 Handbook of Nuts
Ling (r. bicornis). The former thrives in ponds and lakes, along slow streams and in stagnant 
waters, growing best in nutrient-rich but not strongly calcareous waters. It is mainly temperate 
in climatic requirements.
Cultivation — Water-chestnut is propagated by seed, which must be kept in water before 
they are sown. They lose their power to germinate quickly if out of water. Seeds are sown 
in mud. Plants grown in pools or tubs in eastern North America with 5 to 10 cm of loamy 
soil and filled with water. Plants may also be simply laid on the surface of the water, and 
they adapt themselves to the situation.
Harvesting — Harvesting the fruits (nuts or seeds) is by hand-picking, sometimes by 
boat, depending on the size of the field or pond.^^^ In India, fruits are ready for harvest 
about 3 weeks after flowering, i.e., from September to December (to February). At first 
nuts are harvested once every 2 weeks, then every week, and then nearly every day from 
November onward.
Yields and economics — Biomass yields of 10 MT/ha seem reasonable. Yields of singhara 
nut run 4.8 to 6.2 MT/ha. The W ealth o f India reports yields of 1,760 to 4,440 (to 13,200) 
kg nut per ha.^°
Energy — In Japan, the maximum biomass in a floating water-chestnut community was 
3 MT/ha at two seasonal peaks, dipping below 1 MT/ha between peaks. But the total dead 
material may add up to nearly 8 MT/ha, indicating annual biomass potential (life expectancy 
of the leaves averaged less than 1 month).
Biotic factors — The following fungi are known to attack water-chestnut: S eptoria tra- 
paen atan tis and T richoderm a flavum.^'^^ A leafspot, caused by B ipolar is tetram era, seriously 
affects India’s crop. Captan is reported to control the spread. The Singhara beetle, G alerucella 
birm anica is an important widespread pest, controlled in India with 5% BHC.^® Dusting 
tobacco or Pyrodust 40(X) at 44 kg/ha kills adults and grubs. Chironomid larvae, feeding on 
petioles and pedicels, may induce malformation of the fruits. H altica cyanea, the blue beetle, 
feeds and breeds on the leaves. B agous trapae damages soft submerged stems. The aphid 
R hopalosiphum nym pheae occurs on upper leaves, sometimes in large numbers, and often 
in company with the coccinellid beetles P ullus nobilus and P. piescen s. Larvae of N ym phula 
gan geticalis excavate shelters in the swollen petioles. B agous vicinus and N anophyes rufipes 
also bore into the petiole.^®’
287
TRECULIA AFRICANA  Decne. (MORACEAE) — African Breadfruit, African Boxwood, 
Okwa, Muzinda, Ukwa
Uses — Seeds are removed from the pulp of African breadfruit by macerating with water, 
and then eaten cooked, or ground into a meal or flour, or used in soups. Conversely, the 
seeds can be roasted until the testa becomes brittle for easy removal, the cotyledons then 
consumed. According to Makinde et al.,*^® the seeds are widely consumed only among the 
Igbo of Nigeria. “ Almond Milk” is a beverage made from this meal. Seeds may be roasted 
or boiled, peeled and eaten as a dessert nut, or fried in oil. Seeds, with a groundnut flavor, 
also yield an edible oil. Seeds or oil are put in soaps. Seeds are also used to flavor alcoholic 
beverages. Heartwood is golden-yellow or yellow-brown (though the very narrow sapwood 
is yellow-white), very dense and heavy, faintly elastic and flexible, of fine even structure; 
usable for furniture, wood carving, inlay work and turnery; timber usually marketed as 
African Boxwood.
Folk medicine — Reported to be laxative, tonic, and vermifuge, African breadfruit is a 
folk remedy for cough, fever, leprosy, neck ailments, tooth extraction, roundworms, and 
swelling.Nigerians use the bark decoction for constipation and coughs. Medicinally, a 
root decoction is used as febrifuge and vermifuge, or drunk as a tonic after illness. It is 
used for roundworms in children. Bark is used for coughs and as a laxative, and for leprosy
Chemistry — Per 1(X) g, the seed (ZMB) is reported to contain 415 calories, 13.9 g 
protein, 6.2 g fat, 77.5 g total carbohydrate, 1.8 g fiber, 2.4 g ash, 140 mg Ca, and 349 
mg Seeds contain ca.4 to 7% total lipids, Makinde et al.^^® reporting 5% oil, 13% crude 
protein. Of the protein extracted, glutelins constituted 53.3%, 23.8% albumins, and 33.8% 
globulins. Makinde et al.^^® give the amino acid composition shown in Table 1. Table 2*^® 
compares defatted ukwa protein with other foods. Remember that defatted seeds are not 
directly comparable to the usual seed analysis (defatted ukwa seeds contain 19%, cf. 13%
288 Handbook of Nuts
Table 1
AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF T. 
AFRICAN A (UKWA) PROTEIN*’»
m&16 g mg46 g 
Amino acids of N Amino acids of N
Aspartic acid 105 Isoleucine 56
Threonine 52 Leucine 74
Serine 67 Tyrosine 56
Glutamic acid 137 Phenylalanine 76
Proline 47 Lysine 62
Glycine 72 Histidine 38
Alanine 40 Ammonia 18
Half-cystine 8 Arginine 79
Valine 61 Tryptophan 2
Methionine 9
Table 2
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACID CONTENT OF DEFATTED UKWA SEED PROTEIN 
COMPARED TO SOME OTHER SEED PROTEINS, MAIZE, AND EGG*’»
mg of amino acid per 16 g of nitrogen
Defatted
Ukwa FACVWHO NAS^RC Harosoy Whole Kidney
Amino acids seed (1973) (1980) soybean Cowpeas maize beans
Egg
Histidine 38 17 26 29 23 24 26
Isoleucine 56 40 42 42 40 40 63 42
Leucine 74 70 70 80 76 196 88 81
Lysine 62 55 51 65 68 25 67 67
Total SAA 17 35 26 10 10 19 60 9
Total arom. A A 132 60 73 49 53 44 99 53
Threonine 52 40 35 37 37 47 51
42
Valine 61 50 48 46 48 54 68
51
Tryptophan 2 10 11 18 14 6 34
15
CP for whole seed). The seed fat contains 24.1% palmitic-, 11.7% stearic-, 46% oleic-, 
and 18% linoleic-acids. Edet et al.^’^ report the seeds to contain 7.8% moisture in terms of 
wet weight; and in terms of dry weight, 13.4% protein, 18.9% fat, 1.4% fiber, 2.1% ash, 
58.1% carbohydrate, 3.0% oxalate, and per 100 g, 7 mg Na, 184 mg Mg, 18 mg Ca, 585 
mg K, 382 mg P, 3.9 mg Cu, 1.6 mg Fe, 0.20 mg Cr, 7.5 mg Zn, 6.0 mg beta-carotene, 
0.5 mg thiamin, 0.3 mg riboflavin, 45 mg ascorbic acid.
Toxicity — Sap of the male tree is caustic and toxic, and if applied on cotton to a carious 
tooth, will cause it to fall out. No evidence supports the idea that leaves falling into water- 
holes are poisonous to horses.
Description — Unbuttressed medium-to-large tree, up to 27 m tall and 3 m in girth, bole 
cylindrical or squarish, fluted at base up to 7 m, bark pale-gray, smooth, latex white; 
branchlets purple-gray, pithy. Leaves alternate, simple, glabrous, glossy above, elliptic to 
ovate-elliptic, 20 to 25 cm long, 7.5 to 12 cm wide, sometimes larger, apex shortly pointed, 
base unequally rounded, petiole very short. Flowers dioecious, male and female flowers in 
separate inflorescences; male flower-heads globular, 5 cm in diameter, brownish-yellow, 
very shortly pedunculate, stamens 3. Fruits spherical, up to 45 cm in diameter, and 16 kg 
in weight, subsessile on the trunk and main limbs, covered with coarse, spine-like tubercles, 
becoming yellow-brown and soft when ripe. Seeds very numerous, over 1,500 per fruit.
289
smooth, ellipsoid, buried in spongy pulp, ca.1.25 cm long. Flowers January to February 
fruits February to March (Africa).
Germplasm — Reported from the African Center of Diversity, African breadfruit, or cvs 
thereof, is reported to tolerate drought, low pH, and waterlogging.^^
Distribution — Native of West Africa (Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Ca- 
meroons. Sierra Leone, Ghana), from Senegal to Angola, Uganda and Nile Land.^^®
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical Moist through Tropical Dry to Moist Forest Life 
Zones, African breadfruit is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 13.6 to 24.1 dm 
(mean of 3 cases = 18.3), annual temperature of 23.5 to 26.6°C (mean of 3 cases = 
25.4°C), and pH of 5.0 to 5.3 (mean of 2 cases = 5.2).®^ Evergreen and deciduous forests. 
Tree of tropical forests in comparatively dry zones and in villages where planted. Soil under 
the tree is moist throughout the dry season from condensation. It is usually found near 
streams or in swampy forests.
Cultivation — Frequently planted in villages and about homesteads.
Harvesting — No data available.
Yields and economics — Uses for the fruit and lumber are mainly local but widespread 
in Tropical Africa.
Energy — The wood is used for firewood.
Biotic factors — Fruits are eaten by antelopes and large forest snails.
290 Handbook of Nuts
VIROLA SEBIFERA Aubl. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Virola Nut, Red Ucuuba
Uses — The seeds are the source of Virola fat, a nutmeg-scented fat which soon becomes 
rancid. It is used for making aromatic candles and soaps. Seeds are pierced onto sharp sticks 
as candle-nuts. The light, soft, pale-brown wood is easy to work but sap stains badly. It is 
considered suitable for boxes, crates, concrete forms, plywood, and cheap interior construc
tion. Duke^® notes that some of the economic uses (including narcotic uses) ascribed to this 
species may be due to confusion with other species in the taxonomically perplexing genus. 
The jungle names ucachuba, ucahuba, ucauba, uchuhuba, ucuiba, and ucuuba are some of 
many possible orthographic variants.
Fold medicine — The liniments made from V. sebifera are used in folk remedies for 
tumors. Reported to be a fumitory, the virola is a folk remedy for fever.^* Brazilians use 
the fat as a poultice and for rheumatism. The kino-like resin is used for aphtha, angina, 
caries, and erysipelas. Homeopathically, it is used for abscesses, furuncles, lymphadenitis, 
and pyodermy. As a tea, the leaves are used for colic and dyspepsia.
Chemistry — Fatty acids of the nuts contain 5 to 13.3% lauric acid, 66.6 to 73% myristic 
acid, 8.9 to 11% palmitic acid, 6.6 to 11% oleic acid, and up to 3.0% linoleic acid.^^^ 
Hager’s Handbook*®^ lists N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-sitosterol for the husk. Lopes, 
Yoshida, and Gottlieb‘S report lignans from this species, (2R, 3S)-3-(3,4-dimethyoxyben- 
zyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone was isolated from the seeds and (2R, 3R)- 
3-(3,4-dimethyoxybenzyl)-2-(3, 4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, (2R, 3R)-2,3-di- 
(3,4-dimethoxybenzyl)-butyrolactone, and (2R, 3R)-2,3-di-(3,4-methylenedioxybenzyl)-bu- 
tyrolactone were isolated from the pericarp.
Description — Dioecious, often buttressed trees to 40 m, the younger branchlets per
sistently tomentose or glabrescent. Leaf blades glabrous above, with persistent, ochraceous 
stalked-stellate hairs below, coriaceous, oblong to elliptic-ovate or obovate, acute to acu
minate, cordate, truncate or acute, 10 to 47 cm long, 4 to 15 cm broad; secondary veins 10 
to 28 per side, averaging less than 1/cm along the midrib, the tertiary veins rather prominent
291
below; petioles canaliculate, 8 to 25 mm long, 2 to 5 mm broad. Staminate flowers in much- 
branched panicles; pedicels 0 to 3 mm long; bracts inconspicuous or absent; perianth tardily 
3- (to 5-) lobed, 1.3 to 3.0 mm long; anthers 3 (to 5), 0.7 to 1.5 mm long, usually connate 
to the apex, the infra-antheral portion of the androecium 0.2 to 1.0 mm long. Pistillate 
flowers solitary or clustered in racemes 3 to 7 cm long, 2 to 7 cm broad; pedicels 1 to 4 
mm long; tepals partially connate, with subpinnate ochraceous pubescence; ovary 1-carpel- 
late, with a sessile, obscurely 2-lobed stigma. Fruits 10 to 30 per inflorescence, the velutinous 
ligneous pericarp ultimately dehiscing longitudinally into 2 valves, subglobose, the aril 
laciniate.^® Germination cryptocotylar but epigeal, the eophylls supracotyledonary.^^
Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity, 
virola nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging, but not to the extent that 
Virola surinamensis tolerates flooding.
Distribution — Nicaragua to Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru.^^
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Wet to Rain through Tropical Moist 
to Rain Forest Life Zones, virola nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 
45 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.
Cultivation — Rarely, if ever, cultivated. The cryptocotylar seedlings may be moved 
from beneath the parent tree.
Harvesting — In Panama, Croat^^ speculates that species flowers twice a year, though 
mature fruits are seen nearly all year. The length of fruit maturation period is unknown. 
Gordon**^ describes an unusual collecting method in Brazil. The small subspheroid seeds 
fall to the forest floor in alluvial forest. When the floods come, the seeds float and go 
downstream, with the flood, to be scooped up with hand-nets by women and children.
Yields and economics — In 1942, Gordon,referring to both V. sebifera and V. 
surinamensis, notes that 4,0(X) to 5,0(X) tons are harvested per year in Brazil. According to 
Markley,^^ in Brazil, “ Production of oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 MT/year, and, 
like other soap oils derived from wild plants, production remains static or is declining, 
maximum production having occurred in 1941.“
Energy — Virola candle-nuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical de
veloping countries. The trees offer both fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha, 
and candle-nuts for energy purposes.
Biotic factors — The wood is subject to pinhole borer injury, if cut logs are allowed to 
lie after cutting in the forest.^ Merulius lacrymans is reported on V. merendonis.^^^
292
Handbook of Nuts
VIROLA SURINAMENSIS (Rol.) Warb. (MYRISTICACEAE) — Ucahuba Nut, White Ucu- 
uba
Uses — Seeds are the source of Ucahuba or Ucuiba Butter, a solid resembling Cacao 
butter. The seeds are threaded onto wooden spikes and used as candle-nuts by various 
Amerindian groups. The wood, moderately hard, is easily worked.
Folk medicine — Ucahuba is a folk remedy for rheumatism.
Chemistry — The fatty acids of the nut are 0.7% decanoic, 13.0% lauric, 69.7% myristic, 
3.0% palmitic, 7.7% oleic, and 5.1% linoleic. Of the saturated fatty acids, 17.6% are C12 
or below, 72.9% are C14, and 4.4% are Cj^, for a total of 94.9%. Of the glycerides, 85% 
are trisaturated, 15% are disaturated, and none are monosaturated. Another breakdown shows 
0.7% capric-, 16.9% lauric-, 72.9% myristic, 4.4% palmitic, and 5.1% linoleic-acids.*^*
Description — Dioecious tree, to 30 m or more tall and ca. 60 cm dbh, often moderately 
buttressed; outer bark coarse, hard, shallowly fissured, reddish-brown; inner bark tan, reddish 
on its outer surface; branches often spiraled or clustered, extending nearly horizontally; parts 
when young bearing ferruginous, sessile, stellate, pubescence, glabrate in age; sap red, 
lacking distinctive odor. Petioles canaliculate, 5 to 10 mm long; leaf blades oblong, acu
minate, rounded to acute at base, 9 to 16 cm long, 1.5 to 4.5 cm wide, coriaceous; major 
lateral veins in 20 to 30 pairs. All parts of inflorescences densely short-pubescent, the 
trichomes mostly stellate; pedicels ca. 1.5 mm long; perianth ca. 2 mm long, 3- or 4-lobed 
usually to middle or beyond, the lobes thick, acute to rounded at apex, spreading at anthesis; 
staminate flowers in fascicles on panicles to 4 cm long; anthers mostly (2)3(6), connate to 
apex. Pistillate flowers in clusters of 3 to many, in racemes to 5 cm long; ovary 1-carpellate, 
± ovate; stigma sessile, 2-cleft. Capsules ovoid-ellipsoid, thick-walled, light-orange, 3 to 
3.5 cm long, bearing dense, short, stellate pubescence; valves 2, woody, ca. 5 mm thick, 
splitting widely at maturity. Seed 1, ellipsoid, ca. 2 cm long, the aril deeply laciniate, red 
at maturity (white until just before maturity), fleshy, tasty but becoming bitter after being 
chewed.^^
Germplasm — Reported from the South and Central American Centers of Diversity, 
ucahuba nut, or cvs thereof, is reported to tolerate waterlogging. Natives of the Hyalea 
distinguish V. surinamensis as “ ucuuba branca” from V. sebifera as “ ucuuba vermelha” .^^^ 
But in the market, both are sold as ucuhuba fat.
Distribution — Costa Rica and Panama to the Guianas and Brazil and the lesser Antilles. 
Duke^* did not include V. surinamensis in the Flora of Panama. In the Brazilian Hyalea, 
the trees grow along river banks.
Ecology — Ranging from Subtropical (Premontane) Moist to Wet through Tropical Moist 
to Wet Forest Life Zones, ucahuba nut is estimated to tolerate annual precipitation of 20 to 
40 dm, annual temperature of 23 to 27°C, and pH of 6.0 to 8.0.®^
Cultivation — Not usually cultivated.
Harvesting — In Panama, flowers from June to March (peaking November to February), 
maturing fruits from February to August.^^ In the Hyalea of Brazil, the fruits, falling into 
the water (February to July), float and are gathered with nets made out of bark.^^^
Yields and economics — According to information in Mors and Rizzini,^^^ a single tree 
yields ca. 25 kg ucuuba fat per year. According to Markley,^°® in Brazil, “ Production of 
oil has varied between 650 and 1,600 m tons a year, and, like other soap oils derived from 
wild plants, production remains static or is declining, maximum production having occurred 
in 1941.“
Energy — Candlenuts are a poor man’s source of energy in many tropical developing 
countries. The trees offer fire-wood, leaf litter at the rate of ca. 5 MT/ha, and candle-nuts 
for energy purposes.
Biotic factors — No data available.
293
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399. Eggeling, W . J., The Indigenous Trees of the Uganda Protectorate, rev. by I. R. Dale, The Government 
Printer, Entebbe, 1951, 491.
400. Duke, J. A., Handbook of Northeastern Indian Medicinal Plants, Quarterman Publications, Lincoln, Mass., 
1986, 212.
401. Frey, D., The Hog Peanut, TIPSY, 86, 74, 1986.
402. Marshall, H.H., (Research Station, Morden Manitoba, Canada), correspondence with Noel Vietmeyer, 
1977.
403. Duke, J. A., The Case of the Annual “ Perennial” , Org. Card., submitted.
404. Polhill, R. M. and Raven, P. H., Eds., Advances in Legume Systematics, in 2 parts, Vol. 2 of the 
Proceedings of the International Legume Conference, Kew, July 24-29, 1978, 1981.
405. Gallaher, R. N. and Buhr, K. L., Plant Nutrient and Forage Quality Analysis of a Wild Legume Collected 
from the Highland Rim Area of Middle Tennessee, Crop Sci., 24(6), 1200, 1984.
406. Turner, B. L. and Fearing, O. S., A Taxonomic Study of the Genus Amphicarpaea (Leguminosae), 
Southwest. Nat., 9(4), 207, 1964.
407. Dore, W. G., (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), typescript and correspondence with Noel Vietmeyer, 1978.
408. Foote, B. A., Biology of Rivella pallida Diptera Platystomatidae — a Consumer of the Nitrogen-fixing 
Root Nodules of Amphicarpa bracteata Leguminosae, J. Kans. Entomol. Soc., 58(1), 27, 1985.
409. Schnee, B. K. and Waller, D. M., Reproductive Behavior of Amphicarpaea bracteata (Leguminosae), an 
Amphicarpic Annual, Am. J. Bot., 73(3), 376, 1986.
410. Serrano, R. G., Current Developments on the Propagation and Utilization of Philippine Rattan, NSTA 
Technol. J., 9, 76, 1984.
411. Lapis, A. B., Some Identifying Characters of 12 Rattan Species in the Philippines, Canopy Int., April, 3, 
1983.
412. Anon., Big Break for Rattan, Canopy Int., September, 2, 1979.
413. Borja, B., MNR-FORI Rattan Research, Canopy Int., 5(9), 1, 1979.
414. Conelly, W. T., Copal and Rattan Collecting in the Philippines, Econ. Bot., 3(1), 39, 1985.
415. Wong, K. M. and Manokaran, N ., Eds., Proceedings of the Rattan Seminar, Oct. 2-4, 1984, Kuala 
Lumpur, Malaysia, The Rattan Information Centre, Forest Research Institute, Kepong, Malaysia, 1985.
416. Garcia, P. R. and Pasig, S. D., Domesticating Rattan Right at Your Backyard, Canopy Int., April, 10, 
1983.
417. Monachino, J., Chinese Herbal Medicine — Recent Studies, Econ. Bot., 10, 42, 1956.
418. Dallimore, W. and Jackson, A. B., A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae, 4th ed., rev. by S. G. 
Harrison, Edward Arnold, Ltd., London, 1966, 728.
419. Balz, J. P., Conditions for Cultivation of Ginkgo biloba, personal communication, 1981.
420. Wilbur, R. L., The Leguminous Plants of North Carolina, The North Carolina Experiment Station, Agric. 
Exp. Station, 1963, 294.
421. D egener, O ., Flora Hawaiiensis or The New Illustrated Flora of the Hawaiian Islands, 1957-1963 (published 
by the author).
422. Weber, F. R., Reforestation in Arid Lands, VITA Manual Series Number 37E, 1977, 224.
423. Descourtilz, M. E ., Flore Pittoresque et Medicate des Antilles, 8th ed., Paris, 1829.
424. Sargent, C. S., The Silva of North America, Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1895.
425. Bedell, H. G., Laboratory Manual — Botany 212 — Vascular Plant Taxonomy, 1st ed.. Ulus, by Peggy 
Duke, Department of Botany, University of Maryland, College Park, 1984, 159.
426. Little, E. L., Jr. and Wadsworth, F. H., Common Trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Agriculture 
Handbook No. 249, Forest Service, U .S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1964, 548.
427. Louis, J. and Leonard, J., Olacaceae, in Flore du Congo Beige et du Ruanda-Urundi, Robyns, W ., Ed., 
Inst. Nat. I’Etude Agron. Congo (INEAC), Brussels, 1948, 249.
Handbook of Nuts 305
428. Reed, C. R., Selected Weeds of the United States, Agriculture Handbook No. 366, Forest Service, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1970, 463.
429. Agan, J. E., Guaraña, Bull. Pan Am. Union, September 268, 1920.
430. Little, E. L., Jr., Important Forest Trees of the United States, Agriculture Handbook No. 519, Forest 
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D .C ., 1978.
431. Bakker, K. and van Steenis, C. G. G. J., Pittosporaceae, in Flora Malesiana, Vol. 5, Rijksherbarium, 
Leiden, 1955-1958, 345.
432. Duke, J. A., Survival Manual II: South Viet Nam, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, 1963, 44.
433. Maiden, J. H., The Forest Flora of New South Wales, 2 vols., William Applegate Gullick, Government 
Printer, Sydney, 1904.
434. Li, H. L. and Huang, T. C ., Eds., Flora of Taiwan, 6 vols.. Epoch Publishing, Taipei, 1979.
435. Fernandes, R. and Fernandes, A., Anacardiaceae, in Flora Zambesiaca, Vol. 2(2), Exell, A. W ., 
Fernandes, A ., and Wild, H., Eds., University Press, Glasgow, 1966, 550.
436. Cribb, A. B. and Cribb, J. W., Useful Wild Plants in Australia, William Collins, Ltd., Sydney, 1981, 
269.
437. Petrie, R. W., personal communication, August 6 , 1987.
438. Saul, R., Ghidoni, J. J., Molyneux, R. J., and Elbein, A. D., Castanospermine inhibits alpha-glucosidase 
activities and alters glycogen distribution in animals, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A., 82, 93, 1985.
439. Snader, K. M., National Cancer Institute, personal communication, July 22, 1987.
440. Threatened Plants Newsletter, No. 17, November 1986.
441. Walker, B. D., Kowalski, M., Gob, W. C., Kozarsky, K., Krieger, M., Rosen, C., Rohrschneider, 
L. R., Haseltine, W. A., and Sodrowski, J., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. U.S.A., 84, 8121, 1987.
442. Walker, B. D., Kozarsky, K., Gob, W. C., Rohrschneider, L. R., and Haseltine, W. A., Inti. Conf. 
on AIDS, Washington, D .C ., June 15, 1987.
443. Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J. M., Flora of West Tropical Africa, Vol. 1, part 2, 2nd ed., revised by 
Keay, R. M. J., 1958, 392.

307
FIGURE CREDITS
With a master’s degree in botany from the University of North Carolina (1956), comple
mented by 30 years of experience as an illustrator, Peggy K. Duke is excellently qualified 
to prepare the figures for this handbook. Peggy and I were pleased and amazed at how 
generous authors and administrators have been with us, at granting permission to use their 
published illustrations. Thanks to these fine people, as well as several U.S. Department of 
Agriculture (USDA) public domain publications, and the curators of the collections at the 
U.S. National Seed Collection, the National Agricultural Library, and the Smithsonian 
Institution Botany Department, we have been able to piece together illustrations for the 
majority of genera treated in this book. Our special thanks go to:
P. Kumar P. H. Raven 
M. J. Balick 
H. L. Li C. F. Reed 
H. G. Bedell 
E. L. Little 
E. A. Bell J. L. Reveal 
M. L. Brown P. M. Mazzeo A. Robyns
R. G. Brown S. A. Mori C. G. G. J. Van Steenis 
O. Degener W. Mors R. L. Wilbur 
E. Forrero G. W. Patterson J. J. Wurdack
H. Garcia-Barriga G. T. Prance
C. R. Gunn T. Plowman
Photographs from the USDA and New York Botanical Gardens collections were consulted 
in concert with published photographs and illustrations, especially Menninger’s and Rosen- 
garten’s, in the publications cited at the end of this book. Mrs. Duke confirmed and/or 
altered details based on seed specimens of the U.S. National Seed Collection, courtesy C. 
R. Gunn; and herbarium specimens at the University of Maryland, courtesy J. L. Reveal; 
the Botany Department of the Smithsonian Institution, courtesy J. J. Wurdack; and the U.S. 
National Arboretum, courtesy P. M. Mazzeo.
F IG U R E C R E D IT L IS T
Credit (with permission)
Scientífíc name
Acrocomia sclerocarpa Peggy Duke 
Adhatoda vasica After Little***
After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
Aleurites moluccana 
Amphicarpaea bracteata After Wilbur^^«
After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
Anacardium occidentale 
Apios americana Peggy Duke 
Areca catechu Peggy Duke 
Arenga pianata Peggy Duke 
After Degener*^*
Artocarpus altilis 
Peggy Duke 
Balanites aegyptiaca 
Peggy Duke 
Barringtonia procera 
Peggy Duke
Bertholletia excelsa 
After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
Borassus flabellifer
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
Brosimum alicastrum After Descourtilz'*^^
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza After Little***
Buchanania lanzan After Kirtikar and Basu*®^
After Hemsley^’* (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Bo
Butyrospermum paradoxum
tanic Garden, Kew)
Peggy Duke, after Lapis'***
Calamus ornatus
308 Handbook of Nuts
FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued)
Scientific name Credit (with permission)
Canarium indicum After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^
Carya illinoensis Peggy Duke, after Sargenf*^"^
Caryocar villosum After Prance and da Silva^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Garden)
Caryodendron orinocense After PIRB^^^ and Garcia-Barriga‘°^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bo
gota)
Castanea mollissima Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
Castanospermum australe Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press 
Ceiba pentandra Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
Cocos nucifera After Little and Wadsworth'^^^ and Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford 
University Press 
Cola acuminata Peggy Duke 
Cordeauxia eduli s Peggy Duke
Corylus americana Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
Coula edulis After Louis and Leonard'*^^ (redrawn from “ Flore du Congo Belgique et 
du Ruanda-Urundi” , Bruxelles, LN.E.A.C.
Cycas rumphii After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & C o., Amsterdam)
After Reed"^^*
Cyperus esculentus 
Detarium senegalensis After Weber^^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
Elaeis guineensis Peggy Duke, after Masefield et al.,^^ courtesy Oxford University Press 
Eleocharis dulcis Peggy Duke
Fagus grandifolia Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
Ginkgo biloba Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
Gnetum gnemon After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
Helianthus annuus Peggy Duke
Hyphaene thebaica After Webef*^^ (courtesy F. R. Weber and Volunteers in Technical As
sistance (VITA), Rosslyn, Virginia)
Inocarpus edulis Peggy Duke
Jatropha curcas After Ochse^^® (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
Jessenia bataua After PIRB^^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota)
Juglans nigra Peggy Duke in BedelP^^
Lecythis ollaria After Prance and Mori^^^ (courtesy New York Botanical Gardens 
Licania rigida Peggy Duke
Macadamia spp. Peggy Duke, after Degener^^*
Madhuca longifolia Peggy Duke
After Little and Wadsworth'^^^
Moringa oleifera 
Nelumbo nucifera Peggy Duke, after Reed'^^®
Nypa fruticans Peggy Duke 
Orbignya martiana Peggy Duke
Pachira aquatica 
After Garcia-Barriga*^^ (courtesy Universidad Nacional, Bogota)
Paullinia cupana 
Peggy Duke 
Phytelephas macrocarpa 
Peggy Duke 
Pinus edulis 
After Little''^®
Pistacia vera Peggy Duke
Pittosporum resiniferum 
After Bakker and van Steenis"^^* (courtesy Flora Malesiana)
Platonia esculenta Peggy Duke
Prunus dulcis After Kirtikar and Basu‘^^
Quercus súber Peggy Duke
Ricinodendron heudelotii After Eggerling,^^ and Flora of West Tropical Africa!^^ (reproduced with 
permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew) (seed of R. 
rautaneninii)
Santalum acuminatum Peggy Duke
Sapium se bife rum After Li and Huang'^^'^ (Flora of Taiwan, with permission)
Schleichera oleosa After Ochse^^* (courtesy A. Asher & Co., Amsterdam)
Sclerocarya caffra After Fernandes and Femandes'^^^ (reproduced with permission of the Di
rector, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew)
309
FIGURE CREDIT LIST (continued)
Credit (with permission)
Scientific name
Simmondsia chinensis Peggy Duke
After Jeffrey^^'^ (reproduced with permission of the Director, Royal Botanic 
Telfairia pedata
Garden, Kew)
Peggy Duke
Terminalia calappa 
After Kirtikar and Basu*^^
Trapa bispinosa 
Peggy Duke
Treculia africana 
Peggy Duke (after Duke^*)
Virola sebifera

311
INDEX
Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Moringa oleifera, 216 
Acacetin, 164
Acanthaceae, 5— 7, see also specific species Paullinia cupana, 232 
Acetic acid, 97, 158, 222 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Achotillo, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Acids, see spiecific types Alko, 276 
Acid V, 253 Allantoic acid, 23 
Acid XVIII, 253 Allantoin, 23, 60
Allegany chinkapin, see Castanea pumila 
Acid XX, 253
Acrocomia aculeata, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Almendro, see Terminalia calappa 
Almond, see Prunus dulcis 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1— 2
Acrocomia totai, 3— 4 Bengal, see Terminalia calappa 
Adenine, 232 cuddapah, see Buchanania lanzan 
Adhatoda vasica, 5— 7 Indian, see Terminalia calappa 
Adhatodine, 6 java-, see Canarium indicum 
Adji, see Cycas rumphii tropical, see Terminalia calappa 
Adotodai, see Adhatoda vasica Almondette, see Buchanania lanzan 
African boxwood, see Treculia africana Almond wood, see Coula edulis 
African breadfruit, see Treculia africana Aluminum, 44 
Amandin, 250
African oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis
American beech, see Fagus grandifolia 
African walnut, see Coula edulis
Akor, see Cycas rumphii American chestnut, see Castanea dentata 
Alanine American filber, see Corylus americana 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 American hazelnut, see Corylus americana 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 American oil palm, see Elaeis oleifera 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Amino acids, see also specific types 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Apios americana, 23 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Terminalia calappa, 282 
Jessenia bataua, 181 
Albumens, 53, 175, see also specific types 
Albuminoids, 140, 154, see also specific types Moringa oleifera, 215 
Albumins, see also specific types Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Terminalia calappa, 282 Terminalia calappa, 282 
Treculia africana, 287 Aminobutyric acid, 16— 18, 160 
Alcohols, see also specific types Amylase, 285 
Amylopectin, 285 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Apios americana, 23 Amylose, 285 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Amyrin, 60, 178
Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardiaceae, 14— 15, 19— 21, 57— 58, 269— 271, 
Fagus grandifolia, 158 see also specific species 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Anacardic acid, 19— 21 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Andropogon dulce, see Eleocharis dulcis 
Paullinia cupana, 232 Anethole, 65
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Anhydrides, 97, see also specific types 
Aleurites f ordii, 8 — 11 Animals, see also specific types 
Aleurites moluccana, 12— 13 Acrocomia totai, 3 
Aleurites montana, 14— 15 Adhatoda vasica, 1 
Aleurites triloba, see Aleurites moluccana Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 
Alfonsia oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Carya illinoensis, 72 
Alkaloids, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 93 
Adhatoda vasica, 5 ,6 Corylus avellana, 121 
Areca catechu, 26 Elaeis guineensis, 151 
Cola acuminata, 108 Fagus sylvatica, 162 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 JTelianthus annuus, 171
312 Handbook of Nuts
Lecythis minor, 199 Artocarpetin, 37 
Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Artocarpin, 35, 37 
Nypa fruticans, 223 
Artocarpus altilis, 34— 36 
Pinus edulis, 237 Artocarpus communis, see Artocarpus altilis 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37— 39 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Artocarpus integra, see Artocarpus heterophyllus 
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Artostenone, 37 
Telfairia pedata, 280 Ascorbic acid 
Treculia africana, 289 Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Anisotinine, 6
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Anthocyanin, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27 
Anthocyanins, 211 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Apigenin, 164 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Apios americana, 22— 25 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Araban, 119
Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44 
Arabinose, 20, 160, 215, 250 Borassus flabellifer, 47 
Arachic acid, 267 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Arachidic acid Calamus rotang, 62 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Cañarium ovatum, 67 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Cocos nucifera, 102 
Castanea crenata, 80 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Castanea mollissima, 85 
Elaeis oleiferi, 152 
Cocos nucifera, 102 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Jatropha curcas, 178 Corylus avellana, 119 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Platonia esculenta, 247 Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 De tar ium senegalense, 145, 146 
Arachidonic acid, 41 Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Arachidylalcohol, 160 Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Arachinalcohol, 160 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Araginose, 211 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Arbol de Nuez, see Caryodendron orinocense Inocarpus edulis, 175 
Arceaceae, 1— 2, see also specific species Jug Ians regia, 194 
Areaceae, 224, see also specific species Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Areca, see Areca catechu Madhuca Ion gifo lia, 2 1 1 
Arecaaine, 26 Moringa oleifera, 215 
Areca catechu, 26— 29 Nelumbo nucifera, 219 
Arecaceae, 3—4, 26— 33, 4 7 ^ 9 , 62— 64, 100— Pachira aquatica, 229 
106, 147— 153, 173— 174, 180— 183, 222— 
Pistacia vera, 240 
223, 225— 228, 234— 235, see also specific 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
species Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Areca-nut, see Areca catechu Terminalia catappa, 282 
Arecolidine, 26 Trapa natans, 285 
Arecoline, 26 Treculia africana, 288 
Arenga pinnata, 30— 33 Ash
Arenga saccharifera, see Arenga pinnata Acrocomia totai, 3, 4 
Arginine Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Apios americana, 23 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Areca catechu, 21 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Arenga pinnata, 31 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Prunus dulcis, 250 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Terminalia catappa, 282 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 
Aristoclesia esculenta, see Platonia esculenta Calamus rotang, 62 
Antacarpanone, 37 Cañar ium indicum, 65
313
Cañarium ovatum, 67 Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Areca catechu, 29 
Castanea crenata, 80 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106 
Castanea dentata, 82 Corylus avellana, 122 
Castanea mollissima, 85 Corylus colurna, 125 
Corylus maxima, 130 
Castanea sativa, 90 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Fagus sylvatica, 162 
Helianthus annuus, 172 
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans ailanthifoda, 185 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Corylus americana, 116 Juglans regia, 19 
Corylus avellana, 119 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 
Coula edulis, 131 Bacuri, see Platonia esculenta 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Bacury, see Platonia esculenta 
Cy perU S rotundus, 142 Badam, see Terminada catappa 
Detarium senegalense, 145 Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 42 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Balanitestin, 41
Fagus grandifolia, 158 Balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca 
Barcelona nut, see Corylus avellana 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
G ne turn gnemon, 166 Barium, 44
Helianthus annuus, 169 Barringtonia procera, 43 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Basak, see Adhatoda vasica 
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Basseol, 60, see also Madhuca longifoda 
Jatropha curcas, 178 Bats
Juglans cinerea, 186 Cañar ium indicum, 6 6 
Juglans nigra, 191 Caryocar amygdadferum, 73 
Juglans regia, 194 Caryocar villosum, 11 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ceiba pentandra, 99 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Lecythis minor, 199 
Orbignya martiana, 226 Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Bayin, 93 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Bayogenin, 93
Pinus edulis, 236 Beaked filbert, see Corylus cornuta
Pistacia vera, 240 Beech, see Fagus grandifolia; Fagus sylvatica
Prunus dulcis, 250 Bees
Quercus súber, 253 Aleurites f ordii, 10 
Apios americana, 25 
Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Ceiba pentandra, 99 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Helianthus annuus, 171 
Terminada catappa, 282 Lecythis minor, 199 
Trapa natans, 285 Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Treculia africana, 287, 288 Pauldnia cupana, 233 
Asparagine, 23, 114, 160, 164 Sapium sebiferum, 265 
Aspartic acid Terminada catappa, 283 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Beetles, see Insects 
Sap ium sebiferum, 263 Behenic acid, 135, 169, 207, 215 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Belgium walnut, see Aleurites moluccana 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Bengal almond, see Terminada catappa 
Terminada catappa, 282 Benzaldehyde, 250, 267 
Benzolive tree, see Moringa oleifera 
Asteraceae, 168— 172, see also specific species 
Attalea cohune, see Orbignya cohune Bergapten, 41
Bertholletia excelsa, 44— 46 
Australian nut, see Macadamia integrifoda 
Azaleatin, 69 Betaine
Adhatoda vasica, 6 
Cola acuminata, 108 
B
Cola nitida, 110 
Babassu, see Orbignya martiana Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Bacteria Madhuca longifoda, 211 
Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11 Betel-nut palm, see Areca catechu
314 Handbook of Nuts
Betulaceae, 116— 130, see also specific species
Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144 
Betulin, 119, 160, 253
Detarium senegalense, 146 
Betulinic acid, 253
Elaeis guineensis, 151 
Betulinol, 119 Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Bilobol, 164 Eleocharis dulcis, 156 
Biotic factors, see also specific types Fagus grandifolia, 159 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fa g US Sylva tica, 161— 162 
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Aleurites fordii, 10— 11 
Helianthus annuus, 171— 172 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites montana, 15 
Inocarpus edulis, 176 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 
Jatropha curcas, 179 
Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Jessenia bataua, 182 
Apios americana, 25 
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 
Areca catechu, 29 
Juglans cinerea, 187— 188 
Arenga pianata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39 Juglans regia, 196— 197 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pi soni s, 203 
Borassus flahellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Mac adamia inte gr ifo lia, 209 
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 217 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Calamus rotang, 64 
Orbignya cohune, 224 
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 228 
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Fachiro aquatica, 230 
Carya illinoensis, 12 Paullinia cupana, 233 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 
Caryocar villosum, 11 P inus quadrifolia, 239 
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 243 
Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 246 
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252 
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 
Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 251 
Castanospermum australe, 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Cocos nucifera, 105— 106 Sapium sebiferum, 265 
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268 
Cola nitida, 111— 112 Sclerocarya coffra, 211 
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 215 
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211 
Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280 
Corylus avellana, 121— 122 Terminano catappa, 283 
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 286 
Corylus colurna, 125 Treculia africana, 289 
Corylus cornuta, 127 Virola sebifera, 291 
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292 
Biotin, 211 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Birds
Corylus maxima, 130 
Acrocomia totai, 3 
Coula edulis, 132 
Corylus avellana, 121 
Cycas circinalis, 134 
Elaeis guineensis, 151 
Cycas revoluta, 136 
Cycas rumphii, 138 Helianthus annuum, 172 
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Sapium sebiferum, 265
315
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 
Terminalia catappa, 283 Calamus rotang, 62 
Black bean tree, see Castanospermum australe Canarium ovatum, 67 
Black sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata Carya illinoensis, 69 
Black walnut, see Juglans hindsii; Juglans nigra Castanea crenata, 80 
Bombacaceae, 96— 99, 229— 230, see also specific Castanea mollissima, 85 
species Castanea sativa, 90 
Bomhax pentandrum, see Ceiba pentandra Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Borassus aethiopum, see Borassus /labellifer Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 
Borassus flabellifer, 47— 49 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Borassus flabelliformis, see Borassus flabellifer Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50— 52 Cory lus avellana, 119 
Boxwood, African, see Treculia africana Coula edulis, 131 
Brab tree, see Borassus flabellifer Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Brazilian cocoa, see Paullinia cupana
Brazil nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Detarium senegalense, 145 
Breadfruit, see Artocarpus altilis; Treculia africana Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Breadnut, see Bosimum alicastrum Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Brevifolin carboxylic acid, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Bromine, 44 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Brosimum galactodendron, see Brosimum utile Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Brosimum utile, 53— 54 Juglans nigra, 191 
Bruguiera conjugata, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Juglans regia, 194 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55— 56 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 
Buchanania latifolia, see Buchanania lanzan Moringa oleifera, 215 
Burma mangrove, see Bruguiera gymnorhiza Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Burseraceae, 65— 68, see also specific species Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Butternut, see Caryocar nuciferum; Juglans cinerea Prunus dulcis, 250 
Butterseed, see Butyrospermum paradoxum Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Butyric acid, 47, 267 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59— 61 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Butyrospermum parkii, see Butyrospermum Telfairia pedata, 21S 
paradoxum Terminalia catappa, 282 
Buxaceae, 272— 275, see also specific species Treculia africana, 287, 288 
Calcium pantothenase, 258 
California walnut, see Juglans hindsii 
Calories
Cacay, see Caryodendron orinocense Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Cadmium, 44 Areca catechu, 27 
Caesalpiniaceae, 114— 115, 145— 146, see also Arenga pinnata, 31 
specific species Artocarpus altilis, 34 
Caffeic acid, 97, 160, 194 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Caffeine, 108, 110, 113, 232 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Caffir marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 
Cagui, see Caryocar amygdaliferum 
Calamus rotang, 62— 64 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Calcium Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Calamus rotang, 62 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Canarium ovatum, 67 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Castanea crenata, 80 
Areca catechu, 27 Castanea mollissima, 85 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Castanea sativa, 90 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cocos nucífera, 101 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Corylus americana, 116 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Corylus avellana, 119 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Coula edulis, 131
316 Handbook of Nuts
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Canarium ovatum, 67 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Detarium senegalense, 145 Castanea crenata, 80 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Castanea dentata, 82 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
Castanea mollissima, 85 
Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Castanea sativa, 90 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Helianthus annuus, 169 
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Juglans cinerea, 186 Corylus americana, 116 
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119 
Juglans regia, 194 Coula edulis, 131 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Detarium senegalense, 145 
Pinus edulis, 236 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
Prunus dulcís, 250 
Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Gnetum gnemon, 166 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Trapa natans, 285 Inocarpus edulis, 175 
Treculia africana, 287 Jatropha curcas, 178 
Caltrops, see Trapa natans Juglans cinerea, 186 
Campesterol, 178 Juglans nigra, 191 
Camphorol, 35, 97 Juglans regia, 194 
Canarium amboinense, see Canarium indicum 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Canarium commune, see Canarium indicum Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Canarium grandistipulatum, see Canarium indicum 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Canarium indicum, 65— 66 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Canarium mehenbethene, see Canarium indicum 
Nypa fruticans, 222 
Canarium moluccanum, see Canarium indicum Orbignya martiana, 226 
Canarium nungi, see Canarium indicum Pachira aquatica, 229 
Canarium ovatum, 67— 68 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 
Canarium polyphyllum, see Canarium indicum Pinus edulis, 236 
Canarium shortlandicum, see Canarium indicum Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Canarium subtruncatum, see Canarium indicum Prunus dulcís, 250 
Candleberry, see Aleurites moluccana Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Candlenut oil tree, see Aleurites moluccana Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Canes, see Calamus rotang Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Caoutchouc, 37, 212 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Capomo, see Bosimum alicastrum Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Capric acid, 69, 102, 263, 292 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Caproic acid, 102 Trapa natans, 285 
Caprylic acid, 102, 164, 263 Trecuba africana, 287, 288 
Carbohydrates, see also specific types Cardol, 20 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Carotene
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Acr acomia scier ocarpa, 1 
Apios americana, 23 Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Areca catechu, 26, 27 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 
Canarium ovatum, 67 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Carya illinoensis, 69 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 
Castanea mollissima, 85 
Calamus rotang, 62 Cocos nucífera, 101, 102
317
Corylus avellana, 119 
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Corylus avellana, 119 Orbignya martiana, 225 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Quercus súber, 253 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Cerin, 253 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Cerium, 44
Juglans regia, 194 Ceroids, 253, see also specific types 
Macadamia inte gr if olia, 207 Cerotic acid, 35, 37 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Cerotonic acid, 160 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Ceryl alcohol, 164 
Cesium, 44
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Ceylon oak, see Schleichera oleosa 
Pachila aquatica, 229 
Pistacia vera, 240 Chalmagra, see Caryocar amygdaliferum 
Prunus dulcís, 250 Charcoal, 97
Treculia africana, 288 Chemicals, see specific types 
Carpathian walnut, see Juglans regia Cheronjee, see Buchanania lanzan 
Carumhium sehiferum, see Sapium sehiferum Chestnut
Carya illinoensis, 69— 71 American, see Castanea dentata 
Carya oliviformis, see Carya illinoensis Chinese hairy, see Castanea mollissima 
Carya pecan, see Carya illinoensis Chinese water, see Eleocharis dulcís 
European, see Castanea sativa 
Caryatin, 69
Italian, see Castanea sativa 
Caryocaraceae, 73— 77, see also specific species 
Cary ocar amygdaliferum, 73 Japanese, see Castanea crenata 
Caryocar brasiliense, see Caryocar villosum Malabar, see Pachira aquatica 
Caryocar coriaceum, see Caryocar villosum Moretón Bay, see Castanospermum australe 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Otaheite, see I nocarpus edulis 
Caryocar villosum, 75— 77 Polynesia, see Inocarpus edulis 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78— 79 Spanish, see Castanea sativa 
Caryopitys edulis, see Pinus edulis sweet, see Castanea dentata; Castanea sativa 
Cashew, see Anacardium occidentale Tahiti, see Inocarpus edulis 
water, see Eleocharis dulcís; Trapa natans 
Castañas, see Bertholletia excelsa 
Castanea americana, see Castanea dentata Chinese filbert, see Corylus chinensis 
Castanea bungeana, see Castanea mollissima Chinese hairy chestnut, see Castanea mollissima 
Castanea castanea, see Castanea sativa Chinese tallow tree, see Sapium sebiferum 
Castanea crenata, 80— 81 Chinese water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcís 
Castanea dentata, 82— 84 Chinkapin, Allegany, see Castanea pumila 
Castanea formosana, see Castanea mollissima Chinquapin, see Castanea pumila 
Chirauli nut, see Buchanania lanzan 
Castanea japónica, see Castanea crenata 
Castanea mollissima, 85— 87 Chironjii, see Buchanania lanzan 
Castanea pubinervis, see Castanea crenata Chlorine, 194 
Castanea pumila, 88— 89 Chloroform, 191 
Castanea sativa, 90— 92, see also Castanea Chlorogenic acid, 160 
mollissima Choline, 102, 160, 232 
Castanea stricta, see Castanea crenata Chromium, 250, 288 
Castanea vesca, see Castanea sativa Chufa, see Cyperus esculentus 
Castanea vulgaris, see Castanea sativa Cica, see Cycas circinalis 
Castanhado para, see Bertholletia excelsa Cineole, 142 
Castanospermum australe, 93— 95 Cistine, 263 
Catechin Citric acid, 160, 270
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Clusiaceae, 247— 248, see also specific species
Carya illinoensis, 69 Cnarotee, 164
Cola acuminata, 108 Cobalt, 44, 194
Cola nitida, 110 Cobnut, see Corylus avellana
Cocoa, Brazilian, see Paullinia cupana
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Coco de Catarro, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa
Paullinia cupana, 232 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Coco de mono, see Lecythis minor
Coconut, see Borassus flabellifer; Cocos nucífera
Catechutannic acid, 232 
Coco-palm, see Acrocomia total
Ceiba pentandra, 96— 99 
Cocos nucífera, 100— 106
Cellulose
Cohune palm, see Orbignya cohune
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Cola, see Cola acuminata; Cola verticillata
Cola acuminata, 108 
Cola nitida, 110 Cola acuminata, 107— 109
318 Handbook of Nuts
Cola johnsonii, see Cola verticillata Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Colalipase, 110 Borassus flabellifer, 48 
Cola nitida, 110— 112 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Colaoxydase, 110 Brosimum utile, 53 
Cola verticillata, 113 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 
Combretaceae, 281— 283, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Concavalin A, 37
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Constantinople nut, see Corylus colurna 
Calamus rotang, 63 
Copper
Canarium indicum, 6 6 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Canarium ovatum, 67 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 70— 71 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Pistacia vera, 241 Caryocar villosum, 11 
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Caryodendron orinocense, 78 
Trapa natans, 285 Castanea crenata, 80— 81 
Treculia africana, 288 
Castanea dentata, 83 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114— 115 
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 , 87 
Cordeauxione, 114 Castanea pumila, 89 
Corilagin, 282 Castanea sativa, 91— 92 
Cork oak, see Quercus súber Castanospermum australe, 94 
Corozo, see Elaeis oleifera Ceiba pentandra, 98 
Corozo oleifera, see Elaeis oleifera Cocos nucífera, 103— 104 
Corylin, 119 Cola acuminata, 109 
Corylus americana, 116— 118 
Cola nitida, 111 
Corylus avellana, 119— 122 Cola verticillata, 113 
Corylus chinensis, 123 
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
Corylus colurna, 124— 125, see also Corylus Corylus americana, 117 
chinensis Corylus avellana, 120— 121 
Corylus cornuta, 126— 127 Corylus chinensis, 123 
Corylus ferox, 128, see also Corylus ferox Corylus colurna, 124— 125 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 Corylus cornuta, 126— 127 
Corylus maxima, 130 Corylus ferox, 128 
Corylus rostrata, see Corylus cornuta Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Corylus tihetica, see Corylus ferox
Corylus maxima, 130 
Corylus tubulosa, see Corylus maxima
Coula edulis, 132 
Coula edulis, 131— 132 Cycas circinalis, 134 
/7-Coumaric acid, 160, 194 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Cow tree, see Brosimum utile Cycas rumphii, 138 
Creme nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Croton moluccanus, see Aleurites moluccana Cyperus rotundas, 143 
Croton sebiferus, see Sapium sebiferum Detarium senegalense, 146 
Crozier cycas, see Cycas circinalis Elaeis guineensis, 149— 150 
Cucurbitaceae, 276— 280, see also specific species Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Cuddapah almond, see Buchanania lanzan Eleocharis dulcis, 155 
Cultivation Fagus grandifolia, 159 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 
Acrocomia total, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 
Adhatoda vasica, 6 — 7 Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Aleurites f ordii, 9— 10 
Helianthus annuus, 170 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites montana, 14— 15 I nocarpus edulis, 176 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 
Anacardium occidentale, 20— 21 Jessenia bataua, 182 
Apios americana, 24 
Juglans ailantbifolia, 185 
Areca catechu, 28 Juglans cinerea, 187 
Arenga pinnata, 31— 32 
Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 
Juglans nigra, 192 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 
Juglans regia, 195— 196 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 
Lecythis minor, 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43
Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1
319
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Licania rigida, 205 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Macadamia integrifolia, 208— 209 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Madhuca longifolia, 212 
Moringa oleifera, 216 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Nypa fruticans, 223 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Orhignya cohune, 224 Cytotoxic acid, 219
Orhignya martiana, 221 
Pachira aquatica, 230 
D
Paullinia cupana, 233 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Date, desert, see Balanites aegyptiaca 
Decadienoic acid, 263 
Pinus edulis, 237 
Decanoic acid, 292 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Pistacia vera, 242 Deoxyribonucleic acid, 164 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Deoxyvasicine, 6
Platonia esculenta, 248 Desert date, see Balanites aegyptiaca 
Prunus dulcís, 251 Detaric acid, 145
Quercus súber, 254 Detarium heudelotianum, see Detarium senegalense 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 145— 146 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Dextrin, 51 
Dextrose, 285 
Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Sapium sebiferum, 264 Diapalmitostearin, 148 
Dihydroterpene, 244 
Schleichera oleosa, 267— 268 
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 3,4-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, 69 
Dimethyltryptamine, 290 
Simmondsia chinensis, 274 
Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Dioleopalmitin, 58 
Telfairia pedata, 279— 280 Diosgenin, 41 
Terminaba catappa, 283 Dipalmitolein, 58 
Trapa natans, 286 Dipalmitostearins, 2 11 
Treculia africana, 289 Diseases, see also specific types 
Virola sebifera, 291 Acrocomia total, 3 
Virola surinamensis, 292 Aleurites f ordii, 10— 11 
Curcasin, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 
Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Curcin, 178 
Cyanadin, 194 Apios americana, 25 
Cyanomachurin, 37 Areca catechu, 29 
Cyanomaclurin, 37 Arenga pinnata, 33 
Cyasin, 135 Borassus flabelbfer, 49 
Cycadaceae, 133— 138, see also specific species Brosimum utile, 54 
Cycad nut, see Cycas circinalis; Cycas revoluta Cañarium ovatum, 6 8 
Cycas, see Cycas circinalis Carya ilbnoensis, 12 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Cycas circinalis, 133— 134 
Castanea dentata, 84 
Cycasin, 135
Cycas revoluta, 135— 136 Castanea mollissima, 87 
Cycas rumphii, 137— 138 Castanea pumila, 89 
Cyclitol, 253 Castanea sativa, 92 
Cycloartocarpin 37 Cocos nucífera, 106 
Cyclopropenoid acids, 229 Corylus americana, 118 
Cyperaceae, 139— 144, 154— 156, see also specific Corylus avellana, 122 
aspects; specific species Corylus chinensis, 123 
Cyperene-1, 142 Cyperus rotundus, 143— 144 
Cyperene-2, 142 Elaeis guineensis, 151 
Cyperenone, 142 Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Cyperone, 142 Fagus grandifoba, 159 
Cyperus esculentus, 139— 141 Fagus sylvatica, 161— 162 
Cyperus rotundus, 142— 144 Ginkgo biloba, 165 
Cystathionine, 200 Helianthus annuus, 172 
Cysteine, 114, 273 Jatropha curcas, 179 
Cystine Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188
320 Handbook of Nuts
Juglans hindsii, 189 
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 
Juglans nigra, 193 Castanea pumi la, 89 
Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Castanea sativa, 91 
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 
Castanospermum australe, 94 
Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Ceiba pentandra, 98 
Moringa oleifera, 217 
Cocos nucífera, 102— 103 
Nelumbo nucífera, 221 
Cola acuminata, 109 
Orhignya cohune, 224 
Cola nitida, 1 10 
Paullinia cupana, 233 Cola verticillata, 113 
Pinus edulis, 237 Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
Pistacia vera, 243 Corylus americana, 117 
Platonia esculenta, 248 
Corylus avellana, 120 
Prunus du le is, 252 
Corylus chinensis, 123 
Quercus suher, 255 
Corylus colurna, 124 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Corylus cornuta, 126 
Schleicher a oleosa, 268 
Corylus ferox, 128 
Sclerocarya caffra, 271 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus maxima, 130 
Telfairia occidentalis, 211 
Coula edulis, 132 
Telfairia pedata, 280 
Cycas circinalis, 134 
Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Distribution, see Geographical distribution Cycas rumphii, 138 
Docosanol, 160 Cyp e rus esculentus, 140— 141 
Doum palm, see Hyphaene thebaica Cyperus rotundus, 143 
Drumstick tree, see Moringa oleifera Detarium senegalense, 146 
Elaeis guineensis, 149 
Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153 
Eleocharis dulcís, 155 
Eastern black walnut, see Juglans nigra 
Fagus grandifolia, 158— 159 
Ecology
Fagus sylvatica, 161 
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1— 2 
Ginkgo biloba, 164— 165 
Acrocomia total, 3 
Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Adhatoda vasica, 6 
Helianthus annuus, 170 
Ale uri tes fardi i, 8 — 9 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 I nocarpus edulis, 176 
Aleurites montana, 14 
Jatropha curcas, 178— 179 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17— 18 Jesse nia bataua, 181 
Apios americana, 24 Juglans allant bifolia, 184, 185 
Areca catechu, 21 Juglans cinerea, 187 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 35— 36 Juglans nigra, 191 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 195 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis minor, 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Borassus flabellifer, 48 Licania rigida, 205 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208 
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 212 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 220 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Calamus rotang, 63 
Orbignya cohune, 224 
Canarium indicum, 6 6 
Orbignya martiana, 227 
Cañarium ovatum, 67 
Pachira aquatica, 230 
Carya illinoensis, 70 
Paullinia cupana, 232— 233 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Pinus edulis, 237 
Caryocar villosum, 11 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 
Pistacia vera, 241— 242 
Castanea crenata, 80 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 
Castanea dentata, 83
Platonia esculenta, 248
321
Prunas dulcís, 250— 251 
Corylus colurna, 125 
Quercus súber, 254 
Corylus cornuta, 127 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Corylus ferox, 128 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Corylus heterophylia, 129 
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Corylus maxima, 130 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Coula edulis, 132 
Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Cycas circinalis, 134 
Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Cycas revoluta, 136 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277 Cycas rumphii, 138 
Telfairia pedata, 279 
Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Terminaba catappa, 283 
Cyperus rotundas, 143 
Trapa natans, 285— 286 
Detarium senegalense, 146 
Treculia africana, 289 
Elaeis guineensis, 150 
Virola sebifera, 291 
Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Virola surinamensis, 292 
Eleocharis dulcís, 155 
Economics Fagus grandifolia, 159 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 170— 171 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites montana, 15 1 nocarpus edulis, 176 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 
Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia bataua, 182 
Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 
Areca catechu, 28— 29 Juglans cinerea, 187 
Arenga pinnata, 32 
Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 
Juglans nigra, 192— 193 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209 
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Calamus rotang, 63— 64 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227 
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 P achira aquatica, 230 
Carya illinoensis, 1 1 
Paullinia cupana, 233 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 
Caryocar villosum, 77 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242 
Castanea crenata, 81 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcís, 251 
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 
Castanea sativa, 92 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Castanospermum australe, 94— 95 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Cocos nucífera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264 
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 268 
Cola nitida, 111 Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 21A— 275 
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia occidentalis, 211 
Corylus americana, 118 Telfairia pedata, 280 
Corylus avellana, 121 Terminaba catappa, 283 
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 286
322 Handbook of Nuts
Treculia africana, 289 Cola verticillata, 113 
Virola schiferà, 291 Cordeauxia edulis, \\5 
Virola surinamensis, 292 Corylus americana, 118 
Eicosenoic acid, 169 207 Corylus avellana, 121 
/z-Eicosylalcohol, 160 Corylus chinensis, 123 
Elaeis guineensis, 147— 151 Corylus colurna, 125 
Elaeis melanococca, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis Corylus cornuta, 127 
oleifera Corylus ferox, 128 
Elaeis oleifera, 152— 153 Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154— 156 Corylus maxima, 130 
Eleocharis plantaginea, see Eleocharis dulcis 
Coula edulis, 132 
Eleocharis tuberosa, see Eleocharis dulcis 
Cycas circinalis, 134 
Eleostearic acid 
Cycas revoluta, 136 
Aleurites fordii, 8 Cycas rumphii, 138 
Aleurites montana, 14 Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Licania rigida, 204 Cyperus rotundus, 143 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Detarium senegalense, 146 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Elaeis guineensis, 150— 151 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Elaeis oleifera, 153 
Ellagic acid, 263, 282 Eleocharis dulcis, 155— 156 
Energy Fagus grandifolia, 159 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 Fagus sylvatica, 161 
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 165 
Adhatoda vasica, 1 Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Aleurites fordii, 10 Helianthus annuus, 171 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites montana, 15 
Inocarpus edulis, 176 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 Jatropha curcas, 179 
Anacardium occidentale, 21 Jessenia hataua, 182 
Apios americana, 25 Juglans ailantbifolia, 185 
Areca catechu, 29 Juglans cinerea, 187 
Arenga pinnata, 33 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Juglans nigra, 193 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Juglans regia, 196 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 Lecythis minor, 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Borassus flabellifer, 49 Licania rigida, 206 
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 Macadamia integrifolia, 209 
Brosimum utile, 54 Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216— 217 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 221 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Calamus rotang, 64 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Cañarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 221— 228 
Canarium ovatum, 6 8 Pachira aquatica, 230 
Carya illinoensis, 71— 72 Paullinia cupana, 233 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 237 
Caryocar villo sum, 11 Pinus quadrifolia, 239 
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 Pistacia vera, 242— 243 
Castanea crenata, 81 Pittosporum resinferum, 245— 246 
Castanea dentata, 84 Platonia esculenta, 248 
Castanea mollissima, 87 Prunus dulcis, 252 
Castanea pumila, 89 Quercus súber, 255 
Castanea sativa, 92 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Castanospermum australe, 95 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Cocos nucifera, 105 Sapium sebiferum, 264— 265 
Cola acuminata, 109 
Schleichera oleosa, 268 
Cola nitida, 111
Sclerocarya coffra, 21 ì
323
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Telfairia occidentalis, 211 Corylus americana, 116 
Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus avellana, 119 
Terminalia catappa, 283 Coula edulis, 131 
Trapa natans, 286 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Treculia africana, 289 Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Virola schiferà, 291 
Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Virola surinamensis, 292
Detarium senegalense, 145 
English petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum Elaeis guineensis, 148 
English walnut, see Juglans regia Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Enzymes, see specific types Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Epicatechin, 20, 108, 110, 282 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Epimoretenol, 263 Gnetum gnemon, 166 
Eriodendron anfractuosum, see Ceiba pentandra Helianthus annuus, 169 
Essang nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Estrogens, 215, see also specific types Inocarpus edulis, 175 
Ethyl cinamate, 211 Jatropha curcas, 178 
Euorpean beech, see Fagus sylvatica 
Juglans cinerea, 186 
Euphorbiaceae, 8— 13, 78— 79, 177— 179, 256— Juglans nigra, 191 
259, 262— 265, see also specific species Juglans regia, 194 
European chestnut, see Castanea sat iva Lecythis pisonis, 202 
European filbert, see Corylus avellana Li cania rigida, 204 
Excoecaria schiferà, see Sapium sehiferum Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Orhignya cohune, 224 
Fabaceae, 16— 17, 21— 25, 93— 95, 175— 176, see Orhignya martiana, 225 
also specific species P achira aquatica, 229 
Fagaceae, 80— 92, 157— 162, 253— 255, see also Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 
specific species Pinus edulis, 236 
Fagine, 160 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Fagus americana, see Fagus grandifolia Platonia esculenta, 248 
Fagus atropurpuea, see Fagus grandifolia Prunus dulcis, 250 
Fagus ferruginea, see Fagus graruiifolia Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Fagus grandifolia, 157— 159 Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Fagus sylvatica, 160— 162 Sclerocarya coffra, 270 
Fats, see also specific types Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Acrocomia totai, 3 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Apios americana, 23 Trapa natans, 285 
Areca catechu, 26, 27 Treculia africana, 287, 288 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Fatty acids, see also specific types 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Acrocomia totai, 4 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Caryocar villosum, 76 
Borassus fiabeIlifer, 47, 48 
Ceiba pentandra, 91 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Corylus avellana, 119 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Calamus rotang, 62 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Canarium indicum, 65 Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Lecythis pisonis, 202 
Castanea crenata, 80 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 
Castanea dentata, 82 Moringa oleifera, 215 
Castanea sativa, 90 Pistacia vera, 240 
Ceiba pentandra, 91 Platonia esculenta, 248 
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Quercus súber, 253 
Cola nitida, 110 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257
324 Handbook of Nuts
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Trapa natans, 285 
Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Treculia africana, 287, 288 
Sapium se bife rum, 263 
Fibrin, 53 
Virola sebifera, 290 
Filbert
Virola surinamensis, 292 American, see Corylus americana 
Fatty oils, 110, 194, 211, 215, see also specific types beaked, see Corylus cornuta 
Ferulic acid, 160 Chinese, see Corylus chinensis 
Fiber European, see Corylus avellana 
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 giant, see Corylus maxima 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Himalayan, see Corylus ferox 
Apios americana, 23 
Lambert’s, see Corylus maxima 
Areca catechu, 21 
Siberian, see Corylus heterophylla 
Arenga pinnata, 31 
Tibetan, see Corylus ferox 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Turkish, see Corylus colurna 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Flavonoids, 142, see also specific types 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Fluted pumpkin, see Telfairia occidentalis 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Folic acid, 191, 211, 250, see also Vitamin B 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Folk medicine 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Acrocomia total, 3 
Calamus rotang, 62 
Adhatoda vasica, 5 
Canarium ovatum, 67 
Aleurites f ordii, 8 
Carya illinoensis, 69 
Aleurites moluccana, 12 
Castanea crenata, 80 Aleurites montana, 14 
Castanea dentata, 82 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 16 
Castanea sativa, 90 Anacardium occidentale, 19 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Apios americana, 22 
Cocos nucífera, 1 0 1 , 1 0 2 Areca catechu, 26 
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Arenga pinnata, 30— 31 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Artocarpus altilis, 34 
Corylus avellana, 119 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Coula edulis, 131 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Barringtonia procera, 43 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Detarium senegalense, 145 Borassus flabellifer, 47 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Bosimum alicastrum, 50 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Brosimum utile, 53 
Fagus grandifolia, 158 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Buchanania lanzan, 57— 58 
Gnetum gnemon, 166 
Calamus rotang, 62 
Helianthus annuus, 169 
Canarium indicum, 65 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Canarium ovatum, 67 
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Jatropha curcas, 178 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Juglans regia, 194 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Caryocar villosum, 75 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Castanea crenata, 80 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Castanea dentata, 82 
Orbignya martiana, 226 Castanea mollissima, 85 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Castanea pumila, 8 8 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Castanea sativa, 90 
Pinus edulis, 236 Castanospermum australe, 93 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Prunus dulcís, 250 Cocos nucífera, 101 
Schleicher a oleosa, 267 Cola acuminata, 107 
Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Cola nitida, 110 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola verticillata, 113 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Telfairia pedata, 279 Corylus americana, 116 
Terminalia calappa, 282 Corylus avellana, 119
325
Cory lus chinensis, 123 Trapa natans, 284 
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287 
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290 
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292 
Corylus heterophyIla, 129 Formaldehyde, 135 
Formic acid, 164 
Corylus maxima, 130
Friedelin, 253 
Coula edulis, 131
Cycas circinalis, 133 Fructose, 142, 178,211 
Fungi
Cycas revoluta, 135
Cycas rumphii, 137 Acrocomia total, 3 
Cyperus esculentus, 139— 140 Adhatoda vasica, 1 
Cyperus rotundas, 142 Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Detarium senegalense, 145 Aleurites montana, 15 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Areca catechu, 29 
Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Arenga pinnata, 33 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 
Fagus grandifolia, 157— 158
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38— 39 
Fagus sylvatica, 160
Ginkgo biloba, 163— 164 Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 
Gnetum gnemon, 166 Borassus flabellifer, 49 
Helianthus annuus, 168— 169 Bosimum alicastrum, 52 
Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
I nocarpus edulis, 175 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 
Jatropha curcas, 177— 178 Calamus rotang, 64 
Jessenia bataua, 181 Canarium indicum, 66 
Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 Carya illinoensis, 12 
Castanea crenata, 81 
Juglans cinerea, 186
Castanea dentata, 84 
Juglans hindsii, 189
Juglans nigra, 190 Castanea sativa, 92 
Juglans regia, 194 Castanospermum australe, 95 
Lecythis minor, 198 Ceiba pentandra, 99 
Lecythis ollaria, 200 Cocos nucífera, 105— 106 
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Cola acuminata, 109 
Licania rigida, 204 Cola nitida, 112 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Cola verticillata, 113 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Corylus americana, 118 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Corylus avellana, 122 
Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 219 Corylus colurna, 125 
Nypa fruticans, 222 Corylus cornuta, 127 
Orbignya cohune, 224 Corylus maxima, 130 
Orbignya mart lana, 225 Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Cyperus rotundus, 143 
Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Elaeis guineensis, 151 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Eleocharis dulcis, 156 
Pinus edulis, 236 Fagus grandifolia, 159 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Fagus sylvatica, 162 
Pistacia vera, 240 Helianthus annuus, 172 
Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 
Platonia esculenta, 247 Juglans cinerea, 187— 188 
Prunus dulcis, 249— 250 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Quercus súber, 253 Juglans regia, 196— 197 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257 Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Moringa oleifera, 217 
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Schleichera oleosa, 266— 267 Paullinia cupana, 233 
Sclerocarya coffra, 270 Pinus quadrifolia, 239 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Pistacia vera, 243 
Telfairia occidentalis, 216 Quercus súber, 255 
Telfairia pedata, 278 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Terminaba catappa, 281— 282 Sapium sebiferum, 265
326 Handbook of Nuts
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Corylus americana, 116 
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Corylus avellana, 120 
Telfairia pedata, 280 Corylus chinensis, 123 
Terminalia catappa, 283 Corylus colurna, 124 
Trapa natans, 286 Corylus cornuta, 126 
Furfural, 191
Corylus ferox, 128 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Corylus maxima, 130 
Coula edulis, 132 
Gabon nut, see Coula edulis 
Cycas circinalis, 134 
Gadoleic acid, 267 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Galactan, 119 Cycas rumphii, 138 
Galactodendron utile, see Brosimum utile Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Galactose, 20, 135, 160, 178, 215, 235, 250 Cyperus rotundas, 143 
Gallic acid, 1, 240, 263, 282 Detarium senegalense, 146 
Gallocatechin, 219 Elaeis guineensis, 149 
Gallotanic acid, 240, 267 Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Gbanja kola, see Cola nitida 
Eleocharis dulcis, 155 
Geographical distribution 
Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1 
Fagus sylvatica, 161 
Acrocomia totai, 3 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Adhatoda vasica, 6 
Gnetum gnemon, 167 
Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 176 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 Jatropha curcas, 178 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Jessenia bataua, 181 
Apios americana, 24 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 
Areca catechu, 27 Juglans cinerea, 187 
Arenga pianata, 31 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans nigra, 191 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 
Juglans regia, 195 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Lecythis minor, 198— 199 
Barringtonia procera, 43 
Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Borassus flabellifer, 48 
Licania rigida, 205 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Macadamia integrifolia, 208 
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Moringa oleifera, 216 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nelumbo nucifera, 220 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Orbignya martiana, 227 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 230 
Carya illinoensis, 70 Paullinia cupana, 232 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Pinus edulis, 237 
Caryocar villosum, 77 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 
Pistacia vera, 241 
Castanea crenata, 80 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 
Castanea dentata, 82— 83 
Platonia esculenta, 248 
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Castanea pumila, 88— 89 
Quercus súber, 254 
Castanea sativa, 91 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Castanospermum australe, 94 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Ceiba pentandra, 98 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Cocos nucifera, 102 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Cola acuminata, 109 Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 
Cola verticillata, 113
Simmondsia chinensis, 274
327
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Cyperus rotundas, 143 
Te If airia pedata, 279 
Detarium senegalense, 146 
Terminalia calappa, 283 Elaeis guineensis, 148— 149 
Trapa natans, 285 Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Treculia africana, 289 Eleocharis dulcis, 155 
Virola schiferà, 291 Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Germplasm Fagus sylvatica, 160— 161 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Acrocomia totai, 3 G ne turn gnemon, 167 
Adhatoda vasica, 6 
Helianthus annuus, 169 
Aleurites fordii, 8 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Inocarpus edulis, 176 
Aleurites montana, 14 
Jatropha curcas, 178 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jessenia bataua, 181 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 
Apios americana, 24 Juglans cinerea, 186— 187 
Areca catechu, 27 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Juglans nigra, 191 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Juglans regia, 195 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 Lecythis minor, 198 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Lecythis ollaria, 2 0 1 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203 
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Licania rigida, 205 
Borassus flabellifer, 48 
Macadamia integrifolia, 208 
Bosimum alicastrum, 5 1 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 2 
Brosimum utile, 53 Moringa oleifera, 216 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 Nelumbo nucifera, 220 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Nypa fruticans, 223 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Calamus rotang, 63 Orbignya martiana, 227 
Canarium indicum, 6 6 Pachira aquatica, 230 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Paullinia cupana, 232 
Carya illinoensis, 70 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Pinus edulis, 236— 237 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Caryocar villosum, 77 Pistacia vera, 241 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pittosporum resinferum, 245 
Castanea crenata, 80 
Platonia esculenta, 248 
Castanea dentata, 82 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Castanea mollissima, 8 6 Quercus súber, 254 
Castanea pumila, 8 8 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Castanea sativa, 90— 91 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Castanospermum australe, 94 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Ceiba pentandra, 98 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Cocos nucifera, 102 Schleicher a oleosa, 267 
Cola acuminata, 109 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Cola nitida, 110 Simmondsia chinensis, 273— 274 
Cola verticillata, 113 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Cordeauxia edulis, 115 Telfairia pedata, 279 
Corylus americana, 116 Terminalia catappa, 282— 283 
Corylus avellana, 119— 120 Trapa natans, 285 
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 289 
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 291 
Corylus ferox, 128 
Giant filbert, see Corylus maxima 
Gìnkgetin, 164 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Corylus maxima, 130 Ginkgic acid, 164 
Coula edulis, 132 Ginkgo, see Ginkgo biloba 
Cycas circinalis, 134 Ginkgoaceae, 163— 165, see also specific species 
Cycas revoluta, 135 Ginkgo biloba, 163— 165 
Cycas rumphii, 137 Ginkgol, 164 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Ginkgolic acid, 164
328 Handbook of Nuts
Ginnol, 164 Hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum 
Globulins, 35, 114, 250, 282, 287, see also specific Harvesting
types Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 
Glucoluteolin, 219 Acrocomia totai, 3 
Glucose Adhatoda vasica, 1 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Aleurites fordii, 10 
Borassus flabellifer, 48 Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Aleurites montana, 15 
Cola nitida, 110 Amphicarpaea hracteata, 18 
Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Cycas revoluta, 135 
Apios americana, 25 
Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Jatropha curcas, 178 Areca catechu, 28 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Arenga pinnata, 32 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Artocarpus alti lis, 36 
Glucosidases, 94, see also specific types Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 
Glucosides, 114, see also specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 
Glucuronic acid, 215, 250 Barringtonia procera, 43 
Glutamic acid, 35, 263, 270, 273, 282 Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Glutamine, 23, 114, 160 Borassus flabellifer, 48— 49 
Glutathione, 219 Bosimum alicastrum, 52 
Glutelins, 35, see also specific types Brosimum utile, 53— 54 
Gluten, 282 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 
Glyceim, 253 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Glycerides, see also specific types Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60— 61 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Calamus rotang, 63 
Aleurites montana, 14 Canarium indicum, 6 6 
Canarium ovatum, 67— 68 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Carya illinoensis, 1 1 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Caryocar villosum, 75, 76 
Caryocar villosum, 77 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Caryodendron orinocense, 79 
Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Castanea crenata, 81 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Castanea dentata, 83— 84 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Castanea mollissima, 87 
Virola surinamensis, 292 Castanea pumila, 89 
Glycine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282 Castanea sativa, 92 
Glycoproteins, 94, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94 
Glycosides, 110, 133, 142, see also specific types Ceiba pentandra, 98— 99 
Gnetaceae, 166— 167, see also specific species Cocos nucifera, 104— 105 
Gnetum gnemon, 166— 167 Cola acuminata, 109 
Gossypol, 97 Cola nitida, 111 
Groundnut, see Apios americana Cola verticillata, 113 
Gru-gru nut, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa; Acrocomia Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
totai Corylus americana, 117— 118 
Guaiacol, 158 Corylus avellana, 121 
Guanine, 232 Corylus chinensis, 123 
Guanosine, 119 Corylus colurna, 125 
Guaraña, see Paullinia cupana Corylus cornuta, 127 
Guaranine, 232 Corylus ferox, 128 
Guilandina moringa, see Moringa oleifera Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Gums, 20, 53, 108, 110, 160, 215, 258, 270, see also 
Corylus maxima, 130 
Coula edulis, 132 
specific types 
Cycas circinalis, 134 
Guru, see Cola acuminata 
Gutta, 211 Cycas revoluta, 135— 136 
Guvacine, 26 Cycas rumphii, 138 
Guvacoline, 26 Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Cyperus rotundas, 143 
Detarium senegalense, 146 
H
Elaeis guineensis, 150 
Hadji, see Cycas rumphii Elaeis oleifera, 153
329
Eleocharis dulcís, 155 Histamine, 114 
Fagus grandifolia, 159 Histidine
Fagus sylvatica, 161 Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Gnetum gnemon, 167 Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Helianthus annuus, 170 Moringa oleifera, 215 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunus dulcis, 250 
I nocarpus edulis, 176 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Jatropha curcas, 179 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Jessenia bataua, 182 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Hog peanut, see Amphicarpaea brat teata 
Juglans cinerea, 187 
Juglans hindsii, 189 Honey tree, see Schleichera oleosa 
Juglans nigra, 192 Horseradish tree, see Moringa oleifera 
Juglans regia, 196 Hydrocyanic acid, 267 
Lecythis minor, 199 Hydroxybenzoic acid, 160 
Lecythis ollaria, 201 Hydroxyglutamic acid, 160 
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid, 253 
Licania rigida, 205— 206 Hydroxyproline, 160 
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Hyperin, 194 
Madhuca longifolia, 212— 213 Hyperoside, 219 
Moringa oleifera, 216 Hyphaene thebaica, 173— 174 
Nelumbo nucífera, 220 Hypoxanthine, 232
Nypa fruticans, 223 
Orbignya cohune, 224 
I
Orbignya martiana, 227 
Pachira aquatica, 230 Idalin, 160
Paullinia cupana, 233 Illupei tree, see Madhuca longifolia 
Inche, see Caryodendron orinocense 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Pinus edulis, 237 Indian almond, see Terminalia catappa 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238 Indian lotus, see Nelumbo nucífera 
Pistacia vera, 242 Indian walnut, see Aleurites moluccana 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 Indoleacetic acid, 215 
Platonia esculenta, 248 Indole acetonitrile, 215 
Prunus dulcís, 251 Inocarpus edulis, 175— 176 
Quercus súber, 254— 255 I nocarpus fagifer us, see Inocarpus edulis 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 Inositol, 69, 160, 191,211 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 Insects, see also specific types 
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Acrocomia totai, 3 
Sapium sebiferum, 264 Adhatoda vasica, 1 
Schleichera oleosa, 268 Aleurites f ordii, 10, 11 
Sclerocarya cajfra, 271 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 
Simmondsia chinensis, 21A Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Telfairia occidentalis, 277 Apios americana, 25 
Telfairia pedata, 280 Areca catechu, 29 
Terminaba catappa, 283 Arenga pinnata, 33 
Trapa natans, 286 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 
Treculia africana, 289 Carya illinoensis, 12 
Castanea mollissima, 87 
Virola sebifera, 291 
Castanospermum australe, 95 
Virola surinamensis, 292 
Hasu, see Nelumbo nucífera Ceiba pentandra, 99 
Hazelnut, see Corylus americana, Corylus avellana, Cocos nucífera, 106 
Corylus colurna Cola nitida, 112 
Heartnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
Helianthus annuus, 168— 172 Corylus americana, 118 
Heptane, 244, 245 Corylus avellana, 122 
Hexacosanol, 160 Corylus cornuta, 127 
Hexadecenoic acid; 152, 247 Cyperus esculentus, 141 
Hicoria pecan, see Carya illinoensis Cyperus rotundas, 143— 144 
Himalayan filbert, see Corylus ferox Detarium senegalense, 146 
Hind’s black walnut, see Juglans hindsii Elaeis guineensis, 151
330 Handbook of Nuts
Elaeis oleifera, 153 Moringa oleifera, 215 
Fagus sylvatica, 162 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Pachira aquatica, 229 
Helianthus annuus, 171— 172 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Prunas dulcis, 250 
Juglans nigra, 193 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Juglans regia, 197 Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 
Lecythis minor, 199 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Lecythis pisonis, 203 Trapa natans, 285 
Licania rigida, 206 Trecuba africana, 288 
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Isoguvacine, 26
Madhuca longifolia, 213 Isoleucine, 35, 51, 114, 215, 258, 273, 282 
Moringa oleifera, 217 Isolicanic acid, 204 
Orbignya cohune, 224 
Isoquercitrin, 160, 219, 263 
Orbignya martiana, 228 
Isorhamnetin 3,7-dirhamnoside, 273 
Pachira aquatica, 230 Isorhamnetin 3-rutinoside, 273 
Paullinia cupana, 233 Isovitexin, 178
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 Italian chestnut, see Castanea sativa 
Pistacia vera, 243 Ivory nut palm, see Phytelephas macrocarpa
Prunas dulcis, 252 
Sapium sebiferum, 265 
Schleicher a oleosa, 268 
Sclerocarya caffra, 271 Jackfruit, see Artocarpus heterophyllus 
Simmondsia chinensis, 275 Jagua, see Jessenia bataua 
Telfairia pedata, 280 Japanese chestnut, see Castanea crenata 
Terminaba catappa, 283 Japanese walnut, see Juglans ailanthifoba 
Trapa natans, 286 Jatropha curcas, 177— 179 
Virola sebifera, 291 Java-almond, see Canarium indicum 
Iodine, 1,4, 241, 285 Jericho balsam, see Balanites aegyptiaca 
Ipuranol, 164 Jessenia bataua, 180— 183 
Iron Jessenia poly car pa, see Jessenia bataua 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Jesuit nut, see Trapa natans 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Jikungo, see Telfairia pedata 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Jojoba, see Simmondsia chinensis 
Areca catechu, 27 Juglandaceae, 69— 71, 184— 197, see also specific 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 species
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglandic acid, 186 
Bert hollé tia excelsa, 44 Juglandin, 186
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Juglans ailanthifoba, 184— 185
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Juglans allardiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Juglans cabfornica, see Juglans hindsii
Calamus rotang, 62 Juglans cinerea, 186— 188
Canarium ovatum, 67 Juglans coarctata, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Carya illinoensis, 69 Juglans hindsii, 189
Castanea crenata, 80 Juglans lavallei, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Castanea mollissima, 85 Juglans mirabunda, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Castanea sativa, 90 Juglans nigra, 190— 193
Cocos nucifera, 101, 102 Juglans regia, 194— 197
Cola acuminata, 107 Juglans sachalinensis, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Juglans sieboldiana, see Juglans ailanthifoba
Corylus avellana, 119 Juglone, 186, 191
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Juri, see Castanea crenata
Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Kaempferol, 160, 194, 219
Helianthus annuus, 169 Kaempferol-3-arabinoside, 194
Juglans cinerea, 186 Kakari taccy nut, see Caryodendron orinocense
Juglans nigra, 191 Kanari, see Canarium indicum
Juglans regia, 194 Kaong, see Arenga pinnata
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Kapok, see Ceiba pentandra
331
Kenari, see Canarium indicum Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Kola, Gbanja, see Cola nitida Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Kola nut, see Cola acuminata Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Kotamba, see Terminalia catappa Canarium indicum, 65 
Kusum tree, see Schleichera oleosa
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 
Caryocar villosum, 76 
Castanea sativa, 90 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Lactic acid, 160 Cocos nucifera, 102 
Lac tree, see Schleichera oleosa Corylus avellana, 119 
Lambert’s filbert, see Corylus maxima Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Lapachol, 211 Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Lapachones, 211, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Laurie acid Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Cary a illinoensis, 69 Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Cocos nucifera, 102 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Jatropha curcas, 178 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Jug Ians regia, 194 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Lecythis pisonis, 202 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Licania rigida, 204 
Virola sehifera, 290 Macadamia inte grif olia, 207 
Virola surinamensis, 292 Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Lectins, 17, see also specific types Pachira aquatica, 229 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Lecythidaceae, 198— 203, see also specific species 
Lecythis elliptica, see Lecythis minor Platonia esculenta, 247 
Lecythis minor, 198— 199 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Lecythis ollaria, 200— 201 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Lecythis pisonis, 202— 203 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Leucine Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Treculia africana, 288 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Virola sebifera, 290 
Prunus dulcis, 250 Virola surinamensis, 292 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Linolenic acid 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Terminalia catappa, 282 Canarium indicum, 65 
Leucocyanadine, 20 
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 
Leucocyanidin, 160, 219, 282 Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Leucodelphinidin, 160, 219 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Licania rigida, 204— 206 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Licanic acid, 204 Juglans regia, 194 
Ligin, 253 Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Lignans, 290, see also specific types Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Lignin, 253 Lipids, 4, 287, see also specific types 
Lignoceric acid, 20, 97, 169, 215, 267 Liriodenine, 219 
Lignoceryl alcohol, 119 Lotus, see Nelumbo nucifera 
Lignocerylalcohol, 119 Lotus root, see Nelumbo nucifera 
Lignone, 97 Lucine, 215
Limonene, 142, 245 Lumbang oil, see Aleurites moluccana 
Linoceric acid, 140 Lupeol, 60
Linoleic acid Lutelins, 287, see also specific types 
Acrocomia scleracarpa, 1 Luteolin, 219 
Acrocomia totai, 4 Luteolin-7-glucoside, 219 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Lycine, 263 
Aleurites montana, 14 Lysine
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Cordeauxia edulis, 114
332 Handbook of Nuts
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Fagus syhatica, 160 
Jessenia hataua, 181 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Prunas dale is, 250 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Sapium sehiferum, 263 Terminada catappa, 282 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Methylaminopropionic acid, 133 
Terminada catappa, 282 Methylcorypalline, 219 
Methylpentosane, 160
Microorganisms, 3, 10— 11, 18 see also specific 
M
types
Macadamia integrifolia, 207— 209 Mil pesos, see Jessenia bataua 
Macadamia nut, see Macadamia integrifolia Minerals, see specific types 
Macadamia tetraphylla, 207— 209 Mites, 25,29, 118, 162 
Macauba, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa Mogongo nut, see Ricinodendron rautanenii 
Macrozaniin, 135 Monkey pod, see Lecythis ollaria 
Madhuca indica, see Madhuca longifolia Monkey pot, see Lecythis ollaria 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 10— 213 Monoglycerides, 60, see also specific types 
Magnesium Moraceae, 34— 39, 50— 54, 287— 289, see also 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 17 specific species 
Moretenol, 263 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Cocos nucífera, 102 Moretenone, 263
Jug Ians regia, 194 Moreton bay chestnut, see Castanospermum australe 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Morin, 37
Prunas dulcís, 250 Moringa, see Moringa oleifera
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Moringaceae, 214— 217, see also specific species
Trapa natans, 285 Moringa nux-ben, see Moringa oleifera
Treculia africana, 288 Moringa oleifera, 214— 217
Mahua, see Madhuca longifolia Moringa pterygosperma, see Moringa oleifera
Maidenhair tree, see Ginkgo biloba Mucaja, see Acrocomia sclerocarpa
Malabar chestnut, see Pachira aquatica Mucilage cola, see Cola verticillata
Malabar nut, see Adhatoda vasica Mu-oil tree, see Aleurites montana
Malay lac-tree, see Schleichera oleosa Murunga-Kai, see Moringa oleifera
Muscilage, 51
Malic acid, 160,211,270 
Malindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Mutacone, 142
Maltose, 211 Muzinda, see Treculia africana 
Mammee, wild, see Platonia esculenta Myrcene, 244 
Manganese, 17, 44, 194, 241, 285 Myricetin, 160, 204, 211 
Mani, see Caryocar amygdaliferum Myricetin-3-O-L-rhamnoside, 211 
Manindjo, see Gnetum gnemon Myricitrin, 119 
Manketti, see Ricinodendron rautanenii; Ricinoden Myricitroside, 119
dron heudelotii Myristicaceae, 290— 292, see also specific species 
Mannan, 119, 234, 235 Myristic acid 
Manninotriose, 119, 124 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Mannitol, 174 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Mannose, 48, 174, 235 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Maranhau nut, see Pachira aquatica Caryocar villosum, 76 
Marmesin, 41 Cocos nucífera, 102 
Manila nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Corylus avellana, 119 
Marvola nut, see Sclerocarya caffra Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Masico, see Bosimum alicastrum Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Mawra butter tree, see Madhuca longifolia Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Mbocaya, see Acrocomia total Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Melibiose, 119, 124 
Jatropha curcas, 178 
Methanol, 263 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Methionine 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Pistacia vera, 241 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Platonia esculenta, 247 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminada catappa, 282
333
Virola sebifera, 290 Cocos nucífera, 102 
Virola surinamensis, 292 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Myrobalan, see Terminalia calappa Corylus avellana, 119 
Myrtaceae, 43— 46, see also specific species Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Detarium senegalense, 145 
N
Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Nambi, see Caryodendron orinocense Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Naphthaquinone, 211 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Narcissin, 273 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Native peach, see Santalum acuminatum Juglans nigra, 191 
Nelumbium nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Juglans regia, 194 
Nelumbium speciosum, see Nelumbo nucífera Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Nelumbonaceae, 218— 221, see also specific species Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Nelumbo nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera Moringa oleifera, 215 
Nelumbo nucífera, 218— 221 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Nematodes Pachira aquatica, 229 
Aleurites fordii, 11 Pistacia vera, 240 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Apios americana, 25 
Areca catechu, 29 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Artocarpus altilis, 36 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 39 Trapa natans, 285 
Bertholletia excelsa, 46 Nickel, 44 
Ceiba pentandra, 99 Nicotine, 191
Cocos nucífera, 106 Nicotinic acid, 215, 241, 285
Cola nitida, 112 Ñipa palm, see Nypa fruticans
Corylus avellana, 122 Nitrates, 23, see also specific types
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Nitrogen, 4, 17, 23, 97, 164, 276
Cyperus rotundas, 143 n-Nonacosan, 119, 160
Elaeis guineensis, 151 Nonane, 245
Eleocharis dulcis, 156 Nomuciferine, 219
Nua nut, see Barringtonia procera
Helianthus annuus, 172 
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Nuciferine, 219
Nut pine, see Pinus edulis
Juglans cinerea, 188 
Juglans nigra, 193 Nutrients, see spiecific types
Juglans regia, 197 Nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus; Cyperus rotundus 
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Nymphaea nelumbo, see Nelumbo nucífera 
Pistacia vera, 243 Nypa fruticans, 222— 223
Quercus súber, 255 
Sapium sebiferum, 265 
o
Telfairia pedata, 280 
Terminalia calappa, 283 Oak, see Quercus súber; Schleichera oleosa 
Neochlorogenic acid, 219 Ocimene, 244 
Neocycasin A, 135 Octadecatrienic acid, 204 
Neocycasin B, 135 Octadeconoic acid, 253 
Nerolidol, 261 Oil nut, see Juglans cinerea 
Neurine, 160 Oil palm, see Elaeis guineensis; Elaeis oleifera 
Niacin Oils, see also specific types 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8 
Areca catechu, 27 Aleurites montana, 14 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 2n Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Canarium indicum, 65 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Calamus rotang, 62 Caryocar villosum, 75 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Caryodendron orinocense, 78 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Castanea dentata, 82 
Castanea crenata, 80 Ceiba pentandra, 91 
Castanea mollissima, 85 Cola acuminata, 107 
Castanea sativa, 90 Cola nitida, 110
334 Handbook of Nuts
Cory lus avellana, 119 Juglans regia, 194 
Coula edulis, 131 Lecythis pisonis, 202 
Cycas revoluta, 135 Licania rigida, 204 
Cyperus eseulentus, 140 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Maringa oleifera, 215 
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Pachira aquatica, 229 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Platonia esculenta, 247 
Jatropha curcas, 178 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Jessenia bataua, 181 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Juglans cinerea, 186 Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261 
Juglans regia, 194 Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Treculia africana, 288 
Pistacia vera, 240 Virola sebifera, 290 
Pittosporum resinferum, 244 Virola surinamensis, 292
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Oleodipalmitins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
types
Santalum acuminatum, 260, 261 
Oleodisaturated glycerides, 76, see also specific 
Sapium se bife rum, 263 
types
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Oleopalmitostearins, 211, 247, see also specific types 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Oleo-resin, 240
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Olla de mona, see Lecythis ollaria
Treculia africana, 287 Orbignya cohune, 224
Olivine, see Telfairia pedata Orbignya martiana, 225— 228
Oiticica, see Licania rigida Orbignya oleifera, see Orbignya martiana
Ojuk nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Orbignya speciosa, see Orbignya martiana
Okwa, see Treculia africana Otaheite chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis
Olacaceae, 131— 132, see also specific species Owe cola, see Cola verticillata
Oleic acid Oxalic acid, 160
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 
Oxlate, 288
Acrocomia totai, 4 
Oxoushinsunine, 219
Aleurites f ordii, 8 Oyster nut, see Telfairia occidentalis; Telfairia 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 pedata
Aleurites montana, 14 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Bertholletia excelsa 44 Pachira aquatica, 229— 230 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pahoo hadji, see Cycas rumphii 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pakis adji, see Cycas rumphii 
Canarium indicum, 65 Pakoeine, 133
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Pakoo adji, see Cycas rumphii 
Caryocar villosum, 76 Pakuri, see Platonia escalenta 
Castanea sativa, 90 Palm
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
betel-nut, see Areca catechu 
Cocos nucifera, 102 
black sugar, see Arenga pinnata 
Cory lus avellana, 119 
coco-, see Acrocomia totai 
Coula edulis, 131 
cohune, see Orbignya cohune 
Cycas revoluta, 135 
doum, see Hyphaene thebaica 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 ivory nut, see Phytelephas macrocarpa 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 nipa, see Nypa fruticans 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 palmyra, see Borassus flabellifer 
Elaeis oleifera, 152 sugar, see Arenga pinnata 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Palmae, 147— 151, see also specific species 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Palmitic acid
Jatropha curcas, 178 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Jessenia bataua, 181 Anacardium occidentales, 20
335
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Pecan, see Carya illinoensis 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Pectin, 142, 250 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 Pentosane, 160
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Pentosans, 97, 164, 282, see also specific types 
Canarium indicum, 65 Pequi, see Caryocar villosum 
Carya illinoensis, 69, 70 Persian walnut, see Juglans regia 
Caryocar villosum, 76 Pests, see specific types 
Castanea saliva, 90 Petroleum nut, see Pittosporum resinferum 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Phellogenic acid, 253 
Cocos nucifera, 102 Phellonic acid, 253 
Corylus avellana, 119 Phenylalanine 
Coula edulis, 131 Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Cycas revoluta, 135 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Elaeis oleifera, 152 Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Moringa oleifera, 2 15 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Jatropha cureas, 178 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Terminalia calappa, 282 
Licania rigida, 204 Philippine hanga, see Pittosporum resinferum 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Philippine nut, see Canarium ovatum 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 Phlobaphen, 253 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Phloionic acid, 253 
Pistacia vera, 241 Phloionolic acid, 253
Platonia esculenta, 247, 248 Phloracetophenone 2,4-dimethylether, 263 
Prunus dulcis, 250 Phloroglucin, 69
Santalum acuminatum, 261 Phosphoric acid, 97, 164, 212, 267 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Phosphorus 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Acrocomia total, 3, 4 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13 
Telfairia pedata, 279 Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Terminalia calappa, 282 Areca catechu, 27 
Treculia africana, 288 Arenga pinnata, 31 
Virola sebifera, 290 Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Virola surinamensis, 292
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Palmitodioleins, 76, 148, 211, 247, see also specific Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
types Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Palmitoleic acid, 207, 267 Borassus flabellifer, 47 
Palm oil, 74, 76 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Palmyra palm, see Borassus flabellifer Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Palo de vaca, see Brosimum utile Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 
Pamitic acid, 8 Calamus rotang, 62 
Pana, see Artocarpus altilis Canarium ovatum, 67 
Pantothenic acid, 211 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Papayotin, 35
Castanea crenata, 80 
Paraguay coco-palm, see Acrocomia total 
Castanea mollissima, 85 
Para nut, see Bertholletia excelsa Castanea sativa, 90 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Parasites, 99, 172, 213, 217, 239, see also specific 
types Cocos nucifera, 101, 102 
Parcouril, see Platonia esculenta Cola acuminata, 107 
Parkeol, 60 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Parry’s pine nut, see Pinus quadrifolia Corylus avellana, 119 
Pataba, see Jessenia bataua Coula edulis, 131 
Pataua, see Jessenia bataua Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Paullinia cupana, 231— 232 Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Paullinia sorbilis, see Paullinia cupana Detarium senegalense, 145 
Pavettia, see Adhatoda vasica Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Peach, native, see Santalum acuminatum Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Ginkgo biloba, 164
336 Handbook of Nuts
Helianthus annuus, 169 Castanea sativa, 90 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cocos nucífera, 102 
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Corylus avellana, 119 
Jug Ians regia, 194 Eleocharis dulcis, 154 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Madhuca longifolia, 2 1 1 
Helianthus annuus, 169 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Jug Ians nigra, 191 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Juglans regia, 194 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Prunus dulcís, 250 Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Sclerocarya cajfra, 270 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Terminaba catappa, 282 
Trapa natans, 285 
Trapa natans, 285 
Treculia africana, 288 
Treculia africana, 287 Proanthocyanadine leucocyanadine, 20 
Phosphorylase, 285 Procyanidin, 110 
Physic nut, see Jatropha curcas Prolamine, 114, 282 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234— 235 Prolamins, 35, see also specific types 
Phytic acid, 194, 250 Proline, 35, 51, 160, 273, 282 
Phytohemagglutinins, 114, see also specific types Pronuciferine, 219
Phytosterin, 133 Proteaceae, 207— 209, see also specific species 
Phytosterols, 8, 69, 119, see also specific types
Proteins, see also specific types 
Piauhy, see Platonia esculenta
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 
Pigments, 37, see also specific types Aleurites moluccana, 12, 13 
Pili nut, see Canarium ovatum Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Pinaceae, 236— 239, see also specific species Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Pine, see Pinus edulis Apios americana, 23 
Pinene, 244 Areca catechu, 26, 27 
Pine nut, see Pinus edulis, Pinus quadrifolia Arenga pinnata, 31 
Pinon, see Pinus edulis; Pinus quadrifolia Artocarpus altibs, 35 
Pinus cembroides, see Pinus edulis Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Pinus edulis, 236— 237
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Pinus par rayana, see Pinus quadrifolia
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Pinus quadrifolia, 238— 239 Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 
Pistachio, see Pistacia vera Bosimum abcastrum, 50, 51 
Pistaciaceae, 240— 243, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Pistacia oleosa, see Schleichera oleosa Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59, 60 
Pistacia vera, 240— 243 Calamus rotang, 62 
Pittosporaceae, 244— 246, see also specific species Canarium indicum, 65 
Pittosporum resinferum, 244— 246 
Canarium ovatum, 67 
Platonia esculenta, 247— 248 
Carya illinoensis, 69 
Platonia insignis, see Platonia esculenta Castanea crenata, 80 
Pleragina umbresissima, see Licania rigida Castanea dentata, 82 
Polymerides, 253, see also specific types Castanea mollissima, 85 
Polynesia chestnut, see ¡nocarpus edulis Castanea sativa, 90 
Polyphenols, 142, see also specific types Castanospermum australe, 94 
Potash, 97, 169, 212, 267 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Potassium
Cocos nucífera, 101, 102 
Acrocomia total, 3, 4 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Aleurites moluccana, 12 Cola nitida, 110 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Corylus americana, 116 
Areca catechu, 27 Corylus avellana, 119 
Arenga pinnata, 31 Coula edulis, 131 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Cycas revoluta, 135 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 145 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Elaeis guineensis, 148
337
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Resin
Fagas grandifolia, 158 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
G ne turn gnemon, 166 Brosimum utile, 53 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Cyperus rotundas, 142 
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Madhuca longifolia, 211, 212 
Jatropha curcas, 178 Paullinia cupana, 232 
Jessenia bataua, 181 Pistacia vera, 240 
Juglans cinerea, 186 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Juglans nigra, 191 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Juglans regia, 194 
Rhamnose, 20, 41, 160, 215 
Lecythis pisonis, 202 Rhizome, 219
Licania rigida, 204 Rhizophoraceae, 55— 56, see also specific species 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Riboflavin, see also Vitamin B 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Areca catechu, 27 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Arenga pianata, 31 
Orbignya cohune, 224 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Orbignya martiana, 225, 226 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 Borassus flabellifer, 47 
Pinus edulis, 236 Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Calamus rotang, 62 
Prunas dulcís, 250 Cañarium ovatum, 67 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Castanea crenata, 80 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Castanea mollissima, 85 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Castanea sativa, 90 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Cocos nucífera, 102 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Cola acuminata, 107, 108 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Corylus avellana, 119 
Telfairia pedata, 278, 279 Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Trapa natans, 285 Detarium senegalense, 145 
Treculia africana, 287, 288 Elaeis guineensis, 148 
Provision tree, see Pachira aquatica Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
Prunas dulcís, 249— 252 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Pterygospermin, 215
Helianthus annuus, 169 
Pumpkin, fluted, see Telfairia occidentalis Juglans nigra, 191 
Purging nut, see Jatropha curcas Juglans regia, 194 
Purple nutsedge, see Cyperus rotundas Macadamia inte grifo lia, 207 
Pyroligenous acid, 97 Nelumbo nucífera, 219 
Pachira aquatica, 229 
Pistacia vera, 241 
Prunus dulcís, 250 
Quandong nut, see Santalum acuminatum 
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Quercetin, 35, 97, 160, 194, 219 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Trecuba africana, 288 
Quercetin-3-arabinoside, 194 
Quercitrin, 194 Ribose, 41
Quercus occidentalis, see Quercus saber Ricinodendron africanum, see Ricinodendron 
Quercus saber, 253— 255
heudelotii
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256— 257 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258— 259 
R
Robinin, 219 
Raffinose, 119, 124, 164, 178, 219 Roemerine, 219
Ramon, see Bosimum alicastrum Rosaceae, 204— 206, 249— 252, see also specific 
Rattan cane, see Calamus rotang species
Red ucuuba, see Virola sebifera Rotang cane, see Calamus rotang
338 Handbook of Nuts
Rubidium, 44 Sitosterol glucoside, 41 
Rutin, 219 Slippery cola, see Cola verticillata 
Snakes, 49, 136
Soapberry tree, see Balanites aegyptiaca 
Sodium
Saba nut, see Pachira aquatica Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Saccharides, 142, see also specific types Areca catechu, 27 
Saccharose, 178, 258 Arenga pianata, 31 
Sacred lotus, see Nelumho nucífera Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Salicylic acid, 142 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Sanga nut, see Ricinodendron heudelotii Bertho llé tia excelsa, 44 
Santalaceae, 260— 261, see also specific species Canarium ovatum, 67 
Santalbic acid, 260 Carya illinoensis, 69 
Santalbinic acid, 260 Castanea crenata, 80 
Santalum acuminatum, 260— 261 
Cocos nucífera, 102 
Sapindaceae, 231— 232, 266— 268, see also specific Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
species Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Sapium sebiferum, 262— 265 Helianthus annuus, 169 
Sapogenins, 41, see also specific types Juglans nigra, 191 
Saponins, 8, 23, 160, 232, see also specific types Juglans regia, 194 
Sapotaceae, 59— 61, 210— 213, see also specific Pachira aquatica, 229 
species Prunus dulcís, 250 
Sapucaia, see Lecythis pisonis Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Saturated acids, 140, 169, see also specific types Trapa natans, 285 
Schleichera oleosa, 266— 268 Treculia africana, 288 
Schleichera trijuga, see Schleichera oleosa Sodium selenite, 45 
Scirpus plantagineus, see Eleocharis dulcís
Sohnja, see Moringa oleifera 
Scirpus plantaginoides, see Eleocharis dulcís
Sotesu nut, see Cycas revoluta 
Scirpus tuberosus, see Eleocharis dulcís Spanish chestnut, see Castanea sativa 
Sclerocarya caffra, 269— 271 Squalene, 69 
Scorpions, 49 Stachyose, 124, 178, 219 
Seje, see Jessenia bataua Starches, see also specific types 
Selenium, 44, 200, 202 Anacardium occidentales, 20 
Selenomethionine, 45 Apios americana, 23 
Seliene, 142 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Sequoyitol, 133 Castanea dentata, 82 
Serine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 273, 282 Cola acuminata, 108 
Sesquiterpene, 211 Cola nitida, 110 
Sesquiterpene alcohol, 211 Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Shea nut, see Butyrospermum paradoxum
Cycas circinalis, 133 
Shikimic acid, 164, 241
Cycas revoluta, 135 
Shikimin, 164
Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Siberian filbert, see Corylus heterophylla Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Siebold walnut, see Juglans ailanthifolia 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
Silica, 212, 253 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Silk cotton tree, see Ceiba pentandra Inocarpus edulis, 175 
Silver pine, see Pinus edulis
Nypa fruticans, 222 
Simarubaceae, 40— 42, see also specific species Orbignya martiana, 225 
Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 275 Prunus dulcís, 250 
Sinapic acid, 160
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Sitosterol Trapa natans, 285 
Anacardium accidéntale, 20 Stearic acid 
Anacardium occidentales, 20 Aleurites fordii, 8 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 Amphicarpaea bracteata, 17 
Corylus avellana, 119 Anacardium occidentales, 20 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Balanites aegyptiaca, 41 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Bertholletia excelsa, 44 
Jatropha curcas, 178 Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Moringa oleífera, 215 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Nelumbo nucífera, 219 Canarium indicum, 65 
Virola sebifera, 290 Carya illinoensis, 69, 70
339
Caryocar villosum, 76 Hyphaene thebaica, 174 
Ceiba pentandra, 97 Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Cocos nucífera, 102 Nypa fruticans, 222 
Orbignya martiana, 225 
Corylus avellana, 119 
Coula edulis, 131 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Pistacia vera, 240 
Cyperus rotundas, 142 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Terminalia catappa, 282 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Sulfur, 194
Jatropha curcas, 178 Sunflower, see Helianthus annuus 
Sweet chestnut, see Castanea dentata; Castanea 
Lecythis pisonis, 202 
sat iva
Licania rigida, 204 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Tagua, see Phytelephas macrocarpa 
Pachira aquatica, 229 
Pistacia vera, 241 Tahit chestnut, see I nocarpus edulis 
Platonia esculenta, 247 Tallow tree, see Detarium senegalense; Sapium 
Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 sebiferum
Santalum acuminatum, 260 Tangkil, see Gnetum gnemon 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 Tannic acid, 82, 108, 119, 160, 267 
Schleichera oleosa, 267 Tannic glycosides, 110, see also specific types 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276 Tannins, see also specific types 
Telfairia pedata, 279 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Aleurites fordii, 8 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Treculia africana, 288 
Apios americana, 23 
Stearins, 253, see also specific types 
Areca catechu, 26 
Stearodioleins, 211, 247, see also specific types 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 
Stearodipalmitin, 76
Sterculia acuminata, see Cola acuminata Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 
Sterculiaceae, 107— 113, see also specific species Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Sterculia verticilata, see Cola verticillata Carya illinoensis, 69 
Steroids, 41, 253, see also specific types Castanea dentata, 82 
Steroketone artosternone, 37 Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Sterols, 164, see also specific types Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Stigmasterol, 178 Licania rigida, 204 
Stillingia sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum Madhuca longifolia, 211 
Strontium, 44 Nypa fruticans, 222 
Suari nut, see Caryocar nuciferum Pachira aquatica, 229 
Paullinia cupana, 232 
Suberin, 253 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 
Suberindiol, 253 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Succinic acid, 211 
Quercus súber, 253 
Sucrose, 119, 164,211,222 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Sugar palm, see Arenga pinnata 
Sugars, see also specific types Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Acrocomia totai, 3, 4 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Telfairia pedata, 279 
Trapa natans, 285 
Anacardium occidentales, 20 
Tar, 97 
Borassus flabellifer, 47, 48 
Tarxerol, 119
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Telfairia nuts, see Telfairia pedata 
Brosimum utile, 53 
Telfairia occidentalis, 276— 277 
Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Telfairia pedata, 278— 280 
Cola acuminata, 108 
Terminalia catappa, 281— 283 
Cola nitida, 110 
Termites, 95, 132, 146 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Cycas circinalis, 133 Terpenes, 65, see also specific types 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Terpineol, 211 
Eleocharis dulcís, 154 Tetracosanol, 160 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Theobromine, 108, 110, 232 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Theophylline, 6, 232
340 Handbook of Nuts
Thiamine, see also Vitamin B Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Aleurites moluccana, 13 Borassus flabellifer, 48 
Anacardium occidentale, 20 Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 
Areca catechu, 27 Calamus rotang, 62 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 Carya illinoensis, 70 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Castanospermum australe, 94 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Ceiba pentandra, 97 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Cola acuminata, 108 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50, 51 Coula edulis, 131 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Cycas circinabs, 133 
Calamus rotang, 62 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Detarium senegalense, 146 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Fagus grandifolia, 158 
Castanea crenata, 80 Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Castanea mollissima, 85 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Castanea sativa, 90 Gnetum gnemon, 166 
Cocos nucifera, 102 Jatropha curcas, 178 
Cola acuminata, 107, 108 Juglans cinerea, 186 
Corylus avellana, 119 Jug Ians nigra, 191 
Cyperus esculentus, 140 Lecythis minor, 198 
Cyperus rotundus, 142 Lecythis ollaria, 200 
Detarium senegalense, 145 Madhuca longifoba, 212 
Elaeis guineensis, 148 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Eleocharis dulcis, 154 Paulbnia cupana, 232 
Ginkgo biloba, 164 Quercus súber, 254 
Helianthus annuus, 169 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Inocarpus edulis, 175 Schleichera oleosa, 267 
Jug Ians nigra, 191 Sclerocarya caffra, 270 
Jug Ians regia, 194 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Macadamia integrifolia, 207 Trecuba africana, 288
Nelumbo nucifera, 219 Trapaceae, 284— 286, see also specific species 
Pachira aquatica, 229 Trapa natans, 284— 286 
Pistacia vera, 240, 241 Trecuba africana, 287— 289 
Prunus dulcis, 250 Triacosan, 119
Sclerocarya caffra, 270 Triadica sebifera, see Sapium sebiferum 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Tribydroxystigmasterol, 119 
Trapa natans, 285 Trimethy lamine, 160 
Treculia africana, 288 Triolein, 58
Threonine Tripalmitin, 76, 148, 247 
Tristearin, 76 
Artocarpus altilis, 35 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51 Triterpene, 263
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Tropical almond, see Terminaba catappa 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 Tryptophane 
Moringa oleifera, 215 Bosimum alicastrum, 51 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 Ginkgo biloba, 164 
Terminaba catappa, 282 Jessenia bataua, 181 
Tibetan filbert, see Corylus ferox Juglans nigra, 191 
Tigemut, see Cyperus esculentus Moringa oleifera, 215 
Timbonine, 232 Prunus dulcis, 250 
Tin, 44 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Titanium, 45 Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Tocophenol, 169, 250 Terminaba catappa, 282 
Tocopherol, see Vitamin E Tung-oil tree, see Aleurites f ordii 
Toxicity Turkish filbert, see Corylus colurna 
Adhatoda vasica, 6 Turkish hazelnut, see Corylus colurna 
Aleurites ford H, 8 Tyrosine, 35, 51, 114, 160, 263, 273, 282
Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Aleurites montana, 14 
u
Anacardium occidentale, 20 
Areca catechu, 27 Uabano, see Paulbnia cupana
341
Ucahuba nut, see Virola surinamensis
Cycas rumphii, 137 
Ucuuba, see Virola schiferà; Virola surinamensis Cyp er US esculentus, 139 
Ukwa, see Treculia africana Cyperus rotundus, 142 
Unsaturated acids, 140, see also specific types Detarium senegalense, 145 
Ureides, 23, see also specific types Elaeis guineensis, 147— 148 
Uric acid, 23 Elaeis oleifera, 152 
Uronic anhydrides, 97 Eleocharis dulcís, 154 
Uses Fagus grandifolia, 157 
Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 1 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Acrocomia totai, 3 Ginkgo biloba, 163 
Adhatoda vasica, 5 Gnetum gnemon, 166 
Aleurites fordii, 8 Helianthus annuus, 168 
Aleurites moluccana, 12 Hyphaene thehaica, 173 
Aleurites montana, 14 I nocarpus edulis, 175 
Amphicarpaea hracteata, 16 Jatropha curcas, 177 
Anacardium occidentale, 19 Jessenia hataua, 180 
Apios americana, 22 Juglans ailanthifolia, 184 
Areca catechu, 26 Juglans cinerea, 186 
Arenga pinnata, 30 Juglans hindsii, 189 
Artocarpus altilis, 34 Juglans nigra, 190 
Artocarpus heterophyllus, 37 Juglans regia, 194 
Balanites aegyptiaca, 40— 41 Lecythis minor, 198 
Barringtonia procera, 43 Lecythis ollaria, 200 
Bertholletia excelsa, 44 Lecythis pisonis, 202 
Borassus flabellifer, 47 Licania rigida, 204 
Bosimum alicastrum, 50 Macadamia integrifolia, 207 
Brosimum utile, 53 Madhuca longifolia, 210 
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 55 Moringa oleifera, 2 1A— 215 
Buchanania lanzan, 57 Nelumbo nucífera, 218 
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 59 Nypa fruticans, 222 
Calamus rotang, 62 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Cañarium indicum, 65 Orbignya martiana, 225 
Canarium ovatum, 67 Pachira aquatica, 229 
Carya illinoensis, 69 Paullinia cupana, 231 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 234 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 Pinus edulis, 236 
Caryocar villosum, 75 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Caryodendron orinocense, 78 Pistacia vera, 240 
Castanea crenata, 80 Pittosporum resinferum, 244 
Castanea dentata, 82 Platonia esculenta, 241 
Castanea mollissima, 85 Prunus dulcís, 249 
Castanea pumila, 88 Quercus súber, 253 
Castanea sativa, 90 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 256 
Castanospermum australe, 93 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 
Ceiba pentandra, 96 Santalum acuminatum, 260 
Cocos nucífera, 100— 101 Sapium sebiferum, 262 
Cola acuminata, 107 Schleichera oleosa, 266 
Cola nitida, 110 Sclerocarya coffra, 269 
Cola verticillata, 113 Simmondsia chinensis, 272— 273 
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 Telfairia occidentalis, 276 
Corylus americana, 116 Telfairia pedata, 278 
Corylus avellana, 119 Terminano catappa, 281 
Corylus chinensis, 123 Trapa notons, 284 
Corylus colurna, 124 Treculia africana, 287 
Corylus cornuta, 126 Virola sebifera, 290 
Corylus ferox, 128 Virola surinamensis, 292
Corylus heterophylla, 129 
Corylus maxima, 130 
Coula edulis, 131 
Valine
Cycas circinalis, 133 
Bosimum alicastrum, 51
Cycas revoluta, 135
342 Handbook of Nuts
Butyrospermum paradoxum, 60 Wood-oil tree, see Aleurites montana
Cordeauxia edulis, 114 
Fagus sylvatica, 160 
Moringa oleifera, 215 
Xanthine, 232 
Prunus dulcis, 250 
Ricinodendron rautanenii, 258 Xanthophyll, 276 
Xanthoxylin, 263 
Sapium sebiferum, 263 
Xylan, 119, 164
Simmondsia chinensis, 273 
Terminalia catappa, 282 Xylose, 20, 41, 135, 160, 215, 250 
Vanillic acid, 160 Xylosidase, 94
Vanillin, 253 
Vanilloside, 160
Varnish tree, see Aleurites moluccana
Vasakin, 6 Yamogenin, 41
Vasicine, 6 Yeheb nut, see Cordeauxia edulis
Yellow nutsedge, see Cyperus esculentus
Vasicinine, 6
Vasicinol, 6 Yields
Vasicinone, 6 Acrocomia sclerocarpa, 2 
Vasicoline, 6 Acrocomia totai, 3 
Vasicolinone, 6 Adhatoda vasica, 1 
Vegetable tallow, see Sapium sebiferum Aleurites f ordii, 10 
Virola nut, see Virola sebifera Aleurites moluccana, 13 
Virola sebifera, 290— 291 Aleurites montana, 15 
Amphicarpaea bracteata, 18 
Virola surinamensis, 292
Anacardium occidentale, 21 
Viruses, 25, 99, 106, 141, 143, 172, 185, 252
Vitamin A, 26, 148, 215, 241, 285 Apios americana, 25 
Vitamin B, 215, 263, see also Folic acid; Riboflavin; Areca catechu, 28— 29 
Thiamine Arenga pinnata, 32 
Vitamin C, see Ascorbic acid Artocarpus altilis, 36 
Vitamin E, 148, 169, 215 Artocarpus heterophyllus, 38 
Vitamins, see specific types Balanites aegyptiaca, 42 
Vitexin, 178 Barringtonia procera, 43 
Bertholletia excelsa, 45 
Borassus flabellifer, 49 
w
Bosimum alicastrum, 52 
Walnut, see Aleurites moluccana Brosimum utile, 54 
African, see Coula edulis Bruguiera gymnorhiza, 56 
California, see Juglans hindsii Buchanania lanzan, 58 
Carpathian, see Juglans regia Butyrospermum paradoxum, 61 
eastern black, see Juglans nigra Calamus rotang, 63— 64 
English, see Juglans regia Cañarium indicum, 66 
Canarium ovatum, 68 
Hind’s black, see Juglans hindsii 
Carya illinoensis, 71 
Japanese, see Juglans ailanthifolia 
Caryocar amygdaliferum, 73 
Persian, see Juglans regia 
Caryocar nuciferum, 74 
Siebold, see Juglans ailanthifolia 
Caryocar villosum, 11 
white, see Juglans cinerea 
Wanepala, see Adhatoda vasica 
Caryodendron orinocense, 79 
Water caltrops, see Trapa natans Castanea crenata, 81 
Castanea dentata, 84 
Water chestnut, see Eleocharis dulcis; Trapa natans 
Watemut, see Eleocharis dulcis Castanea mollissima, 87 
Wax berry, white, see Sapium sebiferum Castanea pumila, 89 
Waxes, 51, 53, 97, 135, 160, 253, 273, see also Castanea sativa, 92 
specific types Castanospermum australe, 94— ^95 
Weevils, 87, 115, 118, 127, 151 Ceiba pentandra, 99 
White ucuuba, see Virola surinamensis Cocos nucifera, 105 
White walnut, see Juglans cinerea Cola acuminata, 109 
White wax berry, see Sapium sebiferum Cola nitida, 111 
Wild mammee, see Platonia esculenta Cola verticillata, 113 
Wild peanut, see Amphicarpaea bracteata Cordeauxia edulis, 115 
Woman’s coconut, see Borassus flabellifer Corylus americana, 118
343
Cory lus avellana, 121 Madhuca longifolia, 213 
Corylus chinensis, 123 Moringa oleifera, 216 
Corylus caluma, 125 Nelumbo nucífera, 221 
Nypa fruticans, 223 
Corylus cornuta, 127 
Corylus ferox, 128 Orbignya cohune, 224 
Corylus heterophylla, 129 Orbignya martiana, 227 
Corylus maxima, 130 Pachira aquatica, 230 
Coula edulis, 132 Paullinia cupana, 233 
Cycas circinalis, 134 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 235 
Cycas revoluta, 136 Pinus edulis, 237 
Cycas rumphii, 138 Pinus quadrifolia, 238 
Cyperus esculentus, 141 Pistacia vera, 242 
Pittosporum resinferum, 245 
Cyperus rotundus, 143 
Platonia esculenta, 248 
Detarium senegalense, 146 
Elaeis guineensis, 150 Prunus dulcis, 251 
Elaeis oleifera, 153 Quercus súber, 255 
Eleocharis dulcis, 155 Ricinodendron heudelotii, 257 
Fagus grandifolia, 159 Ricinodendron rautanenii, 259 
Fagus sylvatica, 161 Santalum acuminatum, 261 
Ginkgo biloba, 165 Sapium sebiferum, 264 
Gnetum gnemon, 167 Schleichera oleosa, 268 
Helianthus annuus, 170— 171 Sclerocarya caffra, 271 
Hyphaene thebaica, 174 Simmondsia chinensis, 274— 275 
Telfairia occidentalis, 277 
Inocarpus edulis, i l 6 
Jatropha tur cas, 179 Telfairia pedata, 280 
Jessenia bataua, 182 Terminaba catappa, 283 
Juglans ailanthifolia, 185 Trapa natans, 286 
Juglans cinerea, 187 Treculia africana, 289 
Juglans hindsii, 189 Virola sebifera, 291 
Juglans nigra, 192— 193 Virola surinamensis, 292 
Juglans regia, 196 Ytterbium, 45
Lecythis minor, 199 
Lecythis ollaria, 201 
Lecythis pisonis, 203 
Licania rigida, 206 Zanzibar oilvine, see Telfairia pedata 
Macadamia integrifolia, 209 Zinc, 17, 44, 194, 260, 288